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The Cognitive-Linguistic Profiles and Academic Performances of Chinese Children with Dyslexia across Cultures: Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei

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Title: The Cognitive-Linguistic Profiles and Academic Performances of Chinese Children with Dyslexia across Cultures: Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei
Language: English
Authors: Dora Jue Pan, Xiangzhi Meng (ORCID 0000-0003-1265-2332), Jun Ren Lee, Melody Chi Yi Ng, Catherine McBride
Source: Annals of Dyslexia. 2024 74(2):222-242.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Dyslexia, Correlation, Cognitive Processes, Linguistic Competence, Literacy, English Language Learners, English (Second Language), Second Language Learning, Mathematics, Reading, Performance Tests, Foreign Countries, Phonology, Morphology (Languages), Spelling, Duplication
Geographic Terms: China (Beijing), Hong Kong, Taiwan (Taipei)
DOI: 10.1007/s11881-024-00301-2
ISSN: 0736-9387
1934-7243
Abstract: This study examined the cognitive-linguistic and literacy-related correlates of dyslexia in three Chinese cities and the English word reading and mathematics performances of Chinese children with dyslexia. Chinese children with/without dyslexia were measured with an equivalent test battery of literacy and mathematics in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Univariate analysis results suggested that phonological sensitivity distinguished those with and without dyslexia across all three cities in group comparisons. In Taipei and Hong Kong, morphological awareness, delayed copying, and spelling also distinguished the groups. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that Chinese character reading, as directly compared to Chinese word reading, also distinguished the groups particularly well. In addition, in Beijing and Hong Kong, children with dyslexia performed significantly less well in English word reading than those without dyslexia. In Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia also had difficulties in mathematics performance. Findings highlight the fundamental importance of some cognitive-linguistic skills for explaining Chinese dyslexia across cultures, the utility of recognizing the individual Chinese character as a foundational unit of analysis in Chinese across cultures, and the generalizability of the comorbidity of both English as a second language (L2) and mathematics with dyslexia in Chinese children in both Beijing and Hong Kong.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1431082
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0178444609;bm501jul.24;2024Jul17.06:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178444609-1">The cognitive-linguistic profiles and academic performances of Chinese children with dyslexia across cultures: Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei </title> <p>This study examined the cognitive-linguistic and literacy-related correlates of dyslexia in three Chinese cities and the English word reading and mathematics performances of Chinese children with dyslexia. Chinese children with/without dyslexia were measured with an equivalent test battery of literacy and mathematics in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Univariate analysis results suggested that phonological sensitivity distinguished those with and without dyslexia across all three cities in group comparisons. In Taipei and Hong Kong, morphological awareness, delayed copying, and spelling also distinguished the groups. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that Chinese character reading, as directly compared to Chinese word reading, also distinguished the groups particularly well. In addition, in Beijing and Hong Kong, children with dyslexia performed significantly less well in English word reading than those without dyslexia. In Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia also had difficulties in mathematics performance. Findings highlight the fundamental importance of some cognitive-linguistic skills for explaining Chinese dyslexia across cultures, the utility of recognizing the individual Chinese character as a foundational unit of analysis in Chinese across cultures, and the generalizability of the comorbidity of both English as a second language (L2) and mathematics with dyslexia in Chinese children in both Beijing and Hong Kong.</p> <p>Keywords: Academic performance; Chinese children; Cognitive-linguistic skills; Cultural differences; Dyslexia</p> <p>The original online version of this article was revised: " In this article the affiliation details for Author Jun Ren Lee were incorrectly given as "Depart-ment of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, China" and "Chinese Language and Technology Center, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, China" but should have been "Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan" and "Chinese Lan-guage and Technology Center, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan".</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-2">Introduction</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178444609-3">Literacy-related skills and Chinese dyslexia across cultures</hd> <p>The present study focused on similarities and differences in those children with and without dyslexia across three well-known Chinese cities with different educational and cultural approaches to literacy, namely, Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Research on Chinese children with dyslexia has explored in detail their cognitive profiles (e.g., Chung et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref1">12</reflink>]; Liao et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref2">36</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref3">59</reflink>]). These studies have reported a set of literacy-related skills that are associated with Chinese dyslexia, including phonological awareness, phonological sensitivity, morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling skills (McBride et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref4">47</reflink>], for a review). This work has highlighted the fact that a multifaceted approach to understanding Chinese dyslexia is required (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Simultaneously, previous work has also underscored the importance of considering learning environments for understanding Chinese reading development and impairment (McBride, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref6">43</reflink>]). To some extent, of course, this is true for any script. For example, the contrast between the UK and the USA in relation to literacy skills highlights the fact that English reading achievement in the early years is associated with reading instruction method (e.g., phonics vs. whole language) and the dialect to which English words are mapped in different English-speaking societies (Treiman et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref7">65</reflink>]). However, across Chinese societies, the variability that influences reading development in Chinese may be comparatively much greater. Specifically, there is a wide diversity of Chinese learning environments across different Chinese societies (Zhang & McBride-Chang, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref8">78</reflink>]). For example, Chinese children in Beijing and Taipei speak Mandarin in school, while in Hong Kong, children speak Cantonese, though most of them receive some Mandarin instruction at school. Mandarin and Cantonese are two of the 241 dialects in Chinese (Chung & Leung, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref9">11</reflink>]). Mandarin has an extremely high degree of similarity with standard written Chinese, while this is not the case for Cantonese. In addition, a phonological coding system is typically used as an aid to teaching Chinese words in Beijing and Taipei, which is Pinyin in Beijing and Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao in Taipei. In Hong Kong, Pinyin is taught when children learn Mandarin as a second language in school, so it reflects L1 learning in Beijing but L2 learning in Hong Kong. Moreover, Beijing children read and write simplified Chinese, while children in Hong Kong and Taipei read and write traditional Chinese. With the differences in languages and scripts used as well as the methods of literacy instruction across Chinese cultures, there is preliminary evidence suggesting that the manifestation of dyslexia may be somewhat different in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taiwan (McBride et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref10">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>In general, research has highlighted the similarly important roles of phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and orthographic skills in reading development for Chinese children across different Chinese societies (Li, et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref11">32</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]; Liao et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref13">36</reflink>]; Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref14">58</reflink>]). However, in Hong Kong, subtypes of dyslexia related to phonological awareness tend to be relatively underrepresented compared to other subtypes involving morphological awareness and orthographic representations (e.g., Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref15">21</reflink>]). Similarly, orthographic skills and morphological awareness, rather than phonological awareness, emerge as stronger correlates of Chinese word reading in Hong Kong typically developing children (Tong et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref16">62</reflink>]; Yeung et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref17">76</reflink>]). This may be because phonetic cues for Chinese word reading are relatively unstable (Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref18">59</reflink>]) and Hong Kong children learn to read Chinese words without the aid of a phonological coding system (McBride, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref20">44</reflink>]). In contrast, Lei et al. ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref21">29</reflink>]) investigated the early cognitive predictors of reading skills in Beijing children and reported that the combination of phonological awareness, rapid naming, and morphological awareness is essential in the early prediction of later reading difficulties. Overall, across studies, the relative importance of these skills in relation to the manifestation of dyslexia varies somewhat (e.g., Lei et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref22">29</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref23">31</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref24">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>To our knowledge, there has never been a systematic comparison of constructs in relation to dyslexia in Chinese children across Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Such a comparison is risky and difficult given differences in the script (simplified vs. traditional), teaching style (using Pinyin, or Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao to teach Mandarin; look-and-say method for Cantonese), and language (Mandarin vs. Cantonese). An important feature of the present study was our focus on the development of a battery of Chinese literacy tasks that were virtually identical across Chinese societies. With the same battery of tasks to screen children with dyslexia in different Chinese cities and cultural contexts, it will be possible to directly compare the cognitive-linguistic profiles, literacy skills, and academic performances of children with dyslexia broadly in future cross-cultural studies. This will facilitate the understanding of the similarities and differences in the characteristics of Chinese dyslexia across different cultures, which will hopefully facilitate a clearer contextualization and understanding of different research results on the nature of Chinese dyslexia found in different cities.</p> <p>To better understand Chinese children's phonological skills in relation to dyslexia, we not only tested their phonological awareness but also measured their Pinyin/Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing skills. Pinyin and Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao are two phonological coding systems that represent the pronunciations of Chinese characters. They have the same functions but use different symbols and follow distinctive rules. Pinyin/Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing taps into syllable awareness, phoneme awareness, rime awareness, and tone awareness in Chinese; these tasks were used to measure children's phonological sensitivities (Huang & Hanley, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref25">24</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref26">38</reflink>]). They have been found to be associated with Chinese children's phonological awareness (Huang & Hanley, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref27">24</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref28">38</reflink>]) and word reading (Chang, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref29">2</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref30">38</reflink>]; Wang & McBride, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref31">67</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref32">70</reflink>]) in previous studies.</p> <p>Rapid automatized naming (RAN) may be another core deficit in Chinese dyslexia (Wolf & Bower, 1999). RAN involves the capacity to name some highly familiar stimuli (e.g., digits, letters, or characters) as fast and accurately as possible. It has been repeatedly found to predict word reading across languages (Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref33">58</reflink>]; Siddaiah & Padakannaya, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref34">61</reflink>]). Some research has also indicated that RAN may be equally linked to dyslexia across Chinese societies (Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref35">58</reflink>]), including Beijing and Shanghai (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref36">8</reflink>]; Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref37">19</reflink>]), Hong Kong (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>]; Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref39">19</reflink>]), and Taiwan (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref40">71</reflink>]). The current study included RAN with other cognitive-linguistic skills in the same model to predict Chinese dyslexia. We hoped that the findings from the present study would indicate more about whether RAN is universally a core deficit of Chinese dyslexia across different Chinese societies even with other predictors statistically controlled.</p> <p>Delayed copying is generally operationalized as the ability to produce unfamiliar Chinese characters from memory following their brief presentation (Ye et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref41">75</reflink>]). Our delayed copying task was designed to include items in different difficulty levels with the same simple procedure for manipulation in each item. This serves as a convenient tool to capture children's visual skills, visual-orthographic knowledge, and orthographic working memory skills (Anderson et al., 2013; Pak et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref42">55</reflink>]). This can partly capture orthographic skills in children from a relatively large age range, e.g., from kindergarten (Ye et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref43">75</reflink>]) to higher grades in primary school (Pak et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref44">55</reflink>]). In previous studies (e.g., Pak et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref45">55</reflink>]; Ye et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref46">75</reflink>]), children's delayed copying performance has been significantly associated with individual differences in Chinese literacy. We included it here as an orthographic skills task to distinguish children with or without Chinese dyslexia.</p> <p>Compared to the above-mentioned cognitive-linguistic skills, few studies have focused on the extent to which Chinese children with dyslexia might demonstrate spelling deficits (e.g., Chung & Lam., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref47">10</reflink>]). In general, students with dyslexia manifest spelling (or writing) problems that are often more severe and more persistent than their difficulties with reading (Maughan et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref48">42</reflink>]). Chinese spelling is typically measured as the ability to write characters/words in a dictation task. Compared to typically developing students, Hong Kong Chinese students with dyslexia tend to have more difficulties in word spelling (Cheng-Lai et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref49">7</reflink>]; Chung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref50">10</reflink>]; Kalindi & Chung, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref51">25</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref52">50</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref53">51</reflink>]; Tong et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref54">63</reflink>]). Similar spelling deficits are also likely in Beijing and Taipei, given that word reading and word spelling tend to be closely connected in Chinese students across cultures (Chan et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>]). A recent study of Chinese children with dyslexia in Beijing found that, compared to controls, they exhibited reduced brain activation in handwriting tasks (Yang et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref56">73</reflink>]). Handwriting has served as a proxy for Chinese word spelling (Lam & McBride, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref57">27</reflink>]; Yeung et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref58">77</reflink>]). Thus, it is likely that students with dyslexia have spelling difficulties as well. The present study explored the extent to which Chinese students with dyslexia would manifest a co-existence of spelling disorders across different cities.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-4">Character reading vs word reading in Chinese</hd> <p>Another issue in relation to Chinese dyslexia is whether character vs. word (comprising two or more characters) reading plays different roles in characterizing children with dyslexia in Chinese. The current methods used to screen for children with dyslexia are different across studies in different cultures (e.g., Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref59">31</reflink>]; Liao et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref60">35</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref61">50</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref62">51</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref63">59</reflink>]; Wang & Yang, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref64">69</reflink>]). These studies have often interchangeably used character reading and word reading to measure children's reading skills. However, some researchers argue that Chinese character reading and word reading, though overlapping, represent slightly different processes (e.g., McBride et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref65">46</reflink>]; McBride, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref66">44</reflink>]). RAN and morphological awareness may play particularly important roles in word reading, compared to character reading. In a study of Hong Kong primary school children, although the correlation between character reading and word reading was as high as 0.95, RAN and morphological awareness uniquely explained variance in word reading after statistically controlling for character reading (Pan et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref67">56</reflink>]). In practice, in many cases, single-characters are more difficult to identify than multiple-character words (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref68">34</reflink>]; Wang & McBride, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref69">66</reflink>]). More than one character in a given word can be mutually cued in a specific context. Children with morphological knowledge may be able to read some unfamiliar words via contextual information. Due to limited contextual information, character recognition requires precise memorization of the print and its pronunciation. Given that character reading and word reading are somewhat distinctive processes and that children tend to use different strategies in recognizing characters and words (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref70">39</reflink>]), we compared character vs. word reading in discriminating children with or without dyslexia in Chinese across cultures.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-5">Are Chinese students with dyslexia struggling in other domains of academic performance?</hd> <p>Chinese and English literacy and mathematics development are among the main achievement goals for Chinese students in primary school. Thus, it is important to establish the extent to which Chinese children with dyslexia also manifest difficulties in English word reading and/or mathematics. Across Chinese societies, learning English as L2 is prioritized. In Hong Kong, children start to learn L1 Chinese and L2 English almost at the same time, as early as 3.5 years old, in school (the second semester of their first year of kindergarten). In some studies conducted in Hong Kong, Chinese children with dyslexia have performed significantly more poorly than the control group in English reading (Chung & Ho, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref71">9</reflink>]; Ho and Fong, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref72">18</reflink>]). This may be because students with dyslexia often have deficits in some foundational linguistic-cognitive skills that are critical for reading across English and Chinese (Chung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref73">10</reflink>]). Similarly, studies in Beijing have also demonstrated a considerable cooccurrence of reading difficulty in L1 and L2 (Gao et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref74">15</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]), although Beijing children learn English relatively later than Hong Kong children (Zhang & McBride-Chang, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref76">78</reflink>]).</p> <p>The present study also examined whether Chinese children with dyslexia have difficulties in mathematics learning. It is common that reading deficits co-occur with mathematics difficulties (Landerl & Moll, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref77">28</reflink>]; Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref78">57</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref79">58</reflink>]). One study in Mainland China found that, compared to their typically developing peers, children with dyslexia performed more poorly in subtraction and numerosity comparisons (Cheng et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref80">5</reflink>]). Phonological awareness and RAN tend to be associated with mathematics, as well as literacy learning in young Chinese children (e.g., Yang & McBride, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref81">74</reflink>]). We, therefore, expected to find mathematics difficulties in Chinese children with dyslexia across all three cities.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-6">The present study</hd> <p>The current study focused on patterns of association of Chinese children with and without dyslexia in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Across all three cities, our participants were typically developing children and children with dyslexia in Grades 2 or 3. With our test battery, designed to be equivalent across the three cities, the present study first examined the cognitive-linguistic skills, reading, and spelling skills that might distinguish Chinese children with or without dyslexia across three Chinese societies with very different linguistic, script, and teaching approaches to Chinese, namely, Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei (Chen & Yuen, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref82">4</reflink>]; Huang & Hanley, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref83">23</reflink>]; Li & Rao, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref84">30</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref85">37</reflink>]). We hypothesized that children with dyslexia would perform more poorly in all of these skills compared to the children in the control group. In addition, we expected that character reading and word reading might play different roles in predicting Chinese dyslexia.</p> <p>The second aim of the present study was to investigate L2 English word reading and mathematics skills among Chinese children with and without dyslexia. When Chinese children with dyslexia are required to learn L2 English, they may face greater challenges than typically developing children (e.g., Chung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref86">10</reflink>]; Ho & Fong, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref87">18</reflink>]; Tong et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref88">64</reflink>]). Chinese children with dyslexia were hypothesized to perform more poorly in English word reading than their typically developing peers across Hong Kong and Beijing (children in Taipei had not yet developed strong enough English reading skills to test English there). In addition, there is a higher likelihood of the co-occurrence of reading and mathematics difficulties among children with dyslexia (Landerl & Moll, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref89">28</reflink>]). We hypothesized that there would emerge differences in Chinese literacy, English word reading, and mathematics skills among children with and without dyslexia across three prominent Chinese cities.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178444609-8">Participants</hd> <p>In Hong Kong, 80 Cantonese-speaking children (40 boys) with a mean age of 8.00 years old (SD = 0.64) were recruited via local primary schools with Cantonese as the medium of instruction in school. Thirty-two of the children were reported to have dyslexia. The other 48 children in the control group were recruited from the same schools. These two groups of children were matched on chronological age (<emph>F</emph> = 3.31, <emph>p</emph> = 0.07) and have typical ranges of IQs. They learn both Chinese and English as early as in the first year of kindergarten, at around age 3.5. Children in the group with dyslexia had been diagnosed as having dyslexia by educational or clinical psychologists using the Hong Kong Test of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing for Primary School Students–Third Edition [HKT-P(III)] (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref90">22</reflink>]), a standardized test for diagnosis of dyslexia in Hong Kong.</p> <p>In Beijing, 64 Mandarin-speaking children (40 boys) with a mean age of 8.38 years (SD = 0.49) were recruited via local primary schools with Mandarin as the medium of instruction in school. Thirty-nine children were in the group of students with dyslexia. The other 25 children in the control group were recruited from the same schools. These two groups of children were matched on chronological age (<emph>F</emph> = 2.74, <emph>p</emph> = 0.10). They received formal literacy instruction in Chinese and English from Grade 1. Formal literacy instruction in Chinese includes learning to read and write characters, read and comprehend passages, and write short compositions from Grade 1. The English instruction in Grades 1 and 2 mainly focuses on oral language training, like simple dialogue, reading words, sentences, and short passages. Students do not learn to spell and write words and write sentences until Grade 3. The 39 children with dyslexia were screened from a pool of 493 school children. They had met all three of the following requirements: First, they had scored as normal to above average in intelligence, defined as above the 50th percentile on the nonverbal IQ test. Second, their performances on the written vocabulary test (Wang & Tao, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref91">68</reflink>]) had to be at least 3 standard deviations below the grade mean. Third, their scores on the reading fluency test also had to be below the mean scores for their grades. A similar procedure for recruiting children with dyslexia or with reading impairment has been implemented in previous studies (e.g., Meng et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref92">53</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Taipei, 57 children (30 boys) with a mean age of 8.43 years old (SD = 0.58) were recruited via local primary schools. 24 children were reported to have dyslexia. The other 33 children in the control group were recruited from the same schools. These two groups of children were matched on chronological age (<emph>F</emph> = 3.18, <emph>p</emph> = 0.08). Children were all native Mandarin speakers, and Mandarin was the medium of instruction in school. They receive formal literacy instruction in Chinese in the first year of elementary school and start to learn English in the third year of elementary school. The children in the dyslexic group had been identified as qualified for special education services with learning disabilities by Taipei City. In Taipei, children were diagnosed as requiring special education service for dyslexia if their performance in character identification or character writing was below the fifth percentile rank of the national norm, which is almost two standard deviations below the mean, had no intellectual developmental disabilities, had no cultural disadvantages or issues of lack of educational experience, and had difficulty adjusting to life in school (New Taipei City Office of Education, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref93">54</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-9">Procedures</hd> <p>Upon receiving parental consent and child assent, children were measured with a test battery of Chinese literacy-related tasks, English word reading, and arithmetic tasks individually. Children in Beijing and Taipei finished the tests at school, while, due to Covid-19, Hong Kong children finished the tests via an online platform (i.e., Zoom). The sequence of tasks was the same for both dyslexic and nondyslexic groups of children. Trained psychology students and research assistants served as testers in all three locations. All measures were administered using Mandarin in Beijing and Taipei and using Cantonese in Hong Kong (except for the phonological awareness task and Pinyin writing task which used Pinyin in Mandarin).</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-10">Testing materials</hd> <p>The test battery has been reviewed by the co-authors and their teams in Beijing and Taipei, respectively, to make sure the items were considered roughly equivalent across cultures. Although there are obvious differences in teaching methods and scripts and languages used across the three cities, we tried to make the test battery used in each location equivalent as much as possible. More details are provided below.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-11">Cognitive-linguistic skills</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178444609-12">Phonological awareness</hd> <p>This task was adjusted based on the onset and rime detection tasks used in a previous study (Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref94">60</reflink>]). It consisted of two sections, onset detection, and rime detection. The first section included 2 practice items and 7 test items; the second section included 2 practice items and 6 test items. In each item, the experimenters presented a card with the numbers 1, 2, and 3 on it, which represent the order of the syllables they orally presented. Children were required to identify the "odd" one out of three spoken syllables which had a different onset or rime from the other two syllables by circling the corresponding number of the correct answer. For example, children were asked to identify from (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref95">1</reflink>) /hai3/, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref96">2</reflink>) /shang3/, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref97">3</reflink>) /hu3/, the syllable in which the onset was different from the others. The correct response to this item was circling number 2. One point was given for each correct response. The maximum possible score for this measure was 13.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-13">Pinyin writing</hd> <p>The Pinyin writing task was developed based on the invented pinyin writing task used in previous studies (e.g., Ding et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref98">13</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref99">38</reflink>]). It was used to test children's phonological sensitivity in Beijing and Hong Kong. The task in the present study consisted of 22 items, including 11 single-syllable items (eight real characters and three pseudo characters) and 11 two-syllable items (five real words and six pseudo words). All the syllables (except for those of the pseudo characters) are commonly used pronunciations of some characters (e.g., 關/環) in Mandarin. Children were required to write out the Pinyin that matched each syllable. Four linguistic features were considered in the scoring scheme (Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref100">38</reflink>]) including onsets, rimes, tones, and order of the Pinyin. A five-point scale (0–4) was used in the scoring of onset and rime, respectively. Also, a two-point scale (0–1) was used for scoring the order of onset and rime; a four-point scale (0–3) was used for scoring the lexical tones. Therefore, for each syllable, the maximum possible score was 12. The maximum possible score for this measure was 396.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-14">Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing</hd> <p>This task was developed to test children's phonological sensitivity in Taipei. This task was similar to the Pinyin writing task, except that the children were asked to write Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao instead of Pinyin. The scoring scheme for Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing was also similar to the one used in Pinyin writing. A five-point scale (0–4) was used in the scoring of the initial and final, respectively. Also, a two-point scale (0–1) was used for scoring the order of initial and final; a four-point scale (0–3) was used for scoring the tone diacritic. The maximum possible score for this measure was 396.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-15">RAN</hd> <p>Five single-digit numbers (e.g., 2, 9, 4, 7, and 6) were placed and randomly ordered in 8 rows on the paper. Children were required to name them row by row and as quickly as possible. Children were asked to read the five numbers before the formal testing without being timed to ensure they knew the names of the numbers. In the formal testing, they were asked to name the list twice and the average naming time across the two trials was recorded.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-16">Morphological awareness</hd> <p>This task was adjusted based on the morphological awareness tasks from previous studies (e.g., Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref101">39</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref102">49</reflink>]), with several items modified to make sure all the items in the task were appropriate for children across different cultures. The task consisted of 46 items presented in ascending difficulty. In each item, children were orally presented with a scenario that described an object or concept. Children were asked to create a newly described object or concept based on a description. For example, 由一隻蜘蛛織成嘅網, 我哋會叫佢做蜘蛛網, 咁由一隻螞蟻織成嘅網, 我哋會點叫佢呀? (<emph>The webs that are made by spiders are called spider webs. What would we call the webs that are made by ants</emph>?) The correct answer for this item should be 螞蟻網 (<emph>ant webs</emph>). Two practice items were presented to teach children how to do the test. One point was given for each correct response. The maximum possible score for this measure was 46.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-17">Chinese delayed copying</hd> <p>This task was adapted from a delayed copying task from previous studies (e.g., Lo et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref103">40</reflink>]) with two items modified after pilot testing to make it appropriate across cultures. It consisted of one practice item and 15 experimental items. Each of them included a ready-check screen, a fixation, the experimental item, and a blank screen. For each item, after a fixation point first appeared on the screen for one second, a target word appeared on the screen for two seconds followed by a blank screen. Children were then asked to copy the experimental item on an answer sheet. The experimental items were all low-frequency Chinese characters (e.g., 攽, 幦) and consisted of 2 to 4 radical or logographemes (the basic unit of Chinese writing that is larger than a stroke and smaller than a radical, Lui et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref104">41</reflink>]). Scores were given according to the copied radicals/logographemes. 2 points were given for a completely correct copy, one point was given if a minor error was observed in a radical/logographeme (e.g., missing stroke, extra stroke). No points were given if more than two minor errors were observed. The maximum possible score for this measure was 82.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-18">Chinese reading and spelling skills</hd> <p>In the following three tasks, the characters/words were mainly selected from a Lexical List for Chinese Learning in Hong Kong Primary School (https://<ulink href="http://www.edbchinese.hk/lexlist%5fch/">www.edbchinese.hk/lexlist%5fch/</ulink>) and a Study of the Chinese Characters Recommended for the Subject of Chinese Language in Primary School (https://ephchinese.ephhk.com/lcprichi/index.php?s=1). In each task, the characters/words were selected roughly to match each grade level from Grades 1 to 6. Only those characters/words that appear in an identical form in both traditional and simplified scripts were included.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-19">Chinese character reading (fluency)</hd> <p>A Chinese character naming task was developed to measure children's character reading skills. It includes 160 single characters listed in order of ascending difficulty. The children were required to read the characters aloud in order with no time limit in Hong Kong and Beijing. The testing stopped after 15 consecutive failures. In Taipei, children were required to read as quickly and accurately as possible within one minute. This task in Taipei taps into children's character reading fluency. One point was given for each correct response. The maximum possible score for this measure was 160.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-20">Chinese word reading</hd> <p>A Chinese word naming task was developed to measure children's word reading skills. In the task, children were required to read 70 Chinese words presented in order of increasing difficulty. One point was given for each correct response. The maximum possible score for this measure was 70.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-21">Chinese word spelling</hd> <p>In this task, children were asked to write 20 Chinese two-character words. The experimenter orally presented one word at a time. Words were presented in order of increasing difficulty. Two points were given if the children write out the whole word correctly and one point was given if the children wrote down either character correctly. The maximum possible score for the task was 40.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-22">Academic performance tests</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178444609-23">English word reading</hd> <p>An English silent word reading test was administered to measure children's word identification fluency in English (Kalindi et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref105">26</reflink>]). The test consists of two subtests, namely, individual word reading and contextualized word reading. In the individual one, participants were presented with 25 chains of unrelated words. For the contextualized word reading subtest, participants were presented with 20 sentences in a word chain. The chains in the two subtests are all printed in lowercase letters without spaces between letters. They were asked to separate the words using lines in each subtest, each of which lasted 4 min. One mark was given for each correctly segmented word. The sum of these two scores was used to represent children's English word reading skills. The maximum possible score for this task is 522.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-24">Arithmetic calculation</hd> <p>This was measured with a two operand (e.g., 35 × 4) and three operand (e.g., 66 × 21 − 14) multi-digit arithmetic task, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, to test children's calculation competency. The number of test items was 40, and children needed to write down the answer in numeric format within 7 min. One point was given for each correct answer. The maximum possible score on the task was 40.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-25">Data analysis</hd> <p>Using SPSS 26.0, two types of statistical analyses were conducted across cities. First, univariate analyses were conducted to investigate the group differences between children with and without dyslexia with age statistically controlled in each place. Second, logistic regression was employed to establish which tasks could best distinguish children with and without dyslexia. We used the <emph>Z</emph> scores of Pinyin/Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing and Chinese character reading (fluency) in the following analyses, given that these tasks were not completely the same across the three cities.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-26">Results</hd> <p>Table 1 shows the reliabilities, ranges, means, SD, and separate <emph>F</emph> tests for all tasks administered in Hong Kong children. The dyslexic group performed significantly more poorly than the control group on measures of phonological awareness, morphological awareness, delayed copying, pinyin writing, word spelling, character reading, Chinese word reading, English word reading, and arithmetic calculation, though not on RAN (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref106">1</reflink>, 77) = 2.58, <emph>p</emph> = 0.11).</p> <p>Table 1 Mean scores, standard deviations on various tasks for the dyslexic group and the control group, and F values for group differences on various measures of Grade 2–3 Hong Kong children with and without dyslexia, controlled by age</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>α</italic></p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Dyslexia (<italic>N</italic> = 32)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Control (<italic>N</italic> = 48)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic> value</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>(1, 77)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Phonological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.51</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>1–12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.63</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.25</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>1–12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.81</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.73</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.74<sup>*</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RAN</p></td><td align="left"><p>.90</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>14.42–50.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.84</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.54</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>11.17–40.81</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>23.83</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.58</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Morphological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.71</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>10–34</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.44</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>12–37</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>24.96</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>23.04<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Delayed copying</p></td><td align="left"><p>.82</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>2–46</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>20.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.48</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>11–61</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>26.71</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10.45</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.11<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Pinyin writing</p></td><td align="left"><p>.98</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–166</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>34.36</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–357</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>92.63</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>107.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.54<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word spelling</p></td><td align="left"><p>.89</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.44</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.66</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.38</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>23.03<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese single-character reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.95</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>10–98</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>54.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>26.65</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>24–143</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>86.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>32.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>21.08<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.96</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>13–56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>39.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>12.20</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>28–66</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>49.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.10<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>English word reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.98</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>2.5–108.5</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>37.70</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.15</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>3.5–131</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>49.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>24.44</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.90*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Arithmetic calculation</p></td><td align="left"><p>.94</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.81</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>6–28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>20.67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>13.34<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>*</sups> <emph>p</emph> ≤.05, <sups>**</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.01, and <sups>***</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <p>Table 2 demonstrates the reliabilities, ranges, means, SD, and separate <emph>F</emph> tests for all tasks administered in Beijing children. The group with dyslexia performed significantly worse than the control group on the measures of phonological awareness, character reading, and Chinese word reading. The group difference was also marginally significant on the measure of English word reading: <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref107">1</reflink>, 61) = 3.83,<emph> p</emph> = 0.055, but not significant on the measures of RAN (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref108">1</reflink>, 61) = 3.11, <emph>p</emph> = 0.08), morphological awareness (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref109">1</reflink>, 61) = 1.87, <emph>p</emph> = 0.18), delayed copying (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref110">1</reflink>, 61) = 0.93, <emph>p</emph> = 0.34), pinyin writing (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref111">1</reflink>, 61) = 2.21, <emph>p</emph> = 0.14), or Chinese word spelling (<emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref112">1</reflink>, 61) = 1.67, <emph>p</emph> = 0.20).</p> <p>Table 2 Mean scores, standard deviations, and reliability coefficient on various tasks for the dyslexic group and the control group and F values for group differences on various measures of Beijing children with and without dyslexia, controlled by age</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>α</italic></p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Dyslexia (<italic>N</italic> = 39)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Control (<italic>N</italic> = 25)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic> value</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>(1, 61)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Phonological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.74</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>2–13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.92</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.18</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>6–13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.04</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.76<sup>*</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RAN</p></td><td align="left"><p>.77</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>11.9–35.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.34</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.25–26.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.11</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Morphological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.91</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>11–41</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.90</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.51</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>19–42</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>31.68</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.99</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.87</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Delayed copying</p></td><td align="left"><p>.79</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>13–64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>40.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.45</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>21–58</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>41.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>10.93</p></td><td align="left"><p>.93</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Pinyin writing</p></td><td align="left"><p>.87</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>81–388</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>338.36</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>59.17</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>248–386</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>350.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>38.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.21</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word spelling</p></td><td align="left"><p>.86</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>6–33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.63</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>5–35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>20.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.31</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.67</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese single-character reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.98</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>30–141</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>87.72</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>31.87</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>56–141</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>100.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>24.74</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.22<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.95</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>18–67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>49.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>13.38</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>30–66</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>54.48</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.50</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.34<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>English word reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.87</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>1–86</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>32.90</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>21.77</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>5– 121</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>43.88</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.24</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.83<sup>a</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Arithmetic calculation</p></td><td align="left"><p>.91</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>10–32</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>24.21</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.61</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>13–31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>20.88</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.25</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.05</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>a</sups> <emph>p</emph> =.055, <sups>*</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.05, <sups>**</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.01, and <sups>***</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <p>Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics and separate F tests for all tasks administered in Taipei children. The group with dyslexia performed significantly more poorly than the control group on all the tasks.</p> <p>Table 3 Mean scores, standard deviations on various tasks for the dyslexic group and the control group, and <emph>F</emph> values for group differences on various measures of Grade 2–3 Taipei children with and without dyslexia, controlled by age</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>α</italic></p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Dyslexia (<italic>N</italic> = 24)</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Control (<italic>N</italic> = 33)</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>F</italic> value</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>Range</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>M</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>(1, 54)</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Phonological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.52</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>2–10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.08</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>3–12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.27</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>37.93<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>RAN</p></td><td align="left"><p>.72</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>17.25–53.76</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>26.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>7.84</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>10.75–26.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>16.89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.58</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>30.66<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Morphological awareness</p></td><td align="left"><p>.81</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>5–33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>18.54</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.08</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>19–38</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>27.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.97</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>21.74<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Delayed copying</p></td><td align="left"><p>.71</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>27–61</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>40.92</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.60</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>33–73</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>55.94</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>9.86</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>31.71<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing</p></td><td align="left"><p>.89</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–383</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>306.71</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>103.22</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>185–381</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>361.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>38.47</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.25<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word spelling</p></td><td align="left"><p>.90</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>1–19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>8.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.37</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>6–34</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.33</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>113.90<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese single-character reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.95</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>6–51</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>14.63</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>49–100</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>69.30</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>145.96<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Chinese word reading</p></td><td align="left"><p>.92</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>0–56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.96</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>17.38</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>50–67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>59.42</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.57</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>106.34<sup>***</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Arithmetic calculation</p></td><td align="left"><p>.90</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>5–23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.70</p></td><td char="–" align="char"><p>14–31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>19.53</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.92</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>11.15<sup>**</sup></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>*</sups> <emph>p</emph> ≤.05, <sups>**</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.01, and <sups>***</sups><emph>p</emph> ≤.001</p> <p>The next step was to examine which tasks, among the five cognitive-linguistic ones, could best distinguish children with and without dyslexia using logistic regression. In each location, we ran a logistic regression with all cognitive-linguistic skills included. In Hong Kong, once the five cognitive-linguistic correlates were entered into the equation together, the final model, following backward stepwise selection, contained only two significant correlates. These were morphological awareness (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref113">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 80) = 7.88,<emph> p</emph> < 0.01) and pinyin writing (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref114">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 80) = 5.81, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). The overall hit rate with these two factors was 75.0% and the accuracy rates of both the dyslexic and control groups were 71.9% and 77.1%, respectively. In Beijing, none of the five cognitive-linguistic skills was significant in the final model. In Taiwan, once the five cognitive-linguistic correlates were entered in the equation together, the final model, following backward stepwise selection, contained only three correlates. They were phonological awareness (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref115">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 57) = 4.53, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), RAN (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref116">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 57) = 9.09, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01), and morphological awareness (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref117">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 57) = 3.23, <emph>p</emph> = 0.07). The overall hit rate with these three factors was 93.0%, and the accuracy rates of both the dyslexic and control group were 91.7% and 93.9%, respectively.</p> <p>Moreover, we ran a logistic regression with the group variable (control/ dyslexic group) as the dependent variable to test whether either character reading (fluency) or word reading better distinguished the children across groups. In Hong Kong and Taipei, when both character reading (fluency) and word reading were entered into the equation as independent variables, the final model, following backward stepwise selection, contained only character reading in Hong Kong sample (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 80) = 13.92, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01) and only character reading fluency in Taipei sample (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref119">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 57) = 3.53, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06). In Beijing, neither of them was included in the final model. In Hong Kong, the overall hit rate with character reading was 68.8% and the accuracy rates for the dyslexic and control groups were 56.3% and 77.1%, respectively. In Taipei, the overall hit rate with character reading fluency was 96.5%, and the accuracy rates of both the dyslexic and control groups were 95.8% and 97.0%, respectively.</p> <p>We further ran the other logistic regression analyses with character reading and other cognitive-linguistic skills as independent variables respectively in Hong Kong and Taipei. In Hong Kong, the final model, following forward stepwise selection, included two significant predictors, character reading (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref120">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 80) = 6.95, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01) and morphological awareness (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref121">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 80) = 6.50, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). The overall hit rate with character reading and morphological awareness was 73.8%, and the accuracy rates for the dyslexic and control groups were 65.6% and 79.2%, respectively.</p> <p>However, in Taipei, the final model, following forward stepwise selection, contained only character reading fluency (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref122">1</reflink>, _I_N_i_ = 57) = 3.53, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06). The overall hit rate with character reading fluency was 96.5% and the accuracy rates for the group with and without dyslexia were 97.0% and 95.8%, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-27">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study yielded several results that are potentially important for understanding dyslexia in Chinese children across cultures. First, phonological sensitivity distinguished those with and without dyslexia across all three cities in simple group comparisons. Second, in both Taipei and Hong Kong (but not Beijing), morphological awareness, delayed copying, and spelling also distinguished the groups, possibly highlighting the importance of semantic and orthographic knowledge for word reading in Chinese across different societies. Third, in Hong Kong and Taipei but not Beijing, when word reading and character reading (fluency) were included in the same equation, character reading (fluency) significantly distinguished the two groups particularly well, again underscoring the importance of orthographic representations for those with reading difficulties. Fourth, in both cities in which word recognition in English could be tested (i.e., Beijing and Hong Kong), those with dyslexia performed significantly less well than those without dyslexia. In Hong Kong and Taipei but not Beijing, those with dyslexia also had more difficulties in mathematics performance than did the control group. We discuss these findings in depth below.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-28">Phonological skills as a building block for early word recognition in Chinese</hd> <p>Overall, our findings suggest that Chinese children with dyslexia have some deficits in phonological skills. In Taipei, phonological awareness was one of the three critical cognitive-linguistic skills that best-distinguished children with and without dyslexia. Across all three cities, Chinese students with dyslexia attained lower scores than nonimpaired children in phonological awareness. This is in line with previous studies conducted in different Chinese cities (e.g., Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref123">20</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref124">31</reflink>]; Liao et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref125">35</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref126">59</reflink>]) of group differences in phonological awareness across children with and without dyslexia. Chinese children with dyslexia generally have some difficulties in processing speech sounds, although phonological awareness is not always among the dominant skills that significantly distinguish Chinese children with dyslexia from nonimpaired in Beijing and Hong Kong (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref127">20</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref128">31</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref129">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, one notable finding from the present study was that Pinyin writing was one of the two critical cognitive-linguistic skills that best distinguished children with and without dyslexia in Hong Kong. Previous research has also suggested that Pinyin writing is significantly associated with Chinese reading performance, though in Mainland China children (e.g., Ding et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref130">13</reflink>]; Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref131">38</reflink>]). The current study extended these results to suggest that Pinyin/Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing is important for understanding Chinese dyslexia in Hong Kong/Taipei children. In Taipei, although Zhu-Yin- Fu-Hao writing was not among the most dominant cognitive-linguistic skills that distinguish the groups, children with dyslexia performed significantly worse on this task, compared to the control group. In contrast, we did not observe a Pinyin writing deficit in Beijing children with dyslexia. Because early literacy instruction in Beijing focuses particularly on Pinyin and children have acquired some Pinyin writing knowledge as early as in the kindergarten period in Beijing (Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref132">38</reflink>]), this task may not be very challenging for Beijing children with dyslexia in the present study given that they were at a relatively advanced level, already in primary school. However, Pinyin skill mastery was particularly difficult for our sample with dyslexia in Hong Kong. Hong Kong children typically learn to read Chinese in Cantonese, but since 2014, they have been required to learn Mandarin in primary school (Education Bureau, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref133">14</reflink>]). Most of them have received Pinyin instruction as a tool for learning Mandarin. Our findings demonstrate that Hong Kong children with dyslexia tend to demonstrate a Pinyin writing deficit, reflecting phonological difficulties in processing of Mandarin as an L2. In the future, more studies should explore if Chinese students with dyslexia in primary school have difficulties in Pinyin/Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao writing across cultures. It is also interesting to examine the extent to which Hong Kong children with dyslexia will have difficulties in reading words in Mandarin given that they have deficits in Pinyin writing.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-29">The importance of morphological and orthographic representation for Chinese word reading</hd> <p>Across Hong Kong and Taipei, morphological awareness was one of the few dominant cognitive-linguistic skills that significantly distinguished children with and without dyslexia. To some extent, this finding is not surprising given that the Chinese script is morphosyllabic and requires skills in lexical compounding, the building of words based on individual characters. The essential role of morphological awareness in Chinese reading development and impairment has been repeatedly reported in previous studies (e.g., Chung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref134">10</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref135">31</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref136">49</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref137">59</reflink>]). Our findings related to morphological awareness have also demonstrated its close association with Chinese dyslexia among children in Hong Kong and Taipei. However, this was not the case in Beijing. This is in contrast with previous findings among children in Mainland China (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref138">31</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref139">59</reflink>]) in which morphological awareness significantly distinguished children with or without dyslexia. In contrast to the present study, these particular studies focused on older children in Grades 5 and 6. Moreover, they used a different morphological awareness task from ours, involving morpheme production and judgment tasks that test children's homophone and homograph awareness. Future studies should examine the correlations between morphological awareness and Chinese dyslexia among children in Mainland China, with a particular focus on the developmental patterns from lower to higher grades and the measures as a potential moderator.</p> <p>Similarly, orthographic skills should also be important for Chinese word recognition. In both Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia performed significantly worse in delayed copying than the control group. Delayed copying heavily taps into children's orthographic representations and orthographic working memory. Our findings demonstrated that children with dyslexia in Hong Kong and Taipei manifested impairment in delayed copying. Delayed copying is a relatively new but good and reliable task to measure children's orthographic skills (Lo et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref140">40</reflink>]; Pak et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref141">55</reflink>]; Ye et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref142">75</reflink>]). The delayed copying task is carefully designed to tap into different aspects of orthographic skills. Children with dyslexia may easily demonstrate some orthographic processing deficits on this task. Our findings suggest that, in future studies, the delayed copying measure can be considered one of several particularly useful tasks in diagnosing children with dyslexia, at least for children who learn traditional Chinese in Hong Kong or Taipei. Moreover, in both Taipei and Hong Kong, children with dyslexia were found to have a spelling impairment, highlighting some association between word reading and spelling in Chinese (e.g., Ye et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref143">75</reflink>]). This finding also underscores the importance of orthographic representation for Chinese word reading given that spelling Chinese words requires precise memory and detailed processing of the orthography (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref144">32</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref145">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>In contrast, the group differences of delayed copying and word spelling were not significant in our Beijing sample. These findings across cultures imply that there may be a relatively high incidence of orthographic representation difficulty in children who learn traditional Chinese in Hong Kong and Taipei. Traditional Chinese characters are more visually complicated than simplified Chinese characters with about 22.5% more strokes (Gao & Kao, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref146">16</reflink>]). Researchers have reported that script complexity leads to grapheme learning difficulties (Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref147">3</reflink>]). This may be especially the case for children with dyslexia. Therefore, children with dyslexia who learn traditional Chinese may have a lower efficiency to develop orthographic skills and find it more cumbersome to remember how to produce the characters. Our study was among the first to explore the association between delayed copying and Chinese dyslexia. It would be desirable to have more cross-cultural studies on this issue to test whether delayed copying or word spelling are efficient tasks for diagnosing Chinese dyslexia.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-30">Character reading uniquely associated with Chinese dyslexia</hd> <p>Among the most interesting findings in the present study is that, compared to word reading, our task of character reading (fluency) was better able to distinguish children with or without dyslexia in Hong Kong and Taipei. This may be because characters are more difficult to recognize when presented alone than in multiple-character words (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref148">34</reflink>]; Wang & McBride, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref149">66</reflink>]). Character reading (fluency) requires an exact mental representation of the orthography and avoids the "educated guess" for unfamiliar characters as much as possible. An "educated guess" is much more possible in reading multiple-character words, given children's knowledge of morphemes (McBride, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref150">44</reflink>]). Therefore, reading deficits may be easier to detect using character as compared to word reading tasks. This finding again highlights the importance of orthographic representation for Chinese children with reading difficulties. This finding can be clinically significant for developing an equivalent test battery to diagnose Chinese dyslexia across cultures.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-31">We also found that RAN played different roles in Chinese reading across cultures</hd> <p>Previous studies of Chinese dyslexia have argued that RAN deficit is among the most dominant types of cognitive deficits among children in Hong Kong and Mainland China (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref151">19</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref152">31</reflink>]; Shu et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref153">59</reflink>]). Our findings from Taipei were consistent with this argument and suggest that RAN is a dominant skill that is linked to Chinese dyslexia. However, similar findings were not found in our Hong Kong and Beijing samples. This may be explained by the fact that reading problems tend to be a manifestation of a complicated disorder involving multiple aspects of cognitive deficits, and there are different subtypes of dyslexia in Chinese (Ho et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref154">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref155">20</reflink>]). It is possible that not all the students with dyslexia have a RAN deficit, given that in studies by Ho et al., ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref156">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref157">20</reflink>]), only around 50% of the children with dyslexia in their samples demonstrated a RAN deficit. Our future studies with larger samples will investigate this issue in more detail among Beijing and Hong Kong children.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-32">Other academic difficulties in Chinese children with dyslexia</hd> <p>The present study found that Chinese children with dyslexia performed significantly more poorly than the control group in English word reading in Hong Kong and Beijing. This is in line with previous findings indicating that there is a high co-occurrence rate of reading difficulties in L1 Chinese and L2 English across cultures (Gao et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref158">15</reflink>]; McBride-Chang et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref159">52</reflink>]). This possibly results from a cognitive-linguistic weakness in L1 which may impede their reading development in L2 (Chung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref160">10</reflink>]). In addition, in Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia had impairments in arithmetic calculation in the present study. This is consistent with the argument of a close association between Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation (Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref161">57</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref162">58</reflink>]) given that some common cognitive-linguistic skills are required across different domains of academic performance. In contrast, in Beijing, the group differences in the arithmetic calculation were not significant. These inconsistent findings across cultures may be explained by the different learning contexts between Beijing and Hong Kong or Taipei. Arithmetic calculation is stressed particularly heavily in lower-grade primary school children in Beijing. Children with dyslexia in Beijing have perhaps more experience and drilling in this aspect of mathematics, such that no differences in performance were observed in this relatively simple math task. Nevertheless, given that the comorbidity of dyslexia and arithmetic difficulty has been found to be as high as 39.5% among children in Mainland China in previous studies (Cheng et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref163">6</reflink>]), future studies are needed in order to understand more fully the comorbidity of mathematics and reading difficulties in children from Beijing. Understanding the overall academic performance of children with dyslexia is not only theoretically important for the development of reading theories but also has practical significance in helping children with dyslexia with their learning in other academic domains. Our findings call for more research on this issue.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-33">Limitations and conclusions</hd> <p>There were, of course, limitations in the present study. First, we did not test English word reading in Taipei children, which limited our understanding of their potential L2 reading difficulties. In our pilot study, our English word reading test appeared to be too difficult for the participants in Taipei, because they generally do not receive formal literacy instruction in English until Grade 3. Some English tasks will be developed or adjusted to test Taipei children's English skills in our future studies. Second, this study focused on dyslexic children's academic performance from literacy to arithmetic calculation and suggested relatively poor academic performance among Chinese children with dyslexia. To understand more about the academic performance of children with dyslexia, future studies could expand this research to study children's reading comprehension, English word spelling skills, and other mathematics skills. Third, the reliability of the phonological awareness task was a bit low in Hong Kong and Taipei. Some items in this task may have been a bit too difficult for some children who had not received extensive Pinyin training. Pinyin training particularly focuses on dividing speech sounds into smaller units such as onsets and rimes. Future research should test syllable, onset, and rime detection together. Fourth, when interpreting the findings from this cross-cultural study, readers should keep in mind that dyslexic children were identified using different criteria across the three cities. This was an ecologically valid approach for the first such study, but it is somewhat problematic for drawing definitive conclusions. Future studies might strive to create maximumly comparable screening criteria in different societies. This is actually one of the exciting outcomes of the current study. This will allow for a more direct comparison across Chinese children with dyslexia in reading performance and help us to better understand the similarities and differences in their reading development across societies. Finally, the sample sizes in each city were not large. The cognitive-linguistic profiles and academic performances of Chinese children with dyslexia warrant further investigation with a larger cross-cultural sample size.</p> <p>Despite these limitations, however, these cross-culture findings have important implications for research and practice. Understanding the fundamental similarities and differences in Chinese dyslexia across Chinese cultures will help to define the nature of reading difficulties and pinpoint potentially optimal strategies for remediating Chinese children with dyslexia. The present study represents an initial attempt to develop an equivalent test battery that could potentially be used by educational or clinical psychologists to diagnose Chinese children with dyslexia across societies.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-34">Funding</hd> <p>This research was supported by a General Research Fund of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Research Grants Council (14600818) to Catherine McBride, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC: 32371141 and 31971039) to Xiangzhi Meng, and the Chinese Language and Technology Center of National Taiwan Normal University from the Featured Areas Research Center Program within the Higher Education Sprout Project framework by the Ministry of Education and the project MOST 107–2410-H-003–046 -MY3 funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan to Junren Lee.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-35">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178444609-36">Competing interests</hd> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0178444609-37">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0178444609-38"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref55" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Chan DW, Ho CSH, Tsang SM, Lee SH, Chung KKH. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Cognitive-Linguistic Profiles and Academic Performances of Chinese Children with Dyslexia across Cultures: Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Dora+Jue+Pan%22">Dora Jue Pan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Xiangzhi+Meng%22">Xiangzhi Meng</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1265-2332">0000-0003-1265-2332</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jun+Ren+Lee%22">Jun Ren Lee</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Melody+Chi+Yi+Ng%22">Melody Chi Yi Ng</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Catherine+McBride%22">Catherine McBride</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Annals+of+Dyslexia%22"><i>Annals of Dyslexia</i></searchLink>. 2024 74(2):222-242.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Dyslexia%22">Dyslexia</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Processes%22">Cognitive Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Linguistic+Competence%22">Linguistic Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literacy%22">Literacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+Language+Learners%22">English Language Learners</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mathematics%22">Mathematics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading%22">Reading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Performance+Tests%22">Performance Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Phonology%22">Phonology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Morphology+%28Languages%29%22">Morphology (Languages)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spelling%22">Spelling</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Duplication%22">Duplication</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China+%28Beijing%29%22">China (Beijing)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hong+Kong%22">Hong Kong</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Taiwan+%28Taipei%29%22">Taiwan (Taipei)</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11881-024-00301-2
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0736-9387<br />1934-7243
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examined the cognitive-linguistic and literacy-related correlates of dyslexia in three Chinese cities and the English word reading and mathematics performances of Chinese children with dyslexia. Chinese children with/without dyslexia were measured with an equivalent test battery of literacy and mathematics in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Univariate analysis results suggested that phonological sensitivity distinguished those with and without dyslexia across all three cities in group comparisons. In Taipei and Hong Kong, morphological awareness, delayed copying, and spelling also distinguished the groups. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that Chinese character reading, as directly compared to Chinese word reading, also distinguished the groups particularly well. In addition, in Beijing and Hong Kong, children with dyslexia performed significantly less well in English word reading than those without dyslexia. In Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia also had difficulties in mathematics performance. Findings highlight the fundamental importance of some cognitive-linguistic skills for explaining Chinese dyslexia across cultures, the utility of recognizing the individual Chinese character as a foundational unit of analysis in Chinese across cultures, and the generalizability of the comorbidity of both English as a second language (L2) and mathematics with dyslexia in Chinese children in both Beijing and Hong Kong.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1431082
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1431082
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11881-024-00301-2
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 222
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Dyslexia
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Linguistic Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Literacy
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      – SubjectFull: English Language Learners
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      – SubjectFull: English (Second Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Learning
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      – SubjectFull: Mathematics
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      – SubjectFull: Reading
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      – SubjectFull: Performance Tests
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      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Morphology (Languages)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spelling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Duplication
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China (Beijing)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hong Kong
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Taiwan (Taipei)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Cognitive-Linguistic Profiles and Academic Performances of Chinese Children with Dyslexia across Cultures: Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei
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            NameFull: Dora Jue Pan
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            NameFull: Jun Ren Lee
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            NameFull: Melody Chi Yi Ng
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            NameFull: Catherine McBride
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0736-9387
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              Value: 1934-7243
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              Value: 74
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            – TitleFull: Annals of Dyslexia
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