Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning through SR-STEM to Foster Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material
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| Title: | Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning through SR-STEM to Foster Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Iqbal Ainur Rizki (ORCID |
| Source: | Journal of Science Education and Technology. 2024 33(4):526-541. |
| Availability: | Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 16 |
| Publication Date: | 2024 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Education Level: | High Schools Secondary Education |
| Descriptors: | Student Projects, Problem Based Learning, STEM Education, Critical Thinking, Thinking Skills, Energy, Energy Conservation, Models, High School Students, Academic Achievement, Skill Development |
| DOI: | 10.1007/s10956-024-10102-2 |
| ISSN: | 1059-0145 1573-1839 |
| Abstract: | Fostering students' critical thinking skills is an urgent issue that requires immediate attention. One viable solution to address this is the implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) through the SR-STEM project. This research aims to describe the implementation, effectiveness, and student perception of the POPBL model through the SR-STEM project in enhancing critical thinking skills in renewable energy materials. The study adopts a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The participants are 74 senior high school students in the academic year 2022/2023. Data collection employs observation sheets, written tests, and questionnaires. The data are analyzed descriptively and inferentially and using confirmatory factor analysis. The key findings of the study are as follows: (1) the model demonstrates a high level of feasibility; (2) the learning model effectively improves students' critical thinking skills; and (3) the learning model exhibits a positive correlation with student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception. This research suggests introducing innovative learning approaches to enhance students' critical thinking skills, particularly in renewable energy materials, to promote Education for Sustainable Development. Moreover, it highlights the significance of considering factors that influence the effective implementation of lessons. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2024 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1429838 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwFNGRMdjeWVZeAbANZzeEuTAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDHoBlAMvs8xpV6NQ2gIBEICBmzjEKoGO_aYeRewbeklDtPTN9SxqJ3bh_SIKcVxrARhpYZk3chEuOQXdeRpOTgIpAp9CclGhlU8dAhspMfHf04JfdzGZ-LOE3pi2AfiObZtRmboAtANADvbriAMrkJnnqAQfKLRNJ5_C1EiDqP2ccrmrSa7X6Czrxd-GFs1dliSLh--dM_fsLrbwwtVMUIX9wAhIGBwe8KAMnPnR Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0178231363;4n601aug.24;2024Jul05.05:39;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178231363-1">Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning Through SR-STEM to Foster Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material </title> <p>Fostering students' critical thinking skills is an urgent issue that requires immediate attention. One viable solution to address this is the implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) through the SR-STEM project. This research aims to describe the implementation, effectiveness, and student perception of the POPBL model through the SR-STEM project in enhancing critical thinking skills in renewable energy materials. The study adopts a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The participants are 74 senior high school students in the academic year 2022/2023. Data collection employs observation sheets, written tests, and questionnaires. The data are analyzed descriptively and inferentially and using confirmatory factor analysis. The key findings of the study are as follows: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) the model demonstrates a high level of feasibility; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) the learning model effectively improves students' critical thinking skills; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) the learning model exhibits a positive correlation with student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception. This research suggests introducing innovative learning approaches to enhance students' critical thinking skills, particularly in renewable energy materials, to promote Education for Sustainable Development. Moreover, it highlights the significance of considering factors that influence the effective implementation of lessons.</p> <p>Keywords: Critical thinking skill; POPBL; SR-STEM; Renewable energy</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Enhancing critical thinking skills is essential for students to meet the demands of twenty-first-century skills (Greiff &amp; Kyllonen, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref4">20</reflink>]; McGunagle &amp; Zizka, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref5">39</reflink>]). These skills enable students to evaluate, analyze, and reason through real-life problems (Changwong et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref6">12</reflink>]; Mahanal et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref7">37</reflink>]). They are particularly crucial in STEM subjects, including physics, where the syllabus emphasizes the importance of critical thinking skills for successful learning outcomes (Adams &amp; Wieman, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]; Walsh et al., [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref9">79</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, Indonesian students' critical thinking skills are considerably below average, as indicated by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, where Indonesia ranked third from the bottom in science performance (OECD, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref10">48</reflink>]). Furthermore, a preliminary study conducted in August to September 2022 involving three high schools in East Java with a sample size of 154 students revealed low average scores in critical thinking skills (1.10 on a scale indicating low proficiency). These findings align with previous studies that reported low critical thinking skills among students (Dutta et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref11">16</reflink>]; Saphira et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref12">58</reflink>]). This pressing issue necessitates immediate attention due to the direct and indirect impacts of low critical thinking skills on students themselves. Therefore, interventions are urgently needed to enhance critical thinking skills, such as implementing the project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) model.</p> <p>POPBL, which combines problem-based learning (PBL) and project-based learning (PjBL), offers a learner-centered approach where students engage in authentic and realistic projects that address problems within their environment (Qureshi et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref13">51</reflink>]). The key elements of POPBL include learner centeredness, learning by doing, real-world problem-solving, teamwork, and creating tangible products. Students apply their knowledge to think critically and solve real problems through this model.</p> <p>While Eliyawati et al. ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref14">17</reflink>]) mentioned that the result of implementing the POPBL model is a product that is connected to STEM, the SR-STEM project offers a suitable project for implementing POPBL in the context of renewable energy materials, as it addresses authentic problems and aligns with Education for Sustainable Development. By integrating renewable energy materials into physics education through the lens of sustainable development, students understand the significance of promoting and applying renewable energy for sustainable development (Chedid, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref15">13</reflink>]). They become agents of change capable of taking concrete actions toward building a socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable future (Spiropoulou et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref16">65</reflink>]). The goals of the SR-STEM project are to (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>) equip learners with the skills necessary for success in the twenty first century, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>) enhance academic achievement, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref19">3</reflink>) reduce achievement gaps, and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>) foster interest in STEM professions (Suprapto &amp; Ku, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref21">67</reflink>]). Students can engage in various STEM projects related to renewable energy, such as the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Science Kit, Wind Energy Science Kit, and Multi Energy Car Science Kit. These kits allow students to explore renewable power generation models through easily conductible experiments (Jeong &amp; González-Gómez, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref22">29</reflink>]; Suprapto, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref23">66</reflink>]). Moreover, these kits align well with Education for Sustainable Development by incorporating content on renewable energy.</p> <p>However, research still needs to explore the implementation of POPBL with SR-STEM projects focusing on renewable energy materials. Therefore, this study aims to implement the POPBL SR-STEM model to enhance high school students' critical thinking skills in the context of renewable energy materials. Integrating POPBL with SR-STEM projects provides a new, engaging, interactive, motivating, and contextual physics learning experience, fostering critical thinking skills among learners. This research seeks to analyze and describe the implementation and effectiveness of the POPBL SR-STEM model in improving students' critical thinking skills. Additionally, the study will investigate factors influencing students' perceptions of POPBL learning with SR-STEM projects. The findings of this research are expected to contribute to efforts to enhance students' critical thinking skills to meet the demands of twenty-first-century skills and to promote Education for Sustainable Development.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-3">Literature Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178231363-4">Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning and SR-STEM</hd> <p>POPBL is a development model of problem-based learning that encompasses three essential frameworks: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref24">1</reflink>) problems, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref25">2</reflink>) projects, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref26">3</reflink>) teamwork (Hussain &amp; Rosenørn, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref27">26</reflink>]). POPBL is characterized by its learner-centered approach, emphasizing the learning process and project-based problem-solving (Yasin &amp; Rahman, [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref28">81</reflink>]). The problems utilized in POPBL are authentic, constructive, integrated, and of appropriate complexity, promoting critical thinking and metacognitive skills. The syntax of the POPBL model includes problem orientation and analysis, activation of prior knowledge, research and learning objectives, project initiation and execution, assessment and evaluation, and presentation of project results (Akor et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref29">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Empirically, POPBL has been widely implemented in various educational institutions. Previous research has applied the POPBL model in technology (Nielsen et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref30">45</reflink>]), psychology (Alwi &amp; Hussin, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref31">5</reflink>]), science (Suprapto &amp; Ku, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref32">67</reflink>]), chemistry (Mutakinati et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref33">43</reflink>]), physics (Martawijaya et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref34">38</reflink>]), programming courses (Ibrahim &amp; Halim, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref35">27</reflink>]), engineering (Mohamed et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref36">41</reflink>]), architecture (Sharif et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref37">63</reflink>]), and computer science (Pucher &amp; Lehner, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref38">50</reflink>]). In summary, the use of POPBL model is presented in Table 1. This learning model facilitates the development of technical, personal, and contextual competencies, enables the resolution of real-world problems in professional domains, and fosters collaborative learning through the integration of learning and research.</p> <p>Table 1 Use of POPBL model in some subjects and their findings</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Topic&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Object&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Subject level&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Project name&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Fundings&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Reference&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Psychology&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning experience and soft-skill&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;University&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N/A&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;POPBL engages students in meaningful and authentic learning experiences, fostering their critical thinking abilities, collaborative skills, and motivation to contribute to society&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Alwi and Hussin (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5"&gt;2018&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Multi-disciplinary&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Digital literacy, inventive thinking, communication, productivity, and spiritual&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Junior high school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;BITARA-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;POPBL is effective in fostering students' twenty-first-century skills in an integrated STEM education program&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Husin et al. (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr25"&gt;2016&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Science&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N/A&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Junior high school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;KS-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;STEM kits can improve students' understanding, increase learning outcome, and include several topics to learn&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Suprapto and Ku (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr67"&gt;2019&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Chemistry&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critical thinking&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Senior high school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N/A&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;The implementation of STEM education project-based learning could improve the critical thinking skills of middle school students&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mutakinati et al. (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr43"&gt;2018&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Physics&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Higher-order thinking skill and misconception&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Junior high school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ethno-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;The learning model could improve students' higher-order thinking skills and reduce their misconceptions of physics topics related to Lake Tempe, Indonesia&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Martawijaya et al. (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38"&gt;2023&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Computer science&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning motivation, practical skills&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;University&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N/A&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Most teachers feel that using POPBL to teach has various advantages, improving students' knowledge, practical skills, and project management&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pucher and Lehner (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr50"&gt;2011&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Architecture&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Problem-solving skills and creativity&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;University&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N/A&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;The POPBL model encourages students to generate new ideas based on the research they completed earlier in the process&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Sharif et al. (&lt;xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr63"&gt;2012&lt;/xref&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Renewable energy&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critical thinking&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Senior high school&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;POPBL effectively improve students' critical thinking skill&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Current research&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The relationship between SR-STEM learning and the POPBL model occurs during the project implementation phase. In the project goal-setting stage, teachers can guide students to work on projects relevant to all three types of SR-STEM project kits. Subsequently, learners can engage with SR-STEM projects involving renewable energy generation kits throughout the project initiation, execution, and presentation phases (Eliyawati et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref39">17</reflink>]). A diagram illustrating this relationship is witnessed in Fig. 1.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Relationship between POPBL and SR-STEM</p> <p>SR-STEM is an integrated project based on the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Science Kit, Wind Energy Science Kit, and Multi Energy Car Science Kit, developed by Horizon Educational for renewable energy materials (Rizki et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref40">55</reflink>]; Suprapto, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref41">66</reflink>]). These kits encompass scientific concepts related to renewable energy, including energy, electricity, and mechanics. From a technological perspective, they incorporate generators, electromagnetic induction, proton exchange membranes, and solar panels. Moreover, the engineering aspect requires students to design the kits effectively and accurately enable the conversion of electrical energy. Additionally, students are expected to investigate and calculate the impact of variables such as the number of propellers, fan blades, capacitance, light intensity, and wind speed on electricity generation (Baran et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref42">9</reflink>]; Jeong &amp; González-Gómez, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref43">29</reflink>]). All three kits have been modified to align with the designated learning objectives, as depicted in Fig. 2.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Science Kit, b Wind Energy Science Kit, c Multi Energy Car Science Kit</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-5">Critical Thinking Skills</hd> <p>Critical thinking is a cognitive process used to comprehensively evaluate and analyze information, thereby fostering confidence in the validity of acquired information or received ideas. This active process demonstrates motivation and a desire to obtain answers, leading to insightful conclusions (Barak &amp; Shahab, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref44">8</reflink>]; Lorencová et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref45">36</reflink>]). Through critical thinking, individuals understand the underlying thought processes employed by others, enabling them to assess the validity and usefulness of those thoughts. Critical thinking involves delving beneath the surface of what is read, as well as scrutinizing an individual's thought process when writing, problem-solving, decision-making, or undertaking a project (Terenzini et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref46">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Brookfield ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref47">10</reflink>]) identified five aspects and four components of critical thinking. Firstly, critical thinking is seen as a positive and productive activity. Secondly, critical thinking is viewed as a process rather than a final outcome. Thirdly, the manifestation of critical thinking varies significantly depending on the context being discussed. Fourthly, critical thinking can encompass both positive and negative events. Lastly, critical thinking can be approached from both rational and emotional perspectives. The components of critical thinking include identifying and making conjectures, recognizing the significance of context, seeking out and exploring alternatives, and engaging in reflective skepticism.</p> <p>Numerous indicators of critical thinking skills have been proposed in various literatures. One notable indicator is the rubric developed by Reynders et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref48">52</reflink>]). This indicator is particularly relevant to STEM subjects, including physics. Additionally, Reynders' rubric is the most up-to-date compared to other indicators found in the literature. The authors argue that critical thinking indicators in STEM subjects are categorized into five dimensions: evaluating, analyzing, synthesizing, and forming arguments (structure and validity). This assessment rubric exhibits high reliability in measuring critical thinking and has demonstrated sufficient content and construct validity.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-6">Student Perception</hd> <p>A teacher can assess the concepts and methods used in learning and teaching activities by observing the perceptions exhibited by students, making student responses crucial in the teaching and learning process. Positive student perceptions serve as an indicator that students are more comfortable with the employed learning model. However, student responses in learning can vary and may be influenced by several specific factors.</p> <p>According to Tschannen‐Moran et al. ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref49">74</reflink>]), three significant factors influence student perceptions, namely, academic optimism. One of these factors is internal student factors, which encompass perceptions of one's abilities, motivation, and learning goals. These factors contribute to students' responses to academic achievement. The fit model proposed by Suprapto and Mursid ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref50">69</reflink>]) suggests that perceived control plays a role in students' perceptions to science teaching. When students have a high perception of control, they tend to feel more capable and confident in facing tasks and challenges in science learning (van Aalderen-Smeets et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref51">76</reflink>]). Additionally, Suprapto ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref52">68</reflink>]) revealed that affective perception factors influence students' responses to physics learning. This factor refers to how students emotionally feel and perceive their learning experience in physics. Therefore, it is hypothesized that these factors influence learners' perceptions, as depicted in Fig. 3.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 Model construct of student perceptions to POPBL SR-STEM learning</p> <p>H1: There is a significant positive correlation between student perception (SP) and student achievement (SA).</p> <p>H2: There is a significant positive correlation between student perception (SP) and perceived control (PC).</p> <p>H3: There is a significant positive correlation between student perception (SP) and affective perception (AP).</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-7">Method</hd> <p>This research is a quantitative study that utilized a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent group design (Creswell &amp; Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref53">14</reflink>]). The study was conducted in two separate groups, namely, the experimental group using the POPBL SR-STEM model and the control group, each containing 37 students. The participants consisted of 10th grade students from a public high school in Sidoarjo Regency, Indonesia. The research was conducted between September and October 2022, and cluster random sampling was employed as the sampling technique.</p> <p>Both groups underwent a pre-test initially. To ensure the comparability of the two groups' initial abilities, a prerequisite test, specifically a homogeneity test, was conducted. The experimental group received the POPBL SR-STEM model as the treatment, while the control group followed the school's conventional learning plan. Subsequently, after completing the treatment for the entire group, a post-test was administered. The pre-test and post-test scores in each group were analyzed to determine the extent of improvement in learners' critical thinking skills. The research process flow can be seen in Fig. 4.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 Research process</p> <p>The POPBL SR-STEM learning was implemented over three sessions, focusing on renewable energy topics. Students were divided into groups and tasked with creating STEM-based projects addressing renewable energy issues. The students had the option to choose STEM projects utilizing the Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Science Kit, Wind Energy Science Kit, and Multi Energy Car Science Kit, collectively referred to as SR-STEM. The steps involved in POPBL SR-STEM learning are outlined in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2 POPBL SR-STEM learning steps</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Syntax&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Learning activity&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Indicator&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Teacher&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Student&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;First session&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Problem orientation and analysis&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; The teacher provides stimulation of authentic problems about renewable energy&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; The teacher asks for students' responses after being stimulated&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students get stimulation of authentic problems about renewable energy&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Learners respond to these problems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Evaluating&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Prior knowledge activation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; The teacher asks students to find information about examples of renewable and non-renewable energy and their impact on life&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; The teacher asks students to explain in more detail about renewable energy power plants and their potential if implemented&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students are looking for information related to examples of renewable and non-renewable energy and its impact on life&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students look for references and explain in more detail about renewable energy power plants and their potential if implemented&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Evaluating, analyzing, forming argument (validity)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Project objective determination&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; The teacher asks students in groups of 5&amp;#8211;6 people to make a project on renewable energy based on SR-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teacher discusses with students regarding timelines, products, and project plans&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students form groups of 5&amp;#8211;6 people to make renewable energy projects based on SR-STEM&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students discuss timelines, products, and project plans&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Analyzing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Second session&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Project initiation and execution&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teacher monitors the SR-STEM projects that are being worked on by students and helps students when there are difficulties&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students make projects according to a predetermined plan&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;analyzing, synthesizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment and evaluation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teachers assess and evaluate SR-STEM projects&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teacher tests the product and asks students about the projects that have been made and their relation to renewable energy issues&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students demonstrate the SR-STEM projects they have made&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students answer the teacher's questions&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Analyzing, synthesizing, forming argument (validity)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Third session&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Presentation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teacher asks the whole group to present and demonstrate the products or projects that have been made in the class&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students present and demonstrate products or projects that have been made in front of the class&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Analyzing, synthesizing, forming argument (structure)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The research instrument utilized in this study was a teaching module consisting of various components, including learning objectives, flow of learning objectives, lesson plans, teaching materials, and worksheets. The learning syllabus in both classes was aligned with the current school curriculum. Additionally, critical thinking test instruments (pre-test and post-test) developed by Reynders et al. ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref54">52</reflink>]) were employed, with the same set of questions assessing five indicators: evaluating, analyzing, synthesizing, and forming arguments (structure and validity). During the implementation of the POPBL SR-STEM model in the classroom, observers used an implementation observation sheet to observe and assess teachers. Furthermore, a student perception questionnaire was administered to gather data on students' perceptions after engaging in the learning process using the POPBL SR-STEM model. The questionnaire was based on rubrics that indicated statements related to the latent variables SA, PC, and AP.</p> <p>Since this research falls under the category of implementation research, it was crucial to validate the research instruments prior to implementation (Table 3). The validation process involved three experts in the field of physics learning, and the results indicated that the instruments were highly valid. The reliability of the instruments was also evaluated using Cronbach's alpha values, which demonstrated satisfactory reliability for all instruments.</p> <p>Table 3 Instrument validity and reliability assessment</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Instruments&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Validity&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Reliability&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Average&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Criteria&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#945;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Criteria&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Learning module&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.83&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Teaching material&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.74&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.76&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Student worksheet&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.79&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Test instrument&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.74&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Student perception questionnaire&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.71&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.86&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Observation sheet&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.86&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.86&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Data collection was carried out quantitatively through observation methods, written tests, and questionnaires. Two observers, an in-service physics teacher and a pre-service physics teacher, conducted the observations, while teachers implemented the POPBL SR-STEM model. Observations were useful in describing any obstacles encountered during the learning activities. The written tests consisted of pre-tests and post-tests administered to both classes. The post-test was conducted after the completion of the learning process to determine the improvement in students' critical thinking skills. Additionally, a questionnaire was distributed to students in the experimental group to gather their perceptions after engaging in the learning process using the POPBL SR-STEM model.</p> <p>The data collected from the learning implementation was analyzed descriptively by comparing observed scores with overall scores. A score of 61–80% indicated well implementation, while a score of 81–100% indicated very well implementation (Riduwan, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref55">53</reflink>]). The reliability of the observations was calculated using the percentage of agreement (PoA), categorized as low, moderate, high, or very high. The effectiveness of the learning process was analyzed based on criteria such as critical thinking scores, N-gain, effect size, significant differences in improving students' critical thinking skills, and significant differences between the experimental and control classes (Nieveen, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref56">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>The analysis of student perceptions employed the second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) method, grouping questionnaire questions based on predetermined latent variables (SA, PC, and AP). Cronbach's alpha (α) was used to assess the reliability and internal consistency of the model. A value of α &gt; 0.7 indicated reliability (Taber, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref57">71</reflink>]). The model's fit was analyzed using the AMOS 23 application to determine student perceptions to POPBL SR-STEM learning. Various statistical values were considered (Sakib et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref58">56</reflink>]), including internal consistency (Cronbach's α &gt; 0.7 reliable), corrected item–total correlation (r<subs>α</subs> &gt; 0.4 acceptable), average variance extracted (AVE) (&gt; 0.5 indicating satisfactory convergent reliability), and composite reliability (CR) (&gt; 0.8). Finally, the goodness-of-fit index value was evaluated to assess the fitness of the developed theoretical model.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-8">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178231363-9">Implementation of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>The implementation of POPBL learning through the SR-STEM project was assessed through observation by two observers. The results of the implementation assessment are presented in Table 4, indicating excellent implementation criteria for the opening, core, and closing activities. The overall average score for all aspects was 3.82, indicating a very good implementation. The reliability assessment of the observations yielded a percentage above 89.5%, indicating reliable observation.</p> <p>Table 4 Results of POPBL SR-STEM implementation</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Learning syntax&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Implementation&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Reliability&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Average&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Criteria&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;PoA (%)&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Remark&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Opening&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;93.3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Problem analysis and orientation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;93.3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Activation of prior knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;93.3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Project goal setting&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.34&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;89.5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Project initiation and execution&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;100.0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment and evaluation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;100.0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Public presentation&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;100.0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Closing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;100.0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Overall average (%)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;95.59&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Very good&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;96.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The highest implementation score was achieved in the initiation and execution phases of the project up to the public presentation, scoring 4.00, which falls under the very good criteria. The lowest score was obtained in the project goal determination phase, with a score of 3.34, still within the very good criteria. In conclusion, teachers effectively implemented POPBL model learning with SR-STEM projects in alignment with the prepared lesson plans, showcasing practical application in physics learning focusing on renewable energy materials. Table 5 presents the obstacles that occurred during the implementation process of the POPBL SR-STEM model along with alternative solutions.</p> <p>Table 5 Constraints on the implementation of the POPBL SR-STEM model and their alternative solutions</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Session&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Type of constraints&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Alternative solutions&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;First&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students are still not conducive&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students still do not fully have good initial knowledge&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Making a study contract&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Deliver prior knowledge material for longer time&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Second&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Students have difficulty understanding the use of technology in SR-STEM kits&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; There are students who contribute less in their group&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Teachers guide students in using each technology on the SR-STEM kit&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Approach and direct other group members to help activate their group members&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Third&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Some groups still have not prepared presentation materials&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8226; Make study contracts and remind students a few days before class&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0178231363-10">Effectiveness of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>The first analysis involved examining the average critical thinking skill scores in the experimental and control classes, as depicted in Fig. 5. In the experimental class, the initial pre-test score was 1.12, indicating low criteria. However, after receiving POPBL learning treatment with SR-STEM, the post-test results in the class increased to 3.76, reflecting high criteria. Conversely, the control group obtained a pre-test score of 0.92 (low criteria) and a post-test score of 2.94 (medium criteria). These findings indicate an improvement in critical thinking scores for both groups, but the experimental group displayed a higher increase compared to the control one.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 Comparison graph of critical thinking scores in experimental and control groups</p> <p>The next interpretation involved calculating the N-gain and effect size for both treatments in the two classes, which indicates the degree of increase in critical thinking skills and the magnitude of the effect or difference between the treatment and control groups, respectively. Descriptive calculations of N-gain and effect size can be witnessed in Table 6. Both the experimental and control classes achieved N-gain scores within the intermediate criteria, but the experimental group scored higher (0.68) than the control group (0.50). The difference in effect between the two treatments was 0.63, falling within the moderate criteria. These results indicate that the treatment of the POPBL learning model with SR-STEM projects has a more effective impact in improving students' critical thinking skills.</p> <p>Table 6 Calculation of N-gain and effect size</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Group&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;N-gain&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Cohen's d effect size&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Experiment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.68&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Middle&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.63&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Medium&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Control&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.50&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Middle&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Furthermore, the significance of the difference between the pre-test and post-test results was determined using the Wilcoxon test (Table 7), considering that the post-test data were not homogeneously distributed, although the pre-test data were homogeneously distributed and all data were normally distributed. Both the experimental and control classes demonstrated significant differences between the pre-test and post-test results, as the critical scores were higher in the post-test. Additionally, the Mann–Whitney test was conducted to examine the significance of the difference in critical thinking skill scores between the experimental and control classes (Table 7), accounting for the non-homogeneous distribution of the data, despite being normally distributed.</p> <p>Table 7 Results of Wilcoxon-signed rank and Mann–Whitney test</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Group&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Wilcoxon-signed rank test&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Mann&amp;#8211;Whitney U test&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;W&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;bold&gt;critical&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;W&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;bold&gt;calculation&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;bold&gt; (Sig.)&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;U&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;Z&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;bold&gt; (Sig.)&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Experiment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;182.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;18.59&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;247.5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8722; 4.72&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00*&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Control&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;18.38&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups> <emph>*</emph> </sups> <emph>p</emph> &lt; <emph>0.05</emph></p> <p>The results of the Mann–Whitney test revealed a significant difference in critical thinking skill scores between the experimental and control classes. Based on the analysis of pre-test and post-test data, all effectiveness indicators were met. Consequently, it can be concluded that the POPBL SR-STEM model is effective in improving learners' critical thinking skills in the context of renewable energy materials.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-11">Student Perception of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>Second-order CFA was used to determine the perception of students to learning activities using the POPBL model through the SR-STEM project. The first evaluation of the CFA model is to analyze the internal reliability of each indicator based on Cronbach's α value and corrected item–total correlation (<emph>r</emph><subs>α</subs>) as in Table 8.</p> <p>Table 8 Determination of Cronbach α and <emph>r</emph><subs>α</subs> values for each indicator</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Indicator&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#945;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Criteria&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&lt;italic&gt;r&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#945;&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Criteria&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="10"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.88&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="10"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Reliable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.61&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.52&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.62&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.70&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.62&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.27&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Not acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>All indicators in the questionnaire were found to be reliable with a value of α &gt; 0.70. However, the AP3 indicator had a value of 0.27 for <emph>r</emph><subs>α</subs>, indicating low reliability. Thus, the AP3 indicator was eliminated to enhance the developed model. The final results of the student response measurement model are depicted in Fig. 6.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 6 Construct of student perception model using CFA</p> <p>The constructed model underwent five modifications to achieve the recommended model upgrade. While there is no exact number of tolerances for modifications, some literature suggests 10–15 modifications to prevent overfitting and maintain generalizability (Brown, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref59">11</reflink>]). The first analysis involved assessing the goodness of fit (GoF) of the created model. Six GoF indicators and their values of the student perception measurement model can be found in Table 9 (Harerimana &amp; Mtshali, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref60">23</reflink>]; Joreskog &amp; Sorbom, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref61">30</reflink>]; Kline, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref62">31</reflink>]; Sakib et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref63">56</reflink>]; Schermelleh-Engel et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref64">60</reflink>]). The majority of GoF are exhibited acceptable GoF values, with AGFI being marginally acceptable. Hence, the model can be considered fit and further analysis can be conducted.</p> <p>Table 9 Goodness-of-fit index from CFA model of student perception</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;No&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Goodness of fit&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Acceptable fit index&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Model value&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Remark&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;italic&gt;X&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/df&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;-&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;18.23&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Probability&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#60; 0.08&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;GFI&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#60; 1.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.91&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AGFI&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.90 &amp;#60; GFI &amp;#60; 0.95&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.79&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Marginal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;RMSEA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.85 &amp;#60; AGFI &amp;#60; 0.90&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;TLI&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#62; 0.9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;CFI&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#62; 0.95&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acceptable&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Based on the model diagrams created using AMOS 23 software, the loading factors and errors were assessed to determine the relationship between the observed variables and indicators. The loading factor values also contributed to assessing the construct validity of the formed variables. The loading factor values for each variable can be found in Table 10.</p> <p>Table 10 Loading factor value</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;No&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Variable&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Loading factor&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Error&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Verification&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.96&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.91&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.16&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.33&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.86&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.55&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.30&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.65&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.84&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.70&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.45&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.21&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.74&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.55&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.61&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.37&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.68&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.46&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;11&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.74&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.54&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8596; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.70&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.49&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Valid&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>All variables of student perception using CFA displayed loading factor values of ≥ 0.4, meeting the validity criteria (Nu'man et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref65">47</reflink>]). The association between students' perceptions and perceived control had the highest loading factor of 1.16. In the SA variable, SA3 with the statement "I don't feel bored when learning to use the POPBL model with SR-STEM projects" exhibited the highest loading factor among other manifest variables, at 0.84. Similarly, in the PC variable, PC1 with the statement "The POPBL model with the SR-STEM project is very relevant for learning the physics of renewable energy matter" had the highest loading factor among other manifest variables, at 0.74. Regarding the AP variable, AP1 with the statement "POPBL with the right SR-STEM learning model project to be used today" had the highest loading factor among other manifest variables, also at 0.74.</p> <p>Table 11 presents the calculation of CR and AVE values for the pupil perception measurement model using CFA. The obtained CR value was 0.96, exceeding the specified criterion of 0.80. Additionally, the AVE value obtained was 0.87, surpassing the threshold of 0.50. Thus, it can be concluded that the measurement model is reliable.</p> <p>Table 11 Reliability analysis of model construct</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;Item&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#955;i&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;&amp;#955;i&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;bold&gt;2&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;1-&amp;#955;i&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;bold&gt;2&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;CR&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;AVE&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR &amp;#8596; SA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.878&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.771&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.229&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="13"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.96&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="13"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.87&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR &amp;#8596; PC&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.153&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.329&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#8722; 0329&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SR &amp;#8596; AP&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.952&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.906&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.094&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC &amp;#8596; PC1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.690&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.476&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.524&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC &amp;#8596; PC2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.629&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.396&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.604&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;PC &amp;#8596; PC3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.712&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.507&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.493&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA &amp;#8596; SA1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.623&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.388&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.612&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA &amp;#8596; SA2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.724&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.524&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.476&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA &amp;#8596; SA3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.833&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.694&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.306&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;SA &amp;#8596; SA4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.550&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.303&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.698&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP &amp;#8596; AP1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.728&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.530&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.470&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;AP &amp;#8596; AP2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.707&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.500&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.500&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8721;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.673&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.483&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="." align="char"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.517&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0178231363-12">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178231363-13">Implementation of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>The implementation of the POPBL SR-STEM model was assessed by involving two observers, namely, teachers and colleagues. The assessment results demonstrate that the learning implementation achieved very good and reliable criteria. During the opening stage, the implementation was excellent, indicating that students were prepared to engage with renewable energy learning materials and were motivated by the teachers.</p> <p>The main activities, starting from the analysis and problem orientation phase, exhibited excellent implementation. In this phase, the teacher provided orientation on the problems related to the electrical energy crisis in Indonesia, the impact of non-renewable energy use, and the potential of new renewable energy sources in the country. As a result, learners gained a clear understanding of the relevance and importance of studying renewable energy materials. By employing authentic problems, learners were able to apply the learned concepts in practical situations, which increased their motivation and engagement (Tseng et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref66">75</reflink>]). Moreover, this phase helped teachers identify gaps in learners' initial knowledge and adjust their teaching methods accordingly (Hailikari et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref67">21</reflink>]). This is in accordance with the top-down process theory, in which students are presented with complex problems and acquire the necessary basic skills through the guidance of experts during the learning process (Gregory, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref68">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Moving to the second phase, the activation of prior knowledge, it showed good implementation. In this phase, the teacher explained fundamental concepts necessary for the project, such as voltage, current strength, electrical power, electrical energy, and the use of a multimeter. Activating prior knowledge served as a foundation for acquiring new skills during project-based learning activities and facilitated the integration of intellectual competence among learners (Ríos et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref69">54</reflink>]; Shekar, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref70">64</reflink>]). In line with the theory of advance organizers, the process of activating students' prior knowledge can facilitate the integration of new information, thereby stimulating their critical thinking skills (Ausubel, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref71">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>The third phase focused on determining project objectives, which achieved excellent execution scores but had the lowest scores compared to other aspects. Students were still in the early stages of the educational unit and were learning how to establish appropriate and meaningful project goals. During this phase, the teacher discussed with students to determine the project timeline, final product, and project plan. Involving learners in the project planning process fostered the development of project management skills that would be valuable in various aspects of their lives (de los Ríos-Carmenado et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref72">15</reflink>]). It also instilled a sense of ownership in the project, leading to increased motivation and engagement (Lachapelle, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref73">33</reflink>]). Teachers who guided students to find answers to their questions rather than providing direct answers facilitated the development of independent learning skills (Hockings et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref74">24</reflink>]). This is reinforced by the Zone of Proximal Development theory by Vygotsky ([<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref75">77</reflink>]), which states that learning objectives should be based on students' current level of ability and their potential to achieve these goals with appropriate assistance.</p> <p>The subsequent phase involved the initiation and execution of projects, which demonstrated very good implementation. Students began working on SR-STEM projects using kits such as Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Science Kit, Wind Energy Science Kit, and Multi Energy Car Science Kit (Fig. 7), with guidance from teachers. This project-based activity enhanced students' critical thinking skills, collaboration, problem-solving abilities, communication, and curiosity—essential skills for the professional world (Sari et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref76">59</reflink>]). Teaching through project-based learning promoted deep understanding of the knowledge being applied and enabled the application of meaningful knowledge in real-world contexts (Miller &amp; Krajcik, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref77">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 7 Students conduct assembly and investigation using the SR-STEM kit</p> <p>The fifth phase of POPBL learning with SR-STEM projects was assessment and evaluation, which achieved a very good level of implementation. In this phase, the teacher evaluated the students' project outcomes and their connection to renewable energy problems. The evaluation aimed to demonstrate that the project activities had a positive impact on addressing renewable energy challenges identified at the beginning of the learning process. Gradual evaluation was crucial for systematic documentation of project progress and to address potential misconceptions. Furthermore, this phase provided support for groups facing difficulties or obstacles. This phase is supported by self-evaluation theory (Moreno, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref78">42</reflink>]); students must be able to evaluate the process and results of collaborative project creation as a reflection for further action.</p> <p>The final phase was the presentation, which had excellent implementation. During this phase, each group had the opportunity to present their project results to the class (Fig. 8). However, some groups encountered obstacles, such as inadequate preparation of presentation materials like PowerPoint slides, which hindered the effective transfer of project work experiences to non-presenter groups. By participating in the presentation, students gained a sense of responsibility for their work and had the chance to demonstrate their understanding of the material while practicing communication skills (Kwee et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref79">32</reflink>]). This aligns with the cognitive distribution theory, as conveying ideas to others can enhance one's own understanding (Salomon, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref80">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 8 One of the groups presented the project results</p> <p>The closing activity of the learning process achieved a very good level of implementation. Students regarded the learning activities as new and valuable experiences. No significant constraints were reported during this phase, as learners felt they had gained a sufficient understanding of renewable energy materials through the POPBL SR-STEM learning model.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-14">Effectiveness of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>The findings indicated that the POPBL learning model with SR-STEM projects effectively improved students' critical thinking skills. Initially, both groups had low scores in critical thinking skills, with relatively similar abilities and a homogeneous distribution. However, the experimental group demonstrated higher post-test scores compared to the control one, indicating a greater influence of this learning model on students' critical thinking skills. Calculations of N-gain and effect size further supported these findings, showing higher scores for critical thinking skills in the experimental group compared to the descriptive control one.</p> <p>Statistical analysis confirmed that the pre-test and post-test data in both groups exhibited a normal distribution, suggesting an even distribution of students' critical thinking skills within each group. However, individual differences in cognitive abilities could result in some students scoring low or high, despite being taught the same material by the teachers. The post-test homogeneity test revealed a significant difference between the two classes, indicating distinct treatment and the need for heterogeneous data distribution.</p> <p>Several factors contribute to the development of these skills, including problem orientation at the beginning of learning to help students understand the implications of their learning activities (Issa &amp; Khataibeh, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref81">28</reflink>]; Tseng et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref82">75</reflink>]); activation of prior knowledge, allowing learners to construct their own knowledge based on the initial knowledge base provided by the teacher in line with constructivism theory (Schunk, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref83">62</reflink>]); and problem-solving activities involving STEM, which stimulate critical thinking skills (Alpizar et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref84">4</reflink>]; Reynders et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref85">52</reflink>]). According to Halpern and Dunn ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref86">22</reflink>]), critical thinking skills and creativity can be nurtured when students are encouraged to solve real-world problems, a characteristic of the POPBL learning model. Through SR-STEM projects, students actively apply physics concepts to problem-solving and engage in discussions to express their ideas and thoughts. This project-based approach creates enthusiasm among students, fostering a positive learning environment and motivating active participation.</p> <p>This finding is in line with the research of Eliyawati et al. ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref87">17</reflink>]) which proves that the POPBL model is effective in making students more critical so that they have good mastery of concepts. Research by Husin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref88">25</reflink>]) shows that the POPBL model can significantly improve twenty-first-century skills. The study also supports findings by Akor et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref89">3</reflink>]) which reveals that the POPBL model has the potential to improve students' critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In addition, this finding is also consistent with research by Latada and Kassim ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref90">34</reflink>]) which shows that POPBL can train soft skills, one of which is critical thinking skills in students. The role of SR-STEM is also associated with improving critical thinking skills. This is in line with research by Mayasari et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref91">44</reflink>]) who practices STEM learning in renewable energy projects, the results of this research show that there is an increase in STEM knowledge as meaningful knowledge. Research by Adriyawati et al. ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref92">2</reflink>]) is also consistent with this study which proves that STEAM learning on renewable energy materials can improve students' critical thinking skills and science literacy.</p> <p>The implementation of the POPBL model is reinforced by social constructivist learning theory which emphasizes that learners build their own knowledge when they cooperate with guidance by teachers (Fosnot, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref93">18</reflink>]). According to constructivist theory, such as situated learning by Piaget, learning focuses more on the context and application of the knowledge possessed by learners rather than focusing on memorization or memorization alone (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref94">6</reflink>]). Based on theory by Piaget, the POPBL model is considered as a method that involves learners to find and provide evidence that learning is a process with the future, not to acquire knowledge as a fact; in this case, it is to solve the problem of the energy crisis and maximize the potential of renewable energy in the future. Cooperative and collaborative learning theory also supports the POPBL model due to the fact that one of the important frameworks is teamwork so that learners can collaborate with each other to create projects based on problems (Schoor et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref95">61</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-15">Student Perception of POPBL SR-STEM</hd> <p>The CFA method was used to analyze student perceptions and identify factors influencing the application of the POPBL SR-STEM model. The reliability test results indicated that all indicators, except AP3, were reliable and acceptable as manifest variables. The exclusion of the AP3 indicator was likely due to the small sample size, which limited the ability to conduct the CFA test. It is suggested in previous studies that items with low <emph>r</emph><subs>α</subs> values can be omitted from questionnaires to improve overall reliability (Tapsir et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref96">72</reflink>]). After revising the model, all items demonstrated good internal consistency, indicating a valid and reliable model.</p> <p>The fit index test of the model, as presented on GoF index, was adjusted to several indicators. The GoF value determination provides information on the goodness of the developed model. The <emph>X</emph><sups>2</sups>/df value appeared relatively high, possibly due to the small sample size. While an <emph>X</emph><sups>2</sups>/df value below five is considered reasonable (Wheaton et al., [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref97">80</reflink>]), it is important to note that <emph>X</emph><sups>2</sups>/df values should not be the sole criterion for evaluating model fit, as they are sensitive to sample size and complexity. Consequently, there is no universally accepted threshold for <emph>X</emph><sups>2</sups>/df. Other GoF indicators, such as probability, GFI, RMSEA, and TLI, met the fit criteria, with only AGFI slightly below the minimum acceptance criterion of 0.85, indicating marginal fit. Overall, the model fulfilled the GoF criteria, suggesting that it is reasonable and relatively well-fitting with the obtained data.</p> <p>The interpretation of CFA data revealed that the student perception model met the criteria for validity and reliability, particularly for the influencing factors of student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception. The factor with the highest loading factor was perceived control (PC), which refers to learners' belief in having control over their learning processes and outcomes. The POPBL model with SR-STEM projects can enhance students' perceived control by allowing them to choose and determine their learning activities within the given project. Previous research by Perlmuter et al. ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref98">49</reflink>]) and You et al. ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref99">82</reflink>]) supported the significant influence of perceived control on students' academic achievement. Notably, the item PC1 ("The POPBL model with SR-STEM project is very relevant for learning the physics of renewable energy matter") demonstrated the highest loading factor, suggesting that students feel a sense of ownership in the projects assigned by the teacher, which enhances their motivation and engagement.</p> <p>In the student achievement variable, students perceived that the use of the POPBL model with SR-STEM projects improved their physics learning outcomes. This is attributed to the model's suitability for renewable energy physics materials and the effective implementation by teachers. These findings align with previous studies demonstrating the effectiveness of project-based learning models integrated with STEM in enhancing student learning outcomes, particularly in physics (León et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref100">35</reflink>]; Wahono et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref101">78</reflink>]). Specifically, the item SA3 ("I don't feel bored when learning to use the POPBL model with SR-STEM projects") exhibited the highest loading factor, indicating that students remain motivated throughout the learning process, regardless of initial abilities and individual preferences, due to the active learning involved in this model.</p> <p>In the affective perception variable, students perceived a sense of comfort during the learning activities, which encouraged their active participation and facilitated comprehension and retention of new information. This aligns with cognitive load theory, which examines the mental effort required to process new information and its impact on learning outcomes (Schunk, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref102">62</reflink>]; Sweller, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref103">70</reflink>]). The item AP1 ("POPBL with SR-STEM project is the right learning model to use today") demonstrated the highest loading factor, highlighting the ability of this learning model to enhance critical thinking and other twenty-first-century skills, as supported by research conducted by Husin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref104">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Overall, student perceptions indicated a positive relationship with the three formulated variables, student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception, with the highest loading factor observed in the PC variable. The model constructs met the criteria for internal validity, reliability, and fit index. Therefore, the POPBL learning model with SR-STEM projects can be considered an attractive and effective learning model for students.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-16">Conclusion</hd> <p>The implementation of the POPBL SR-STEM model has been executed with a high level of effectiveness, indicating that teachers have successfully conducted learning activities as per the prepared lesson plan. Furthermore, the POPBL learning model integrated with SR-STEM projects has proven effective in enhancing learners' critical thinking skills in the context of renewable energy physics materials. Ultimately, student perceptions in physics learning with the POPBL model and SR-STEM projects positively correlate with learning achievement, perceived control, and affective perception, meeting the valid and reliable criteria in the constructed model. This research holds implications for educators and students, suggesting that implementing the POPBL learning model through SR-STEM projects can significantly improve students' critical thinking skills in renewable energy materials to actualize Education for Sustainable Development. Additionally, the identified factors influencing student perceptions can serve as valuable considerations for educators when designing and conducting learning activities, ultimately leading to more effective educational experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-17">Author Contribution</hd> <p>Iqbal Ainur Rizki is involved in the processed of data analysis and drafted the manuscript. Nadi Suprapto is involved in planning, supervised the work, and finalized the manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-18">Funding</hd> <p>This research is financially supported through the Thesis Assistance Fund—Indonesian Education Scholarship (BPI) by the Education Financing Service Center (Puslapdik), Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of Indonesia.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-19">Availability of Data and Materials</hd> <p>Not applicable.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-20">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178231363-21">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>The authors declare that this is an original work that has not been previously published. It is not being considered for publication elsewhere at this time. The manuscript accurately represents the authors' research and analysis, and co-authors and co-researchers are properly credited. The findings are well-placed within the existing body of knowledge. All sources used are appropriately acknowledged and cited. Each author contributed significantly to the development of the manuscript and accepts full responsibility for its content.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-22">Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals</hd> <p>Approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of State University of Surabaya. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-23">Consent to Participate</hd> <p>The participants involved in this research have been provided with comprehensive information regarding the potential risks and benefits associated with their participation. What is more, they have been reassured that any inquiries arising in the future will be addressed. They have willingly consented to partake in this study and acknowledge that this consent statement applies to each of them individually. The school principal has also granted permission for the involvement of their students as research participants in this study.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-24">Consent for Publication</hd> <p>Written informed consent for publication of their clinical details and/or clinical images was obtained from the patient/parent/guardian/ relative of the patient. A copy of the consent form is available for review by the editor of this journal.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-25">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0178231363-26">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0178231363-27"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Adams WK, Wieman CE. Analyzing the many skills involved in solving complex physics problems. 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| Header | DbId: eric DbLabel: ERIC An: EJ1429838 AccessLevel: 3 PubType: Academic Journal PubTypeId: academicJournal PreciseRelevancyScore: 0 |
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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning through SR-STEM to Foster Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Iqbal+Ainur+Rizki%22">Iqbal Ainur Rizki</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8618-5592">0000-0001-8618-5592</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nadi+Suprapto%22">Nadi Suprapto</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8990-7412">0000-0002-8990-7412</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Science+Education+and+Technology%22"><i>Journal of Science Education and Technology</i></searchLink>. 2024 33(4):526-541. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 16 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Projects%22">Student Projects</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Problem+Based+Learning%22">Problem Based Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22STEM+Education%22">STEM Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Critical+Thinking%22">Critical Thinking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Thinking+Skills%22">Thinking Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Energy%22">Energy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Energy+Conservation%22">Energy Conservation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Models%22">Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Skill+Development%22">Skill Development</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1007/s10956-024-10102-2 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 1059-0145<br />1573-1839 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Fostering students' critical thinking skills is an urgent issue that requires immediate attention. One viable solution to address this is the implementation of project-oriented problem-based learning (POPBL) through the SR-STEM project. This research aims to describe the implementation, effectiveness, and student perception of the POPBL model through the SR-STEM project in enhancing critical thinking skills in renewable energy materials. The study adopts a quasi-experimental design with a non-equivalent control group. The participants are 74 senior high school students in the academic year 2022/2023. Data collection employs observation sheets, written tests, and questionnaires. The data are analyzed descriptively and inferentially and using confirmatory factor analysis. The key findings of the study are as follows: (1) the model demonstrates a high level of feasibility; (2) the learning model effectively improves students' critical thinking skills; and (3) the learning model exhibits a positive correlation with student achievement, perceived control, and affective perception. This research suggests introducing innovative learning approaches to enhance students' critical thinking skills, particularly in renewable energy materials, to promote Education for Sustainable Development. Moreover, it highlights the significance of considering factors that influence the effective implementation of lessons. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1429838 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1429838 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1007/s10956-024-10102-2 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 16 StartPage: 526 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Student Projects Type: general – SubjectFull: Problem Based Learning Type: general – SubjectFull: STEM Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Critical Thinking Type: general – SubjectFull: Thinking Skills Type: general – SubjectFull: Energy Type: general – SubjectFull: Energy Conservation Type: general – SubjectFull: Models Type: general – SubjectFull: High School Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement Type: general – SubjectFull: Skill Development Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Project-Oriented Problem-Based Learning through SR-STEM to Foster Students' Critical Thinking Skills in Renewable Energy Material Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Iqbal Ainur Rizki – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Nadi Suprapto IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 08 Type: published Y: 2024 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 1059-0145 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1573-1839 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 33 – Type: issue Value: 4 Titles: – TitleFull: Journal of Science Education and Technology Type: main |
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