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Zooming in on Everyday Ethnic-Racial Discrimination: A Review of Experiencing Sampling Methodology Studies in Adolescence

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Title: Zooming in on Everyday Ethnic-Racial Discrimination: A Review of Experiencing Sampling Methodology Studies in Adolescence
Language: English
Authors: Sauro Civitillo (ORCID 0000-0001-7607-0935), Philipp Jugert (ORCID 0000-0003-4313-0596)
Source: European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2024 21(4):592-611.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 20
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Ethnic Groups, Social Discrimination, Racial Discrimination, Evaluation Methods, Adolescents, Psychological Patterns, Outcomes of Education, Item Sampling, Minority Groups, Literature Reviews
DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2023.2287268
ISSN: 1740-5629
1740-5610
Abstract: This is the first review that takes stock of studies that have applied an experience sampling methodology (ESM) to examine the consequences of daily ethnic-racial discrimination (ERD) on youth' psychological adjustment and academic outcomes. We summarize moderators and mediators of these associations and highlight the benefits and limitations of employing ESM to examine ERD in comparison to traditional between-person methodologies. A total of 18 studies published between 2010 and September 2022 were identified and reviewed. These studies document the negative effects of experiencing ERD on a daily basis, but also that variations exist depending on the moderators accounted for in the analyses. Although the use of ESM has great potential for the understanding of everyday ERD among adolescents, this line of research requires more evidence on contextual characteristics, mediating mechanisms, and with a wider variety of ethnic-racial groups.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1432169
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0178530478;a9o01jul.24;2024Jul23.05:15;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178530478-1">Zooming in on everyday ethnic-racial discrimination: a review of experiencing sampling methodology studies in adolescence </title> <p>This is the first review that takes stock of studies that have applied an experience sampling methodology (ESM) to examine the consequences of daily ethnic-racial discrimination (ERD) on youth' psychological adjustment and academic outcomes. We summarize moderators and mediators of these associations and highlight the benefits and limitations of employing ESM to examine ERD in comparison to traditional between-person methodologies. A total of 18 studies published between 2010 and September 2022 were identified and reviewed. These studies document the negative effects of experiencing ERD on a daily basis, but also that variations exist depending on the moderators accounted for in the analyses. Although the use of ESM has great potential for the understanding of everyday ERD among adolescents, this line of research requires more evidence on contextual characteristics, mediating mechanisms, and with a wider variety of ethnic-racial groups.</p> <p>Keywords: Ethnic-racial discrimination; experience sampling methodology; adolescents; review; psychological adjustment</p> <p>Racism refers to an ideology of power that ranks historically marginalized ethnic-racial groups as inferior to others, and encompasses interpersonal, institutional, and cultural dimensions of oppression (Jones, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref1">18</reflink>]). The focus of this review is on the interpersonal level, which is most psychologically proximal to individuals and groups (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref2">50</reflink>]). Building on Jones ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref3">17</reflink>]), ethnic-racial discrimination (ERD) is defined as the behavioural manifestation of interpersonal racism or <emph>personally mediated racism</emph> and reflects the differential and detrimental treatment of individuals based on their ethnic-racial group membership. Past research among adolescents in Europe, Australia, and the US has shown that experiences of exclusion and rejection based on ethnic-racial group membership pose a serious risk for psychological adjustment, as well as for school performance (see Benner et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref4">3</reflink>]; Civitillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>], for meta-analytical evidence).</p> <p>Following stress process frameworks (Lazarus & Folkman, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>]; Pearlin, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref7">31</reflink>]), Ong et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref8">28</reflink>]) argue that the negative burden of ERD might be due to the reciprocal associations between chronic strains and daily stressors, which act conjointly to affect individual's functioning adversely over time. According to this perspective, chronic strains (e.g., persistent or recurrent exposure to differential treatment) serve as a permanent stressor that may intensify the consequences of daily stressors (e.g., day-to-day discriminatory events). At the same time, daily stressors may exacerbate the chronic strain related to ERD because of their repeated and ubiquitous nature. Experience sampling methodology (ESM), which involves intensive longitudinal assessments, one or more times a day (Bolger & Laurenceau, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref9">4</reflink>]), can elucidate the dynamic character of the stress process in people's everyday lives.</p> <p>One of the earliest ESM in this context was Torres and Ong ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref10">41</reflink>]) study on the associations between ERD and depressive symptoms in a sample of Latinx adults. Participants filled out a 35-item measure of discriminatory events across occupational, academic, and public settings for 13 consecutive days. Results showed that previous-day ERD was associated with an increase in reports of next-day depression. Huynh and Fuligni ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref11">15</reflink>]) investigated the frequency of daily ERD for the first time among youth (mostly Asian Americans and Latinx) and found that discrimination averaged across the study period predicted lower GPA and self-esteem, and more depressive symptoms, distress, and somatic complaints. Through studies like these, research has increased confidence in causal influence by establishing temporal order and contributed to knowledge in contextualizing individuals' everyday experiences of ERD, advancing racism research, and illuminating new pathways for interventions (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref12">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the last decade, an increasing number of studies have applied ESM to examine the downstream consequences of ERD on youth and adolescent development as well as potential moderators and mediation mechanisms. In the present work, we review this literature to provide an overview of the insights gained from these studies. We concur with Ong and Burrow ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref13">27</reflink>]) and believe that ESM is a promising tool for elucidating the consequences of ERD because it allows to (a) capture interpersonal experiences of discrimination closer to when they happen; (b) track changes in fluctuating states; (c) differentiate between- from within-person sources of variance; (d) strengthen causal inference by establishing temporal order; and (e) minimize retrospection bias.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-2">Why use ESM to study ERD among adolescents?</hd> <p>Meta-analytical evidence indicates that during adolescence, individuals are particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of ethnic discrimination (Benner et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref14">3</reflink>]), and this period is recognized as a critical phase for the biological embedding of stress and adversity with potential lifelong consequences (Cave et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref15">5</reflink>]). Racial-ethnic minority adolescents report discrimination frequently (e.g., 1–2 times a week; Yip, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref16">48</reflink>]) and in different contexts (e.g., in public spaces, in schools, at stores, on the street; Ortega‐Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref17">29</reflink>]; Steketee et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref18">39</reflink>]), suggesting that they are repeatedly exposed to feeling othered, criminalized, or viewed as intellectually incapable. ESM allows us to understand the frequency and short-term consequences of ERD on adolescents' psychological adjustment or academic functioning as well as helps to examine how youth agency and coping strategies unfold from day to day. In other words, ESM can help illustrate more accurately how often ethnic-racial minority adolescents face ERD, and how they react, directly or indirectly, to counter or fight discrimination at the daily level.</p> <p>Interpersonal discrimination is a complex phenomenon, which varies according to behaviour (overt vs. covert), setting (offline vs. online), target (personal vs. group), and source (peers and adults) (Verkuyten et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>]). Although racist ideologies and discrimination are heavily embedded in structural policies and institutions (e.g., education, housing, criminal justice), ESM permits to examine a variety of discrimination experiences at the <emph>interpersonal level</emph> closer to when they happen. For example, microaggression theory (Sue et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref20">40</reflink>]) states that ethnic-racial minority groups are exposed to subtle behaviours or verbal comments aiming at demeaning a person's ethnic-racial identity (ERI) on a daily basis. Thus, ESM is necessary in order to measure such daily experiences because more common cross-sectional and retrospective measurements would fail to capture such experiences (Ong & Burrow, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref21">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Prior research on the detrimental consequences of ERD is highly dominated by a between-person perspective, showing that youth and adolescents who report higher levels of ERD report lower levels of mental health or other school-related outcomes (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref22">50</reflink>]). However, studies that have used ESM demonstrated that discrimination experiences vary from one day to the next, uncovering within-person fluctuations in the same ethnic-racial group (e.g., Asian, Black, and Latinx: Douglass et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref23">10</reflink>]; English et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref24">11</reflink>]; Seaton & Douglass, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref25">37</reflink>]; Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref26">38</reflink>]; Wang & Yip, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref27">46</reflink>]). The focus of ESM is not on mean changes but on variability around a stable mean (e.g., deviations in depressive symptoms from a stable mean level across two weeks) and on explaining within-person variability (e.g., do adolescents feel worse psychologically or academically when they experienced more ethnic-racial discrimination than usual?). From a developmental perspective, if we wish to understand how adolescents cope with discrimination experiences in daily life, then we ought to focus on within-person variability rather than between-person methodologies.</p> <p>Another advantage of ESM is its ability to strengthen causal inference by establishing temporal order. The temporal order of each response provides important information since ERD may change over time (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref28">50</reflink>]), and same and next-day associations may be different (e.g., how daily ERD is related to same-day depressive symptoms vs. how daily ERD is related to next-day depressive symptoms). In addition, through the inclusion of autoregressive parameters, it is possible to gather information on the persistence and the temporal dependency of constructs (McNeish & Hamaker, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref29">25</reflink>]), whereby minimizing bias in the parameter estimates when two or more variables are adjacent in time.</p> <p>Research on ERD has been criticized for relying heavily on cross-sectional data, with victims of discriminatory actions reporting their experiences retrospectively (Lilienfeld, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]). A large meta-analysis on the effects of ERD (Paradies et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref31">30</reflink>]) showed that most of the reviewed studies used cross-sectional designs, reporting participants' experiences of discrimination in the last three years or in a non-specific timeframe. This enhances a risk of retrospective bias in self-reported experiences, leading respondents to over or under-estimate the occurrence of discrimination. This retrospective bias may be especially accentuated among young adolescents who face major cognitive changes (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref32">50</reflink>]). ESM has high ecological validity, allowing a better understanding of the immediate impact of ERD and minimizing retrospective bias in measurement.</p> <p>Despite the potential of ESM to accurately portray lived experiences of ERD, there are some limitations of this design when it comes to adolescents. Due to repeated measures, participants may experience a significant burden, which limits the number of items that can be assessed daily and the period being covered (e.g., typically two to three weeks). Generally, however, studies using ESM among adolescents with a typical developmental trajectory and clinical samples have reported high levels of compliance (van Roekel et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref33">42</reflink>]), indicating the feasibility of such design. Additionally, because adolescence largely corresponds with school time, it can be challenging to implement a specific design during school hours, particularly if researchers are interested in assessing school-based ethnic-racial discrimination using an event-contingent design (i.e., filling out an assessment after an event has occurred; Bolger & Laurenceau, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref34">4</reflink>]). Finally, there are also concerns in the literature about the impact of ESM studies on youth vulnerability. Although no studies have specifically assessed whether measuring ERD on a daily basis may increase the awareness of perceived ERD, previous investigations have suggested that frequent reporting of negative events (e.g., depressive symptoms) does not worsen mental health (Kramer et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref35">21</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-3">The present study</hd> <p>The present review aims 1) to take stock of experience sampling studies (e.g., daily diaries, ecological momentary assessments) among ethnic-racial minority youth on the associations between ERD and psychological adjustment (e.g., depressive symptoms) and academic outcomes (e.g., school engagement); 2) to examine moderators (e.g., perceived social support) and mediators (e.g., cortisol stress response) of these associations; and 3) to highlight the benefits and limitations of employing ESM to examine ethnic discrimination in comparison to traditional between-person methodologies.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-4">Methods</hd> <p>In this study, a systematic review with a descriptive and narrative approach was applied to explore primary studies (Popay et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref36">32</reflink>]). This approach was chosen because it allows to capture the current state of knowledge (first research aim), assess moderators and mediating mechanisms (second research aim), and critically review the methodological strengths and shortcomings of studies (third research aim).</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-5">Search strategy and eligibility criteria</hd> <p>To ensure that the search was comprehensive, we generated a list of 30 search terms (see Supplementary Materials). The literature search was conducted in September 2022 using the databases Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, and PsycINFO. To complete our database search, we manually checked the reference lists of the final pool of studies that met the inclusion criteria.</p> <p>We selected studies based on seven inclusion criteria. First, given our focus on adolescents, only studies in which participants ranged from ages 10 to 20 were included. Second,</p> <p>studies were eligible for inclusion if they measured discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity,</p> <p>religion, culture or immigrant status,[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref37">1</reflink>] regardless of the sources (e.g., police) and contexts (e.g., school). Third, studies had to utilize ESM, in which adolescents answered questions one or several times per day related to ethnic discrimination, including interval-, signal- or event-contingent designs (Bolger & Laurenceau, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref38">4</reflink>]). Fourth, studies had to focus on adjustment and academic outcomes. Adjustment included psychological (e.g., depressive symptoms) and health domains (e.g., sleep quality). Similarly for academics, we did not restrict our search to specific outcomes (e.g., GPA) but also included other indicators such as school engagement. Fifth, the search was limited to studies published from 2010 onwards. To the best of our knowledge, the first study on ERD among adolescents was published in 2010 (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]), which informed our decision to restrict the search of studies published 2010 onwards. Additionally, we conducted a cross-check with a previous review on discrimination assessed using ESM by Potter et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref40">34</reflink>]). Their review did not identify any studies on adolescents measuring ERD that were published before 2010. Sixth, we included all ethnic-racial groups in any geographical area. Finally, studies were included if they were published (i.e., peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters) or unpublished (i.e., theses, dissertations) and were written in English.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-6">Study selection, coding, and analyses</hd> <p>The results of the literature searches are displayed in the PRISMA diagram (Supplementary Materials). We identified a total of 252 references (Scopus <emph>n</emph> = 162; Web of Science Core Collection <emph>n</emph> = 32; and PsycINFO <emph>n</emph> = 58), and we removed duplicates in Zotero software (<emph>n</emph> = 69). The first author screened all records (<emph>n</emph> = 180) by checking the titles and abstracts for possible inclusion in September 2022. A total of 154 records were excluded on the basis of title and abstract. The remaining 29 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility in consultation with the second author. Eleven studies were excluded for the following reasons: focused on general discrimination (<emph>n</emph> = 5); did not use ESM (<emph>n</emph> = 5); presented a validation study using data already in one study (<emph>n</emph> = 1). In total, 18 studies were included in the analyses.</p> <p>The first author coded all studies. Data were extracted according to sample characteristics (e.g., number of participants, ethnic-racial group), study design (e.g., ESM duration, scale and items administered daily), moderators, mediators, and outcomes (e.g., adjustment, academics). For the first research aim, we examined how daily ERD was related to the outcomes under investigation at between- and within-person levels. To examine the second research aim, statistical results of moderator and mediational effects were summarized and supplemented by a narrative synthesis.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-7">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0178530478-8">Sample characteristics</hd> <p>Table S1 (Supplementary Materials) includes an overview of study characteristics. All 18 studies were conducted in the United States. This predominance of North American investigations is common in syntheses on ERD (e.g., Benner et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref41">3</reflink>]; Civitillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref42">8</reflink>]). Sample sizes ranged from 21 to 602 participants (<emph>Mdn</emph> = 171). Four studies had fewer than 100 participants, with females being the majority in all 18 studies. Of note, most studies (84%, 15 studies) did not report any a priori power calculations to justify sample size. The mean age across studies was 16.1 (ranging from 12 to 23 years old, <emph>SD</emph> = 2.3). Most studies (16 in 18 studies) included either exclusively or partially of African American or Black participants. All ESM studies adopted an interval-contingent design, in which participants filled out daily diaries in the evening. Number of days sampled ranged from 9 to 58, while the most common sampling period was 14 days (67%, 12 studies).</p> <p>Table S1 (Supplementary Materials) also shows that six studies (33%) adopted the Racism and Life Experiences Scale (Harrell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref43">13</reflink>]) which assessed the frequency of covert or 'microaggressions', and the number of items to assess daily ERD ranged between one to 20 (<emph>M</emph> = 8.2, <emph>SD</emph> = 6.8). Three studies reported reliability estimates for ESM measures at both within- and between-person levels, while it was unclear for the rest of the reviewed studies. Notably, six studies (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref44">7</reflink>]; English et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref45">11</reflink>]; Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref46">15</reflink>]; Potochnick et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref47">33</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref48">44</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref49">47</reflink>]) distinguished between different forms of ERD (e.g., overt vs. covert; interpersonal vs. group or vicarious), sources (e.g., peer- vs. adult-based) and settings (offline vs. online), illustrating the complexity of these experiences. However, none of these studies separated forms, sources, and settings in their analyses. Moreover, the majority of studies examined the associations of daily ERD with psychological adjustment, including depressive symptoms, anxiety, and negative and positive mood while only two studies (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref50">15</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref51">44</reflink>]) included academics as outcomes of ERD.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-9">Frequency and associations between daily ERD and psychological adjustment and academic outcom...</hd> <p>Regarding the frequency of daily ERD, most studies show a low prevalence of ERD (e.g., less than one episode per day) (e.g., Cheeks et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref52">6</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref53">47</reflink>]). By contrast, investigations that examined different sources and contexts of ERD such as offline, online, interpersonal, and group discrimination showed that ERD occurs rather frequently (e.g., up to five times a day) in the lives of ethnic minority adolescents (e.g., English et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref54">11</reflink>]). This variability in frequency can be due to different measures of ERD in use. For example, in most studies (66.6%), participants had to indicate on dichotomous items whether they had personally experienced a discriminatory event on that day or not, while other studies employed a rating scale ranging from not occurred today to multiple or five events per day. Of the studies that compared the frequency of different forms or sources of daily ERD, results showed that adolescents reported more adult discrimination than peer-based (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref55">15</reflink>]), and encountered more often online discrimination than offline (English et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref56">11</reflink>]). Only four studies compared frequencies of ERD across racial-ethnic groups. One study showed that Black adolescents were more likely than White adolescents to experience online racial discrimination (Del Toro & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref57">9</reflink>]), while another study showed that multi-ethnic/racial youth were more likely than mono-ethnic/racial youth to experience ERD (Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref58">47</reflink>]). Yet, other studies did not find evidence of ethnic group differences in ERD (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref59">15</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref60">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>The majority of studies reported both between- and within-person associations (Bámaca et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>]; Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref62">7</reflink>]; Del Toro & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref63">9</reflink>]; Fuller-Rowell et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref64">12</reflink>]; Jelsma et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref65">16</reflink>]; Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref66">38</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref67">44</reflink>]; Wang & Yip, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref68">46</reflink>]; Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref69">49</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref70">52</reflink>]), pointing to detrimental consequences of daily ERD on adjustment and academics. These studies also highlight variation in the between- and within-person associations of ERD. For instance, Chen and colleagues (2021) found that daily ERD was significantly related to sleep duration at the within-person level but average discrimination across the study period (between-person level) was not. One study examined potential cross-over and compensatory effects between ERD of parents and adolescents regarding both partners positive and negative affect (Bámaca et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref71">2</reflink>]). They found that at the within-day level, adolescents' ERD was linked to increases in positive affect among parents (compensatory effect), while at the between-level (averaged across 14 days), adolescents' ERD was linked to lower parents' positive affect (cross-over effect). Of note, only two studies (Hoggard et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref72">14</reflink>]; Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref73">38</reflink>]) found neither same-day nor lagged associations of ERD on depressive symptoms.</p> <p>When one considers the reverse associations between ERD and outcomes for youth (i.e., maladjustment predicting ERD), not many studies have ruled out alternative patterns. Only two studies (Del Toro & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref74">9</reflink>]; Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]) tested whether mental health problems may contribute to a sensitivity in reporting discrimination experiences. Both studies found that only discrimination predicted mental health but not vice versa.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-10">Moderating and mediating factors</hd> <p>Of the reviewed studies, 14 studies tested moderation effects for the associations between daily discrimination experiences and different outcome variables. We grouped these moderators into background and contextual characteristics, protective, and exacerbating factors.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-11">Background and contextual characteristics</hd> <p>Two studies examined ethnic-racial group differences, and one study assessed school ethnic-racial composition as a moderator of the association between ERD and psychological adjustment or school engagement. Only one study (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref76">49</reflink>]) found that ERD had a differential impact on sleep problems between Asian and Latinx youth. Two studies failed to find ethnic-racial differences in the association between ERD and adjustment outcomes (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref77">44</reflink>]; Xie et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref78">47</reflink>]). Potochnick et al. ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref79">33</reflink>]) compared Latinx youth who grew up in different parts of the US (i.e., urban vs. rural areas), and show that although participants in rural areas perceived higher levels of discrimination on a daily basis compared to Latinx in urban areas, ERD was negatively related to daily psychological well-being, regardless of location.</p> <p>Seaton and Douglass ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref80">37</reflink>]) examined the moderating impact of school ethnic-racial composition on the association between ERD and depressive symptoms and found that attending ethnically and racially diverse schools with no clear ethnic-racial majority had a protective effect for Black youth compared to attending schools that were predominantly Black or White. This moderating effect of school ethnic composition occurred for the lagged association of previous-day discrimination on next-day depressive symptoms but not for the concurrent associations on the within-day level.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-12">Protective factors</hd> <p>The most commonly addressed protective factor was ethnic-racial identity (ERI, Fuller-Rowell et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref81">12</reflink>]; Hoggard et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref82">14</reflink>]; Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref83">15</reflink>]; Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref84">38</reflink>]; Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref85">49</reflink>]), followed by parental ethnic-racial socialization (ERS, Cheeks et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref86">6</reflink>]; Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref87">15</reflink>]), and the role of perceived social support (Chen et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref88">7</reflink>]). Findings on the buffering role of ERI were complex. Three dimensions of ERI <emph>centrality</emph> and <emph>private regard</emph> plus ERI <emph>commitment</emph> (measured as individual difference variables at the between-person level) did attenuate the daily relation between ERD and problem solving, a particular stress response style in one study (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref89">49</reflink>]). Two other dimensions of ERI, centrality and private regard did not moderate the daily relation between ERD and indicators of wellbeing (including sleep problems) across three studies (Fuller-Rowell et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref90">12</reflink>]; Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref91">15</reflink>]; Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref92">38</reflink>]). In another study <emph>centrality</emph>, <emph>private</emph> and <emph>public regard</emph> did moderate the relationship between ERD and depressive symptoms but findings were not consistent with the idea of buffering (Hoggard et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref93">14</reflink>]). In contrast, two ERI dimensions, <emph>exploration</emph> and <emph>public regard</emph>, when measured at the within-person level exacerbated the relation between ERD and psychological adjustment. On days where adolescents were higher-than-average in ERI <emph>exploration</emph>, ERD had stronger negative associations with anxious mood (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref94">52</reflink>]). Similarly, when Black youth experienced lower than average levels of <emph>public regard</emph> for their racial group, previous-day ERD was associated with increases in depressive symptoms (Seaton & Iida, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref95">38</reflink>]).</p> <p>Overall, results across studies are mixed and suggest that some dimensions of ERI like <emph>commitment</emph>, <emph>centrality</emph> and <emph>private regard</emph> may buffer against the negative effects of ERD. But these effects seemed limited to stress response style while there was no evidence that these ERI dimensions buffered against negative downstream consequences on more direct measures of psychological adjustment like depressive symptoms or mood. In contrast, other dimensions of ERI, such as <emph>exploration</emph> and <emph>public regard</emph> may exacerbate the negative impact of ERD on psychological health.</p> <p>Two studies examined the potential protective role of parental ERS but empirical support for a buffering effect was limited. While one study found differential moderating effects depending on particular types of parental socialization messages on the same day (Cheeks et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref96">6</reflink>]), another study found no evidence that parental ERS (measured at the between-person level) moderated the association between discrimination and well-being (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref97">15</reflink>]). In the previous study, parental ERS did not buffer concurrent (same-day) relationships between ERD and psychological affect when same-day parental messages were examined but it did moderate same-day associations when previous-day racial socialization messages were examined. In other words, previous-day messages inoculated adolescents against the negative effects of ERD on psychological affect the next day but only for <emph>racial barrier</emph> messages. In contrast, <emph>racial pride</emph> messages had an exacerbating effect, leading to stronger next-day impacts of ERD on negative affect. In summary, when examining the buffering role of parental ERS, it is important to differentiate the particular messages that parents send to their youth. In line with the literature on family ethnic-racial socialization (see Aral et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref98">1</reflink>] for a review), it seems that messages that draw adolescents' attention to racial discrimination are more helpful in dealing with the consequences of ERD than messages emphasizing positive accomplishments of their ethnic-racial group.</p> <p>One study examined the protective role of social support. Chen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref99">7</reflink>]) tested whether support from friends, parents, and teachers mitigate the effects of ERD on sleep duration and quality. Only daily support from teachers (but not from friends or parents) moderated the association between daily discrimination and sleep duration. More specifically, when adolescents experienced ERD, those that received support from teachers reported a full hour of more sleep that evening compared to adolescents who did not receive support from teachers. In contrast, when students did not experience ERD, receiving teacher support did not affect sleep duration. It is important to note that this study did not focus on general global perceptions of perceived support but instead on received social support, which was measured with dichotomous items (1 = <emph>yes</emph>, 0 = <emph>no</emph>) on whether adolescents received support or not.</p> <p>One study examined the mitigating role of sleep in the ERD to well-being link as mediated through stress responses, such as rumination, problem solving, family and peer support (Wang & Yip, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref100">46</reflink>]). This study showed that on days on which adolescents had slept longer and better on the previous night, experiences of ERD were associated with greater problem solving and seeking peer support (but not parental support), both considered active and adaptive stress-coping styles, which in turn were associated with more positive well-being. These effects did not vary across different ethnic-racial groups. In contrast, ERD did not interact with previous-night sleep to affect rumination.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-13">Exacerbating factors</hd> <p>A number of studies have examined exacerbating factors, assumed to strengthen the negative impact of ERD on well-being. Two studies focused on indicators of <emph>negative emotionality</emph> (e.g., trait anxiety, anger or loneliness). For instance, in one study (Douglass et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref101">10</reflink>]), adolescents with high trait anxiety (vs. low trait anxiety) reported more social anxiety on days when they experienced ERD in the form of ethnic-racial teasing than on days when they did not experience ERD. Another study focused on the relationship between daily experiences of ERD and physiological arousal and rumination among university students (Jelsma et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref102">16</reflink>]). This study found increased physiological arousal following experiences of ERD for individuals with negative emotionality and more rumination following ERD for individuals high in anger and anxiety. Thus, both studies are consistent with the idea that there are individual differences in the stress appraisal reactivity process and that negative emotionality, such as high trait anger or anxiety, may exacerbate the negative impact of ERD on psychological adjustment.</p> <p>Other studies have examined individual differences in the acceptance of negative messages about their ethnic-racial group and sensitivity to group-based rejection as potential moderators. One study examined the role of internalized racism or whether ethnic-racial minority members have internalized negative stereotypes about their ethnic-racial group and found that the within-day relationship between ERD and sleep problems was stronger among individuals high (vs. low) in <emph>internalized racism</emph> (Fuller-Rowell et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref103">12</reflink>]). In contrast, another study found that neither ERD nor race-based rejection sensitivity (i.e., the extent to which individuals anxiously expect and intensely react in situations where race matters) moderated the relationship between ERD and well-being (Huynh & Fuligni, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref104">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>There was only one study that considered mediation mechanisms in the relationship between ERD and psychological adjustment apart from the study (Wang & Yip, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref105">46</reflink>]), examining moderated mediation described above. This study focused on sleep/wake problems as a psychological mechanism (Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref106">52</reflink>]). More specifically, this study showed that night-time disturbances, daytime disfunction, and daytime sleepiness partially or fully mediated the association between ERD and a bundle of mental health outcomes (e.g., negative, anxious mood, rumination, somatic symptoms) both at the within-day level and also at the between-person level across a sixth-month period. Overall, these results provide strong evidence for sleep-related problems as a psychological mechanism that links ERD to mental health problems.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-14">Discussion</hd> <p>In this review, we presented 18 ESM studies that measured ERD in adolescents' everyday life. Our synthesis showed that ERD is detrimental to psychological adjustment and academic outcomes on a daily level. In other words, on days when adolescents experienced ERD, they also reported higher levels of maladjustment. This result corroborates previous meta-analyses that reported between-person effects of ERD on mental health and academics among youth and adolescents (Benner et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref107">3</reflink>]; Civitillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref108">8</reflink>]). Furthermore, a number of studies reported lagged associations between previous-day ERD and next-day psychological adjustment, providing evidence for the assumed temporal order between ERD and adjustment. Thus, both researchers and practitioners alike should pay attention to the reciprocal associations between recurrent exposure to differential treatment and everyday experiences of ERD.</p> <p>Many studies in this review examined protective factors such as social support, parental ERS, sleep quality, and ERI, indicating that negative consequences of ERD may be attenuated under certain conditions. This holds the promise that educators and parents can help adolescents to cope with and resist against discriminatory experiences. Yet, our review also highlighted mixed findings for parental ERS and some dimensions of ERI (e.g., <emph>exploration</emph>). This conflicting evidence aligns with the results in between-person studies (Aral et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref109">1</reflink>]; Yip et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref110">51</reflink>]). One explanation for this inconsistency could be possibly attributed to the outcomes under investigation (i.e., stress response style vs. mental health), thus highlighting the importance of examining similar factors to draw robust conclusions about the moderating role of parental ERS.</p> <p>Our review points to limitations in existing ESM studies. First, only a small number of the studies we reviewed assessed various sources and contexts of discrimination experiences. Notably, these studies found different associations with important outcomes as well as a much higher frequencies of ERD, suggesting that disentangling these distinct features may provide a more accurate picture than lumping all sources together, or solely focusing on one context. Only two ESM studies focused on the relationships between daily ERD and academic outcomes. Considering that discrimination often occurs in the school context, future studies could focus on how daily ERD affects school functioning (e.g., school engagement, sense of school belonging). Only two studies used ESM to investigated mediational mechanisms, suggesting that the indirect pathways between daily ERD and maladjustment warrants further investigation. Illuminating mediational pathways between ERD and psychological adjustment is important because such studies may focus on coping strategies in the form of stress responses, including different forms of problem solving and ways to receive social support (e.g., Wang & Yip, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref111">46</reflink>]). Identifying adaptive coping strategies is relevant to develop interventions that may help individuals themselves shield from the potentially harmful consequences of ERD. Finally, most studies do not contain sample-size justifications based on a priori power calculations and thus it is unclear whether non-significant findings for moderating factors are simply due to low power or represent true non-effects. For this purpose, Lafit et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref112">22</reflink>]) developed a user-friendly application for performing simulation-based power analyses that can be used for a set of ESM models.</p> <p>Our review contains some limitations too. We only identified and synthesized published studies, meaning that we cannot rule out a publication bias in ESM studies measuring ERD. The final set of studies included investigations conducted exclusively in one country (i.e., the US) and predominantly with particular ethnic-racial groups, Blacks and African American adolescents, limiting generalizability of the results. Additionally, previous systematic reviews (Benner et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref113">3</reflink>]; Civitillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref114">8</reflink>]) have already highlighted the concentration of research on ERD in the U.S. context. This points to the need to expanding to daily ERD experiences with a wider variety of ethnic-racial groups and cultural contexts. The lack of studies on ERD using ESM in European countries can be attributed to various factors, including the sociohistorical context. For example, in Germany, there is a prevailing tendency to avoid openly discussing the topics of race and racism in contemporary society, confining these issues primarily to the historical period of the Nazi regime (Jugert et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref115">20</reflink>]). This is reflected in the lack of a well-established research tradition focused on racism and discrimination in Germany (Juang et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref116">19</reflink>]), extending beyond ESM studies. Furthermore, the majority of first authors in our reviewed studies are underrepresented scholars, and even the white first authors have underrepresented scholars on the authorship team. Because underrepresented scholars and other psychologists of colour are more likely to conduct research with marginalized ethnic-racial groups (Roberts et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref117">36</reflink>]), the lack of studies could reflect a broader access and equity issue in the European context. Finally, differences in research infrastructure can play a role because conducting ESM studies can be costly and resource-intensive, making extensive repeated measurements challenging to implement in the Global South.</p> <p>To conclude, ESM has made a significant contribution to our understanding of daily ERD by consolidating existing theoretical frameworks and tackling measurement issues around racism and discrimination (Ong et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref118">28</reflink>]). Nevertheless, ESM only captures ERD at the interpersonal level, and thus this methodology partially omits structural aspects of racism (Neblett, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref119">26</reflink>]). With this important limitation in mind, we hope that this review can inspire future ESM studies to investigate the question of how daily ERD can be recognized to help adolescents fight it back.</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-15">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0178530478-16">Supplementary data</hd> <p>Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2023.2287268.</p> <ref id="AN0178530478-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref37" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aral, T., Juang, L. P., Schwarzenthal, M., & Rivas-Drake, D. (2022). The role of the family for racism and xenophobia in childhood and Adolescence. Review of General Psychology, 26 (3), 327 – 341. https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680211056320</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref61" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> *Bámaca, M. Y., Martinez, G., Schroeder, K. M., Lobo, F. 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While the terms 'race' and 'ethnicity' are commonly used in US-American research, their use is problematic in other societies, for example in continental Europe (Jugert et al., [20]) and Australia (Priest et al., [35]).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Sauro Civitillo and Philipp Jugert</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref110"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref115"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref116"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref117"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref119"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Zooming in on Everyday Ethnic-Racial Discrimination: A Review of Experiencing Sampling Methodology Studies in Adolescence
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sauro+Civitillo%22">Sauro Civitillo</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7607-0935">0000-0001-7607-0935</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Philipp+Jugert%22">Philipp Jugert</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4313-0596">0000-0003-4313-0596</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22European+Journal+of+Developmental+Psychology%22"><i>European Journal of Developmental Psychology</i></searchLink>. 2024 21(4):592-611.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 20
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnic+Groups%22">Ethnic Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Discrimination%22">Social Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Discrimination%22">Racial Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Methods%22">Evaluation Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcomes+of+Education%22">Outcomes of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Item+Sampling%22">Item Sampling</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Minority+Groups%22">Minority Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Literature+Reviews%22">Literature Reviews</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/17405629.2023.2287268
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1740-5629<br />1740-5610
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This is the first review that takes stock of studies that have applied an experience sampling methodology (ESM) to examine the consequences of daily ethnic-racial discrimination (ERD) on youth' psychological adjustment and academic outcomes. We summarize moderators and mediators of these associations and highlight the benefits and limitations of employing ESM to examine ERD in comparison to traditional between-person methodologies. A total of 18 studies published between 2010 and September 2022 were identified and reviewed. These studies document the negative effects of experiencing ERD on a daily basis, but also that variations exist depending on the moderators accounted for in the analyses. Although the use of ESM has great potential for the understanding of everyday ERD among adolescents, this line of research requires more evidence on contextual characteristics, mediating mechanisms, and with a wider variety of ethnic-racial groups.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1432169
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1432169
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/17405629.2023.2287268
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 20
        StartPage: 592
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Ethnic Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Discrimination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Discrimination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Evaluation Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcomes of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Item Sampling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Literature Reviews
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Zooming in on Everyday Ethnic-Racial Discrimination: A Review of Experiencing Sampling Methodology Studies in Adolescence
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sauro Civitillo
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Philipp Jugert
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1740-5629
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1740-5610
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              Value: 21
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              Value: 4
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            – TitleFull: European Journal of Developmental Psychology
              Type: main
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