The Recent Emergence of Australian Christian Higher Education Institutions: How They Operationalize Their Christian Identity
Saved in:
| Title: | The Recent Emergence of Australian Christian Higher Education Institutions: How They Operationalize Their Christian Identity |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Perry L. Glanzer (ORCID |
| Source: | Christian Higher Education. 2024 23(4):377-396. |
| Availability: | Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 20 |
| Publication Date: | 2024 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Education Level: | Higher Education Postsecondary Education |
| Descriptors: | Christianity, Religious Education, Higher Education, Decision Making, Self Concept, College Administration, Foreign Countries, Educational History, Institutional Characteristics, College Presidents, College Students, College Faculty, Governing Boards, Institutional Mission, Religious Colleges, Personnel Selection, Curriculum Development, Ethics, Standards, Student Behavior |
| Geographic Terms: | Australia |
| DOI: | 10.1080/15363759.2024.2336447 |
| ISSN: | 1536-3759 1539-4107 |
| Abstract: | Historically, Australian higher education has been statist, uniform, and secular. Indeed, up until 1989, even communist Poland had more Christian universities than Australia. Only in the last 3½ decades have eight different Christian universities and colleges emerged. This article first explores the origins of these new institutions and the historical factors that allowed for the emergence of Australian Christian higher education (CHE). It then employs the recently developed "Operationalizing Christian Identity Guide" (OCIG) to determine the extent to which these new Australian institutions use their Christian identity to guide administrative decisions. The OCIG identifies the number of publicly expressed markers that indicate whether and how Christian identity makes a difference in key administrative decisions regarding the life of the institution. These markers include things such as membership requirements for the board, president, faculty, and students; the institution's official rhetoric and mission; the number of required Christian courses; and the nature of co-curricular programming. An analysis of these institutions using the OCIG reveals that Australia's Christian institutions are observably distinct from their secular Australian counterparts in key areas such as mission, hiring practices, curricular requirements, co-curricular opportunities, and student conduct codes. All of these Christian institutions require core courses that extend beyond professional education. Within the Christian sector, significant diversity also exists regarding religious symbols, funding, and governance. A comparison of these Australian institutions to Christian institutions in the United States and Canada, however, finds that Australian institutions operationalize their Christian identities less than institutions in these countries. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2024 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1432218 |
| Database: | ERIC |
|
Full text is not displayed to guests.
Login for full access.
|
|
| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwESau6gp0Hl_3ly9-BuBVsYAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDNiYmJmuNgJUsaZ3LQIBEICBm1RmtC6I_KjA9ORcNz4HgpH_Yw5P4Ol-n9bahNL0toMeAsWoEPvQHrbhii-HQQ9bmYL8Dj5V6uJjL52ktFiHcw_evI-O7Hq84nic1Jcbx_MOCi0gJgwOBLPbBE5Yo1xRj3_8uzydNU35e-wtfF5TGKZzfc8uTDbSSHsofhlU5-4GdhSj3-d_OneCYfvufeFA_Nx_SbT2s1XshGei Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0178530669;j2401jul.24;2024Jul23.05:09;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178530669-1">The Recent Emergence of Australian Christian Higher Education Institutions: How They Operationalize Their Christian Identity </title> <p>Historically, Australian higher education has been statist, uniform, and secular. Indeed, up until 1989, even communist Poland had more Christian universities than Australia. Only in the last 3½ decades have eight different Christian universities and colleges emerged. This article first explores the origins of these new institutions and the historical factors that allowed for the emergence of Australian Christian higher education (CHE). It then employs the recently developed Operationalizing Christian Identity Guide (OCIG) to determine the extent to which these new Australian institutions use their Christian identity to guide administrative decisions. The OCIG identifies the number of publicly expressed markers that indicate whether and how Christian identity makes a difference in key administrative decisions regarding the life of the institution. These markers include things such as membership requirements for the board, president, faculty, and students; the institution's official rhetoric and mission; the number of required Christian courses; and the nature of co-curricular programming. An analysis of these institutions using the OCIG reveals that Australia's Christian institutions are observably distinct from their secular Australian counterparts in key areas such as mission, hiring practices, curricular requirements, co-curricular opportunities, and student conduct codes. All of these Christian institutions require core courses that extend beyond professional education. Within the Christian sector, significant diversity also exists regarding religious symbols, funding, and governance. A comparison of these Australian institutions to Christian institutions in the United States and Canada, however, finds that Australian institutions operationalize their Christian identities less than institutions in these countries.</p> <p>Keywords: Christian education; Christian schools; higher education; private higher education; college history; religious education; Christian identity</p> <p>A little more than 3 decades ago, Australia did not host a single Christian university. When compared to other high percentage-Christian countries, and even many countries where Christianity is a minority religion, this fact is odd (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref1">21</reflink>]; Glanzer et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref2">42</reflink>]). The lack of Christian institutions was not the result of the secularization of formerly Christian universities, as is the case for many elite historic European, North American, South American, and even some Asian universities. Rather, Australian universities were not Christian from the outset.</p> <p>No religious tests, chapel, or theological classes were ever required for students or faculty at the University of Sydney (1850) or the University of Melbourne (1853). As Davis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref3">29</reflink>]) said of the founding of the University of Sydney:</p> <p>This would be a utilitarian institution befitting a pragmatic society. It was devoid of a chapel; its workaday discourse was not mantled by appeals to God; there was no evocation of campus life as resonant with moral purpose. Likewise missing were American campus tropes about university forming moral character and instilling the virtues necessary for democracy. In its origin, the Australian university was determinedly prosaic. (p. 46)</p> <p>Davis's claims are bolstered by the fact that one recent history book on the modern Australian university has no entries for theology, Christianity, or even religion (Forsyth, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref4">40</reflink>]). Indeed, Horne and Sherington ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref5">47</reflink>]) labeled the University of Sydney "Australia's first secular and public institution" (p. 170), and the early University of Melbourne even forbade lectures on "political or religious topics" (MacIntyre &amp; Selleck, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref6">49</reflink>], p. 7). Although some institutions in the United States and Europe created before this time had followed this pattern (e.g., the University of Berlin, 1810; University of Virginia, 1819; University of London, 1836), these were exceptions rather than the norm (see de Ridder-Symoens, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref7">31</reflink>]; Marsden, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref8">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Yet, a closer look at the institutional histories reveals these early universities made numerous pragmatic compromises to obtain ideological peace between sectarian denominational leaders and secularists. Within the University of Sydney, and later the University of Melbourne, the Australian government funded Christian residential colleges, including the first Roman Catholic residential college in the British empire (Cable, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref9">20</reflink>]; Walker, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref10">68</reflink>]). At the University of Melbourne, the foundation stone declared it was "instituted in honour of God" (MacIntyre &amp; Selleck, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref11">49</reflink>], p. 2).</p> <p>Furthermore, there was a stated requirement at the University of Sydney "that students attend divine worship at the behest of parents and guardians" (Horne &amp; Sherington, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref12">47</reflink>], p. 12), which, although not necessarily enforced, was not rescinded until 1972. Additionally, the first graduates at the University of Sydney had to obtain "a certificate of 'satisfactory conduct" (Horne &amp; Sherington, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref13">47</reflink>], p. 13) from the college principal before graduating. In fact, John Wooley, the first foundational principal of the University of Sydney, argued that they were undertaking a difficult experiment that had not been tried elsewhere "to unite the general secular teaching of the University with independent denominational Colleges" (Simpson, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref14">57</reflink>], p. 92).</p> <p>Still, over the following century and a half, most residential denominational colleges at the major universities in Australia secularized, vague Christian-related moral requirements were cast aside, and new universities were started without religious residential colleges (Walker, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref15">68</reflink>]). Consequently, throughout its history, Australia's system of higher education adopted a singular, secular model of tertiary education that did not allow space for the creation of integrated faith-based liberal arts colleges or universities. Instead, the leaders perpetuated a singular statist model that varied little. Davis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref16">29</reflink>]) cited one contemporary joke: "Rumour has it that a federal education minister once claimed the country had just one university with around 220 campuses" (p. 104). Overall, institutional diversity and pluralism remained extremely limited in Australia.</p> <p>As a result, theological education became siloed within narrowly focused theological colleges, seminaries, and a few stand-alone Bible colleges, but there was nothing like an American-style Christian liberal arts college or a European/North or South American Christian university in Australia for almost all of the 19th and 20th centuries (Berends, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref17">19</reflink>]; Sands &amp; Berends, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref18">56</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within the past 3½ decades, however, three universities (Avondale University, Australian Catholic University, University of Notre Dame Australia), one university college (Alphacrucis), and four "colleges"—or non-university higher education providers (Christian Heritage, Eastern, Excelsia, and Tabor)—have been started or emerged from Bible colleges or other smaller institutions (Norton et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref19">55</reflink>]). The purpose of this article is to explain the reasons for the recent emergence of these institutions and then evaluate the extent to which these new institutions operationalize their Christian identity using a newly developed scale for measuring such operationalization. First, however, I need to offer a few key definitions.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-2">Definitions</hd> <p>This study focused on what the Australian government defines as a "university," "university college," or "institute of higher education" (Australian Government, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]). Yet, I did make one extra adjustment to be consistent with the first major comparative study of international Christian higher education (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]). Though no agreed-upon international definition of universities or colleges exists, Carpenter et al. ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref22">21</reflink>]) defined a university in the following manner:</p> <p>[Universities are] degree-granting institutions. We also define "university" to mean a fairly comprehensive institution, not a specialty institution, such as a theological seminary, a teacher's college, or a free-standing engineering or medical college. Given churches' proclivity to found seminaries or Bible colleges first and the current trend for many of these to evolve into more comprehensive universities, it is especially important to mark a clear line between universities and seminaries. So we defined "university" to include at least two distinct areas of study beyond those related to church vocations. (p. 4)</p> <p>To facilitate comparison to this previous study, I adopted this set of criteria and studied only multidisciplinary colleges that included at least two distinct courses of study outside of church vocations. This contrasts with the Australian approach, which only requires one approved course of study to meet the categorization for an institution of higher education (Australian Government, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref23">12</reflink>]). Thus, this study excluded institutions such as Morling College, which only offers undergraduate degrees in church vocations and counseling; Campion College, which only offers a singular 3-year liberal arts degree; the University of Divinity and the Australian College of Christian Studies, which only offer degrees in church vocations similar to a seminary; and the National Institute for Education, which functions similar to a teachers' college.</p> <p>What, then, is a <emph>Christian</emph> university, university college, or multidisciplinary college? This study defined Christian universities as those that give a central, privileged place to Christian identity, beliefs, and practices in their mission statements, governance, curriculum, staffing, student body, and campus life (Benne, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref24">18</reflink>]). I have developed a measure of this influence called the <emph>Operationalizing Christian Identity Guide</emph> (OCIG; see Appendix A; Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref25">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref26">45</reflink>]). The purpose of the scale is to provide an empirical method to determine the extent to which educational leaders draw upon an institution's Christian identity for key administrative decisions. In other words, it is a helpful tool both for defining what a Christian institution is and for measuring its utilization of that identity.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-3">History</hd> <p>Australian Christian universities, university colleges, and multidisciplinary colleges had a late start compared to the rest of the Western and even most parts of the Eastern world (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref27">21</reflink>]). Indeed, up until 1989 even communist Poland had more private Christian universities than Australia (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref28">21</reflink>]). The first, the University of Notre Dame (UND) of Australia, was legally founded in 1989 (Tannock, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref29">63</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-4">Reasons for the Late Development of Australian Christian Higher Education</hd> <p>Scholars usually mention two major factors as contributors to the lack of Australian Christian universities and colleges. First, in addition to the religions of Indigenous peoples, Australia included Catholic Irish, Presbyterian Scots, and other religious minorities, which resulted in a significant degree of denominational pluralism (Sands &amp; Berends, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref30">56</reflink>]). Thus, one state-funded and established denomination, such as the Anglican Church, did not dominate higher education as it did in England until 1836 (Glanzer, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref31">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>A second factor that inhibited the development of Christian higher education was Australian leaders' promotion of the secular university as the singular model to follow. Throughout its history, Australian higher education remained limited and uniform (Davis, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref32">29</reflink>]; Forsyth, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref33">40</reflink>]). Davis ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref34">29</reflink>]) described the Australian tradition of higher education as "conservative in design, radical in imposing a standard template across the continent" (p. 86). As a result, through most of Australia's history, its tertiary educational leaders, what one interviewee dubbed the "Moscow on the Molonglo," only allowed limited entrepreneurship, creativity, and deviation from this one dominant secular model. Of this system, Marginson and Considine ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref35">51</reflink>]) noted, "What diversity there has been in the system has been played out against the backdrop of engineered uniformity, with little scope for idiosyncratic readings and diverse purposes" (p. 177). In other words, the problem with the Australian idea of the university, as Davis has argued in a book by the same name, is that it has been monolithic. Although some early efforts were made to provide religious diversity, none of these efforts succeeded until 1989 (Berends, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref36">19</reflink>]; Malloy, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref37">50</reflink>]). Indeed, some early Catholic leaders such as the Archbishop of Melbourne, Daniel Mannix, opposed the creation of separate Catholic institutions (personal interview, Father Anthony Casamento, March 17, 2022).</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-5">Reasons for the Recent Development</hd> <p>As mentioned in the Introduction, over the past 3½ decades, the secular nature of Australian higher education has changed. The changes were made possible by the government's attempt to incorporate greater flexibility and plurality in the structure and funding of Australian higher education through what became known as the Dawkins Revolution (Croucher et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref38">27</reflink>]), named for the federal minister of education at the time. In 1987, the Department of Education and Training and Youth Affairs ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref39">30</reflink>]) abolished the rigid binary system separating Australia's 19 universities and 69 colleges of diverse types to create the Unified National System. Furthermore, the Higher Education Funding Act of 1988 created the Higher Education Contributions Scheme, which replaced the previous system of tuition-free education. Instead, funding was provided by an interest-free deferred loan program. Thus, similar to many countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, a state-run higher education system opened its system to independent and Christian higher education (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref40">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>The reforms allowed Australia to participate in the tremendous growth of higher education enrollment around the world, what higher education scholars call <emph>massification</emph> (Altbach et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref41">5</reflink>]). Australia's higher education enrollments tripled from 300,000 in 1989 to 1.4 million in 2017 (Croucher &amp; Waghorne, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref42">28</reflink>]). Consequently, the percentage of Australians with a university degree during this time increased from 7.9% to 26.9% (Statista, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref43">59</reflink>]). These changes opened up Australia's higher education sector to allow the creation of new kinds of institutions, including Christian universities, university colleges, and colleges.</p> <p>The first private Catholic university, the University of Notre Dame Australia in Perth (legally established in 1989), opened its doors in 1991 thanks to a partnership with the University of Notre Dame in the United States (Malloy, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref44">50</reflink>]). The first Christian <emph>public</emph> university was the Australian Catholic University, which opened on January 1, 1991. It was created primarily in response to Australian Treasurer John Dawkins' message to the Catholic bishops that he would merge numerous Catholic institutions, such as teachers' colleges, with random secular institutions unless the Catholic bishops undertook their own merger of Catholic institutions (personal interview, Father Anthony Casamento, March 17, 2022). Thus, the bishops formed Australian Catholic University (ACU) out of four specialized institutions, three of which were teaching colleges. In addition, their official website notes that 20 historical entities contributed to the formation of ACU (ACU, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref45">7</reflink>]). Today, this institution is the largest English-speaking Catholic university in the world, with 35,000 students on seven Australian campuses, and it receives 80% of its funding from the Australian government (personal interview, Father Anthony Casamento, March 17, 2022).</p> <p>Not long after the start of these two Catholic institutions, Protestant Bible colleges began to expand into larger multidisciplinary colleges. For example, Avondale, an institution with roots back to 1892 (Avondale University, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref46">13</reflink>]), changed its name to Avondale College in 1964, because it began granting degrees through entities outside the country (Avondale University, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref47">14</reflink>]; see also Hook, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref48">46</reflink>]). Avondale received government accreditation in 1974 and started to expand its offerings (Avondale University, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref49">13</reflink>]). In 2011, Avondale received its status as Avondale College of Higher Education, and in 2021 it became Avondale University (Avondale University, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref50">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Similarly, Alphacrucis University College ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>]) emerged out of a Bible college started by the Assemblies of God in 1948, becoming a college in 2009 and a university college in 2022, now with campuses in every major Australian state (one of only four university colleges in Australia; see also Austin, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref52">6</reflink>]). Tabor College in Adelaide was founded in 1979 as a Bible college, emerging out of the Christian Revival Crusade (the current CRC Churches International). It has since become a liberal arts college with a branch in Perth. Eastern College in Melbourne was established as a branch of Tabor College in 1988, but it eventually separated and has since become a multidisciplinary college. More recently, Christian Heritage College ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref53">22</reflink>]) was founded as a teacher education entity in 1986 by the Christian Outreach Center of Australia, with the curriculum later expanding to include other undergraduate programs in 1995. All of these emerging Protestant institutions now engage in coordinated marketing through the Australian Christian Higher Education Alliance (Australian Christian Higher Education Alliance, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref54">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Overall, within the past two decades, three universities, one university college, and four multidisciplinary non-university higher education providers have been started or emerged from Bible colleges or other smaller institutions.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-6">More Recent Changes in the Funding Model</hd> <p>Recent changes in Australia's funding model have continued to provide opportunities for these new Christian institutions. Unlike the United States and Canada, higher education funding is not based on an institution's religious or secular classification at all but on the institution's classification as a university, university college, or institute for higher education (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref55">38</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref56">39</reflink>]). This new classification system, developed through legislation in 2021, also involved the establishment of a centralized government-appointed accrediting body that determines both the categorization of the different institutions as well as whether they meet accreditation standards (Australian Government, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref57">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, there are two different types of funding—funding for research and funding for learning and teaching. Universities have access to research funding and thus ACU, UND, and Avondale have access to this funding (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref58">39</reflink>]). At the time of the interviews, in March 2022, the University College classification was so new that Alphacrucis leaders were unsure of how much access they would have to research funding.</p> <p>The degree to which various types of institutions have access to teaching and learning funding depends upon their listing under what is known as Table A or Table B, which describe two potential sources of funding (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref59">38</reflink>]). ACU is the only institution of the eight studied that is classified under Table A. UND is classified under Table B. Table A providers have access to the full slate of funding opportunities, but due to some unique features of UND, such as the remoteness of one of their campuses, they also have access to particular funding opportunities such as the Regional Loading Program and the Enabling Loading Program (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref60">38</reflink>]). Avondale leaders also noted that due to offering particular courses with high needs, such as teaching and nursing, they received access to the National Priorities and Industry Linkages funds. Overall, the availability of government funding makes Christian higher education in Australia different from over three-fourths of Christian higher education around the world, which is privately funded (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref61">21</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-7">How Do They Operationalize Their Christian Identity?</hd> <p>Considering these institutions' unique historical development and increasing influence in the Australian higher education system, the remaining portion of this article examines how they operationalize the Christian identity for university life. The discussion then compares these findings with the ways some other countries' Christian colleges and universities operationalize their Christian identity (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref62">21</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-8">Method</hd> <p>As mentioned, the second goal of this project was to examine how the Christian identity of these institutions influences their mission, membership, curriculum, pedagogy, and ethos within the Australian cultural context, particularly as late-comers to higher education. I used a collective case study design (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref63">26</reflink>]; Yin, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref64">69</reflink>]) to determine the defining features of Australian Christian institutions. Case studies provide "an intensive, holistic, description and analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit" (Merriam, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref65">53</reflink>], p. 21). Each institution studied was a single case. Collective case study design combines data from numerous single cases to provide greater insight into the larger phenomena that hold those cases together.</p> <p>To achieve this end, I undertook a collective case study approach that entailed two steps. The first step involved a thorough content analysis of historical documents, websites, and recent literature. Second, in March 2022, I undertook a 3-week trip to Australia. During the visits to each of the eight institutions, I took notes, gathered all available relevant documentary information, and interviewed one or more upper-level administrators.</p> <p>The Baylor University Institutional Research Board classified this research as exempt. I had not personally met any of the administrators before undertaking this research. Thus, I contacted them by e-mail and described my background and the purpose of the research project. Participants were selected based on their leadership role. I first sought to interview the president, vice president for mission, administrator in charge of Christian mission, or chief academic officers. Any additional interviews were conducted based on the administrator's recommendations. No one declined to participate. A total of 32 administrators, faculty, and staff were interviewed during the visit to the campuses, with content retained on a digital audio recorder. The interviews lasted from 45 to 90 min. Most interviews were one on one, but I also conducted group interviews at Alphacrucis, Avondale, and Eastern.</p> <p>I used two different approaches to analyze the data collected. First, I used the OCIG to determine how each institution operationalizes its Christian identity (Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref66">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref67">45</reflink>]; see also Appendix A for a description of the guide). The guide is based on a recent analysis of all Catholic and Protestant universities in the United States and Canada (Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref68">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref69">45</reflink>]). The OCIG was designed to identify administrative decisions that operationalize the Christian identity of an institution in ways that depart from secular norms regarding mission statements, marketing, membership requirements, curricular requirements, and co-curricular requirements.</p> <p>I helped develop this instrument due to what I perceived as significant limitations with the typology method used to evaluate Christian universities that has been popularized by recent scholars (Benne, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref70">18</reflink>]; Morey &amp; Piderit, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref71">54</reflink>]). One limitation of the typology approach is that it makes it difficult to evaluate specific institutions. For example, an institution may fit into one type in some areas (e.g., in the number of required religion courses) but may not fit that same type in another area (e.g., co-curricular expectations). This ambiguity creates confusion about how to understand and characterize institutions. I realized that a classification approach is needed that uses easily applicable empirical markers to evaluate how faith informs (or does not inform) a variety of decisions at all types of institutions (for more on these critiques and the application of the instrument to American institutions, see Glanzer, Cockle, &amp; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref72">43</reflink>]; Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref73">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref74">45</reflink>]). This article reports the first part of this analysis.</p> <p>Second, I undertook a coding analysis of the interview data to acquire a thicker description and theoretical insight into the emergence of Australian higher education. This article will not report the results of that analysis. Thus, one of the limitations of this article is that it will not draw extensively upon the interview data that was collected. Instead, those results will be reported in a second article.</p> <p>A few limitations to the OCIG analysis should be noted as well. The OCIG does not measure the influences of various decisions, nor does it imply that all decisions are equivalent. For example, the influence of having a vice president for mission or required religion courses may be more or less important than other factors about the Christian mission. The OCIG simply quantifies the number of <emph>instances</emph> in which an institution has made administrative, curricular, and co-curricular decisions that distinguish it from a secular university based on Christian identity. The OCIG also does not attempt to measure the religious beliefs, belonging, or behavior of the university community members. In the future, however, those data could be used to provide such an extension.</p> <p>Second, the OCIG only scores administrative decisions on their face. It does not (and cannot) reveal whether or not the decision was made for theological or Christian reasons. For instance, an institution with no membership requirements—which I scored as a zero—may rationalize this decision based on wanting to be hospitable to all possible students, faculty, administrators, etc., due to the scriptural teaching that encourages offering hospitality to the stranger. The former is judged, whereas the latter is hidden. In other words, this scale <emph>alone</emph> should not necessarily be considered a measure of how Christian or committed to the faith an institution is. Rather, it is a measure of whether the Christian identity shapes particular administrative choices in ways that are distinct from those found at secular universities; the OCIG is meant to provide a baseline for further evaluation by highlighting areas of nuance between various Christian colleges and universities. I do claim, however, that if an institution does not make any choices according to its faith identity, it should not be classified as a faith-based institution. I also want to be clear that the presence of these factors alone does not make an institution robustly Christian. Although the administrative structures our guide revealed do help or hinder a Christian ethos, ultimately, people and the culture they create make the most difference.</p> <p>Finally, it should be noted that the author is not an Australian. This limitation came through clearly in the peer review of earlier drafts, where some basic mistakes were made regarding the structure and funding of Australian higher education. I am thankful to the two anonymous peer reviewers for correcting those mistakes. I also ensured the trustworthiness of this information by asking the leaders of the institutions studied to review the final draft of the originally submitted article. The readers also identified several mistakes or omissions in my OCIG analysis and coding that have now been corrected.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-9">Findings</hd> <p>As mentioned earlier, the first step of this research was to determine the degree to which Australian institutions operationalize their Christian identity using the OCIG. The following section describes the results.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-10">Mission, Identity, and Membership</hd> <p>Secular institutions commonly articulate their mission in terms of national or global citizenship (e.g., University of Melbourne: "We enable individuals and organisations to be global leaders through the creation, application and dissemination of business and economics knowledge"). In contrast, Australian Christian institutions focus on their Christian identity, intellectual tradition, and their relationship to the world/common good/humanity/global communities (see Table 1).</p> <p>Table 1. List of Christian institutional missions or objects.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Institution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mission/objects&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alphacrucis University College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Equipping Christian leaders to change the world.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Australian Catholic University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Within the Catholic intellectual tradition and acting in truth and love, Australian Catholic University is committed to the pursuit of knowledge, the dignity of the human person and the common good.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Avondale University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;To transform lives through Christ-centered higher education.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Christian Heritage College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The formation of people in Christian character, scholarship, and leadership to influence their world for God and the common good.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern provides teaching, training, and research from a Christian worldview that contributes to the church and the flourishing of humanity through the lives of its graduates.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia is an academic community benefiting the world by producing research characterized by exemplary scholarship consistent with a Christian worldview and graduates prepared to lead in a range of professions.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tabor College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;We sustain high-quality, tertiary education through a supportive, multidisciplinary, and accessible Christian learning community which nurtures academic excellence, professional competence, and dedicated service to local and global communities.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;The University of Notre Dame Australia&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The objects of the university are (a) the provision of university education, within a context of Catholic faith and values and (b) the provision of an excellent standard of (i) teaching, scholarship, and research; (ii) training for the professions; and (iii) pastoral care for its students. In pursuing these objects, the university seeks to be an outstanding Australian university and one of the best Catholic universities in the world.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Sources: Alphacrucis University College ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>]), Australian Catholic University ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref76">8</reflink>]), Avondale University ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref77">15</reflink>]), Christian Heritage College ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref78">23</reflink>]), Eastern College ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref79">32</reflink>]), Excelsia College ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref80">35</reflink>]), Tabor College ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref81">60</reflink>]), The University of Notre Dame Australia ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref82">65</reflink>]).</p> <p>For example, all the institutions studied related their mission to their Christian/Catholic identity using phrases such as "Christian intellectual tradition," "Christ-centered higher education," "Christian character, scholarship, and leadership," "Christian worldview," and "Catholic faith and values."</p> <p>Thus, it is also no surprise that all of these institutions required their vice chancellor or president to be a Christian and members of the board of trustees to support the institution's Christian mission. As one administrator at UND Australia noted, "The Board of Trustees are actually the keepers of the Catholicity of the University." In addition, all the Protestant institutions required their faculty to be Christian, and the two Catholic institutions also sought to hire faculty who support their Catholic mission. They also engaged in providing faculty development opportunities for deepening not only faculty teaching, research, and service but also the integration of the Christian mission into those endeavors. Notably, all of the institutions accepted students from any and all religious and nonreligious identities, consistent with Australian law.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-11">Curriculum and the Co-Curricular</hd> <p>One of the greatest differences between these institutions and their secular Australian counterparts was their aim to do more than educate students to succeed in specific professional fields. Each of the eight Christian institutions required classes that address questions about human excellence and flourishing in general, as understood within the Christian intellectual tradition. As Father Malloy said at the 1991 inauguration of UNDA, "[Catholic higher education] is the kind of education that takes seriously the needs of the whole person. Everything that is part of human experience is relevant" (as quoted in Tannock, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref83">63</reflink>], p. 19). The same is true for Protestant institutions. Thus, each one of these institutions had at least one required Christian class, and six institutions required more than one (see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2. Required Christian core courses.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Institution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Required Christian core&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alphacrucis University College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Faith and Purpose&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Australian Catholic University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Two courses within two distribution requirement subjects: &lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Who Am I?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;How to Contribute to Society&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Avondale University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Christian Studies I Foundational Aspects of Faith&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Christian Studies II History of Faith&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Christian Studies III Discipline-based course on ethics&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Christian Heritage College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Christian Foundations for Work and Vocation I&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Christian Foundations for Work and Vocation II&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Living in Christ&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Foundations for Faith&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Introduction to the Bible&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Faith, Reason and Justice&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Integration of Vocation and Faith&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Literature and Worldview&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Formation 1. This unit allows students to explore their personal worldview and cultural context as well as understand the context of Christianity and The Bible within Western culture.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Formation 2: This unit provides students with a foundational introduction to a resilience model for spiritual and holistic well-being.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tabor College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Spiritual Development&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;The University of Notre Dame Australia (Freemantle)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Foundations for Widom&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;Foundations for Widom&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Sources: Alphacrucis University College ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>]), Australian Catholic University ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref85">9</reflink>]), Avondale University ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref86">16</reflink>]), Christian Heritage College ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref87">24</reflink>]), Eastern College ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref88">33</reflink>]), Excelsia College ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref89">36</reflink>]), Tabor College ([<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref90">61</reflink>]), The University of Notre Dame Australia ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref91">66</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, as one would expect from institutions where faith, the Bible, and theology play a central role, almost all of these institutions had a Theology, Ministry, or Christian Studies department rather than a more general Religion or Studies of Religion department—as is the case for the University of Sydney. Eastern College, which did not have a separate department devoted to theology, is the only exception.</p> <p>In the co-curricular dimension, all of the institutions provided opportunities for voluntary Christian worship or Mass on campus at regular times. The reason that chapel or Mass is always voluntary, as one staff member stated, is simply that "you can't require anything extracurricular in Australia."</p> <p>All of the institutions also had full-time staff devoted to the spiritual development of students. Furthermore, all of the Protestant institutions used Christian reasoning to explain particular rules in their student conduct code (see Table 3). The Catholic institutions, in contrast, simply used broad moral reasoning.</p> <p>Table 3. Christian or broad moral reasoning in the student conduct code.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Institution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Example of Christian moral reasoning&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alphacrucis University College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;AC is a ministry of Australian Christian Churches (ACC) and aligns to the ACC Beliefs. AC is a Christian education provider marked by integrity, responsible freedom, and dynamic, Christ-like love; a place where the name of Jesus Christ is honored in all we do. AC is dedicated to preparing and equipping people for purpose. That purpose, in the context of AC, implies direction, discipline, and commitment to the cause of Christ. It implies caring for the futures and capacities which lie in each individual and in AC as a whole. While AC is not a church, it is a community of Christians who seek to live according to the biblical standards laid down by Jesus Christ for his body, the Church.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Australian Catholic University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;3.1 There is a reciprocal relationship between individual and community rights and responsibilities. All ACU students are expected to behave in a way that: &lt;list list-type="Bullet"&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;allows reasonable freedom to others to pursue their studies, research, duties, community engagement and other lawful university activities, and to participate in the life of the university;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;recognizes the university objective of pursuit of academic excellence and that academic standards and proper procedures are essential in achieving that objective;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;promotes the proper use of university facilities, information, and the property of the university and of other persons and/or organizations on its campuses, on other sites at which it conducts its activities, and at other legitimate activities organized by the university's student associations;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;reflects the university's commitment to a healthy and safe learning environment, free from bullying; and&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;list-item&gt;&lt;p&gt;ensures that the reputation of the university is upheld.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/list-item&gt;&lt;/list&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Avondale University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Avondale University provides a quality Christian educational experience based on the underlying values of excellence, spirituality, nurture, service, and balance and welcomes individuals regardless of race, beliefs, or background. The following expectations and values have grown out of Christian values, beliefs, and an Adventist worldview.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Christian Heritage College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;In accordance with its foundation on Christian principles as informed by Scripture, Christian Heritage College (CHC) is concerned to maintain the highest levels of personal and professional, moral, and ethical conduct. The basis for dealings among members of the CHC community should be one of mutual respect, transparency, and accountability. This policy encourages and supports active and positive participation in the life of the institution. &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern College Australia and Melbourne School of Theology aim to excel in providing an educational context which intentionally integrates spiritual formation, scholarship, ministry, and interpersonal skills in an environment of discipleship. We are committed to equipping students in mind and heart, and with a Christian worldview, to live and work as mature servants of Christ. &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia College seeks to realize its vision and fulfill its mission by enhancing and developing the creative, academic, professional, and spiritual potential of our students and staff across all our disciplines, programs, and processes. This overarching orientation is informed and underpinned by our five core values: Christ-like-ness, innovation and creativity, scholarship, service to the community, and lifelong learning. Excelsia College aspires to embed these five core values, in word and deed, in all aspects of institutional life and culture.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tabor College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;As a Christian institution, Tabor is committed to a level of institutional and personal interaction and integrity that goes beyond what any listing of expected behaviors can describe. Tabor encourages its staff, and expects from its organization, values of integrity, fairness, honesty, equity, respect, transparency, accountability, and efficiency that are consistent with Christian principles based on the person and practice of Jesus. This is what the college aspires to. However, this "code of conduct" encapsulates what is required as a minimum practice from all staff, students, volunteers, and committee members. &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;The University of Notre Dame Australia&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;General Principles Guiding Students: All students enrolled at the university have a responsibility to: 5.1.1 Respect and uphold the Objects of the University; 5.1.2 Treat other students, staff and members of the community with respect, courtesy and without discrimination; 5.1.3 Act honestly and with integrity; and 5.1.4 Act responsibly and refrain from conduct that may be detrimental to the reputation of the university or the orderly and safe functioning of the university and its activities.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>3 Sources: Alphacrucis University College ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref92">4</reflink>]), Australian Catholic University ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref93">10</reflink>]), Avondale University ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref94">17</reflink>]), Christian Heritage College ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref95">25</reflink>]), Eastern College ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref96">34</reflink>]), Excelsia College ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref97">37</reflink>]), Tabor College ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref98">62</reflink>]), The University of Notre Dame Australia ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref99">67</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-12">Overall Score</hd> <p>Based on the overall evaluation, Australian Christian institutions scored between 11 and 18 (see Table 4) due to the commonalities mentioned previously. The reason for the small differences in the scores primarily pertains to the number of required Christian courses, faculty and staff hiring requirements, and the degree to which the Christian mission influences student conduct codes.</p> <p>Table 4. OCIG scores for Australian Christian institutions.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Institution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;OCIG score&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;The University of Notre Dame Australia&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tabor College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Australian Catholic University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;14.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Alphacrucis University College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Excelsia College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Avondale University&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Christian Heritage College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eastern College&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td char="."&gt;18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>The major difference between the Catholic and Protestant institutions pertained to membership requirements for the members of the board of trustees, faculty, and staff. Whereas all of the Protestant institutions were committed to choosing only Christians for the board or hiring only Christians for faculty/staff (Australians use these two terms interchangeably), the Catholic institutions simply sought to establish a majority of Christian board of trustees or faculty on campus, a distinction that extended to staff as well. Additionally, the Australian Catholic University had a position that did not exist at the Protestant institutions: a special vice president for identity and mission that served on the executive leadership board.</p> <p>In the co-curricular area, the Protestant institutions used more extensive Christian moral reasoning in the student conduct codes to justify moral rules versus only mentioning the Christian mission, as was the case with the Catholic institutions (see Table 4). Overall, all of the new Australian Christian institutions demonstrate a significant commitment to their Christian identity through operationalizing their Christian identity to influence the mission, governance, funding, membership requirements, curriculum, and co-curricular offerings.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-13">Discussion</hd> <p>In this section, I compare how Australian institutions operationalize their Christian identity to American and Canadian institutions. In addition, I discuss how the new Australian universities compare to Christian institutions in other geographic areas using the most recent study of Christian higher education around the world.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-14">Comparisons to Canada and the United States</hd> <p>OCIG scores in the United States and Canada follow a particular pattern (Glanzer, Cockle, &amp; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref100">43</reflink>]; Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref101">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref102">45</reflink>]). Mainline Protestant institutions in Canada have completely secularized, and in the United States, only 11 Mainline Protestant institutions score above 10. In other words, almost all of them scored at the low end of the scale. In contrast, Catholic institutions scored in the middle of the scale. Eighty-eight percent of Catholic institutions in both countries scored between 7.5 and 17 (Glanzer, Cockle, &amp; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref103">43</reflink>]; Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref104">45</reflink>]). Conversely, institutions affiliated with the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities and/or the International Alliance for Christian Education and independent Protestant institutions unaffiliated with Mainline Protestant denominations or an evangelical college coalition scored at the high end of the scale. When located in the United States or Canada, 90% of these scored 16 or higher (Glanzer, Cockle, &amp; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref105">43</reflink>]; Glanzer, Cockle, Martin, &amp; Alexander, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref106">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>Comparing these findings to those from Australia revealed that Australian Catholic universities followed the same pattern as their American and Canadian counterparts. In contrast, Australian Protestant institutions did not operationalize their Christian mission as extensively as North American Protestant colleges and universities did, in part due to features unique to the Australian context (e.g., no membership requirements for students and fewer required core Christian courses) and their small size.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-15">Global Comparisons</hd> <p>Beyond comparisons using OCIG scores, it is helpful to analyze how these new Australian institutions fit into the global Christian higher education movement as a whole. The most recent study of Christian higher education around the world found that Christian higher education as a whole tended to have certain broad characteristics (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref107">21</reflink>]). In general, Christian higher education around the world faces pressures to secularize from national government policies. Thus, the vast majority of Christian higher education is privately funded and occupies a minority niche within larger national systems of higher education. In that role, it appears to be resisting and even providing a countercultural influence against the narrow instrumentalization of higher education by emphasizing general education and majors that include the liberal arts. It also resists instrumentalization through a significant co-curricular emphasis, usually either through co-curricular programming such as chapel, student groups, etc., or through residential life on campus.</p> <p>Australian Christian higher education demonstrates coherence and differences with this basic narrative regarding matters of funding, the curriculum, and co-curriculum. Regarding funding, there are two basic funding approaches to Christian higher education in countries around the world (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref108">21</reflink>]). The majority of countries, including Brazil, France, Kenya, Nigeria, and the United States, take a more separationist approach. The government does not provide direct funding to institutions of Christian higher education, but students can receive direct financial support through government-administered grants or loans that they then take to specific institutions. Alternatively, a minority of other countries take what Soper et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref109">58</reflink>]) called a principled pluralist approach. Countries such as Germany, Hungary, India, South Korea, and the United Kingdom directly fund religious and secular higher education. As the earlier description of the funding mechanisms revealed (Ferguson, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref110">38</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref111">39</reflink>]), Australian Christian higher education does not fit easily into this dichotomy because the country does not use a religious–secular identity distinction as a basis for funding. For example, Australian Catholic University is considered a public university. Moreover, the University of Notre Dame, although not labeled as "public," still receives substantial public funding. Furthermore, even Protestant institutions considered independent receive direct forms of government funding available to all independent institutions of higher education (Independent Higher Education Australia, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref112">48</reflink>]). In this regard, Australia provides a unique alternative to conceptualizing funding in higher education that respects ideological diversity.</p> <p>Of course, such government funding always comes with some limitations. One of the results of receiving government funding is that Australian Christian universities cannot make Christian faith a condition of students' admission, and they cannot require chapel. This prohibition differs from some Christian liberal arts colleges in North America or Africa (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref113">21</reflink>]). Still, the OCIG results reveal that Australia's Christian institutions retain significant freedom to shape the administrative, faculty, and staff hiring requirements according to the mission. In this regard, Australian universities demonstrate a key quality shared with other Christian universities around the world (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref114">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Globally, most forms of higher education eschew what in the United States is called a general education or a core curriculum (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref115">21</reflink>]). In contrast, most Christian institutions around the world tend to include a core curriculum that educates students about Christianity (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref116">21</reflink>]). Australian Christian universities follow this trend, providing a unique, new alternative to the older standard Australian idea of the university. Australian Catholic universities have also followed the pattern of most new Christian universities, especially those in Africa, in that they started with professional majors/courses of study such as education, business, and health (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref117">21</reflink>]). Yet, the larger and more successful institutions, such as the Catholic universities, have been able to expand beyond these majors to offer majors in the liberal arts, similar to new institutions in Africa (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref118">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Yet, when it comes to the co-curricular dimension, Australian Christian institutions have followed the path of most secular universities around the world. Unlike their Christian counterparts located elsewhere, they have largely withdrawn from offering residential co-curricular spaces for students, and their co-curricular programming is minimal. Although the Australian institutions do offer opportunities for voluntary worship or Mass on campus, only a few, such as Avondale University, have a significant percentage of residential students and extensive systems of co-curricular groups and programming.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-16">Conclusion</hd> <p>Overall, based on my OCIG analysis, Australia's Christian institutions are distinctly Christian in their missions and visions, which are robust and holistic; their curriculum, which requires students to take specific core courses aligned with the Christian tradition, typically within departments with Christian names; their use of explicitly Christian language and symbols in marketing materials and on campus, including the presence of chapels and chapel programming; and their membership requirements for the board, president, faculty, and staff, whom they required to be Christians.</p> <p>Conversely, the operationalization of institutions' Christian identities is limited in two key ways by Australia's unique context. In both areas, Australia's Christian institutions are significantly different from Christian institutions in the United States and Canada. First, the funding of higher education in Australia remains more statist, meaning the state retains the right—regardless of whether they are labeled as public or private—to prohibit institutions from making faith an admission requirement for students. Moreover, in U.S. and Canadian postsecondary education, institutions that most robustly operationalize their Christian identities tend to be residential. Consequently, some of the differences noted in the OCIG scoring of Christian Universities in Australia—as opposed to the scores of institutions elsewhere—are not surprising.</p> <p>Overall, despite obvious differences in historical emergence and present operationalization of Christian identity due to unique contextual factors, there is much evidence that Australian institutions are operationalizing their Christian identities in significant and observable ways. Furthermore, they demonstrate important similarities to other emerging institutions of Christian higher education around the world, particularly in Africa, while also demonstrating some unique strengths as well. In a future journal article, I hope to expand in more detail upon the culture and ethos of these institutions by reporting on the qualitative analysis of my interviews and visits to these institutions.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-17">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This work was supported financially by a Baylor University URC research grant. I have no financial interest or benefit that arises from the direct applications of this research.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-18">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-19">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data are available in my university Box folder: https://baylor.app.box.com/folder/144805384715.</p> <hd id="AN0178530669-20">Appendix A</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Mission: Here, we used the following codes to classify the <emph>type</emph> of mission statement:</item> <p></p> <item> Catholic Identity affirmed (C) or Catholic Order and Catholic Identity (COI) affirmed (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref119">2</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> O/D: Only Religious Order/Diocese affirmed (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref120">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> N: Neither identity language exists in the mission statement (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Vice President for Mission, Priest, or Catholic College Chaplain on the Executive Cabinet (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref121">1</reflink>). Although these positions may exist at an institution and not be on the Executive Cabinet, we think it is significant whether this person has a voice on the Executive Cabinet. Thus, if the position existed but was not on the Executive Cabinet, we did not score it with a 1.</item> <p></p> <item> First-Page Rhetoric: We looked at the first page of the college/university website to see how they identified themselves:</item> <p></p> <item> Explicitly Christian/Catholic (EC): When we talk about explicitly Christian/Catholic language, we do not simply mean moral language (e.g., "come learn how to serve"). We only identified theological reasoning or language (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref122">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> No distinctively Christian/Catholic language (NC): (0)</item> <p></p> <item> "About Us" Rhetoric: We looked at the "About Us" webpage, and used the following coding system:</item> <p></p> <item> Explicitly Christian/Catholic (EC): (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref123">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> No distinctively Christian language (NC): (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Membership Requirements: We looked at the admissions pages and faculty/staff hiring pages to understand whether the institutions require students, faculty, and staff to sign or affirm statements of faith or Catholic identity. Then, we used the following coding system:</item> <p></p> <item> Membership Requirements for Students: A student must sign a statement of Christian faith or profess to be a Christian/Catholic to attend (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref124">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> Membership Requirements for Faculty: The official Catholic application of <emph>Ex Corde Ecclesiae</emph> in the United States reads:</item> </ulist> <p>the university should strive to recruit and appoint Catholics as professors so that, to the extent possible, those committed to the witness of the faith will constitute a majority of the faculty. All professors are expected to be aware of and committed to the Catholic mission and identity of their institutions. (<emph>The Application of Ex Corde Ecclesiae to the United States</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref125">64</reflink>])</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> If an institution indicated no departure from this teaching or required membership for only a particular department (e.g., the theology department), we scored them a 0.5.</item> <p></p> <item> If a faculty member must sign a statement of Christian faith or profess as Christian/Catholic to be employed at the institution, we scored the institution a 1.</item> <p></p> <item> Membership Requirements for Staff (Y/N): A staff member must sign a statement of Christian faith, affirm the faith, or profess to be a Christian/Catholic to be employed at the institution (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref126">1</reflink>).</item> <p></p> <item> Membership Requirements for president. The president must be a Catholic (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref127">1</reflink>). The official Catholic application of <emph>Ex Corde Ecclesiae</emph> in the United States reads, "The university president should be a Catholic." (<emph>The Application of Ex Corde Ecclesiae to the United States</emph>, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref128">64</reflink>]). However, a footnote reads:</item> </ulist> <p>When a candidate who is not a Catholic is being considered for appointment as president of a Catholic university, the university should consult with the competent ecclesiastical authority about the matter. In all cases, the president should express his or her commitment to the university's Catholic mission and identity. (online, footnote 36)</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Thus, we checked to see whether in some cases the president could not be a Catholic. If those institutions allowed the president to not be Catholic, we scored them a 0.5.</item> <p></p> <item> Christian/Catholic Requirement for Governance: Are there any church/denominational/order requirements for being on the governance board? All (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref129">1</reflink>); Some (0.5); None (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Nomenclature of Department of Theology, Religion, Christian Studies, Bible: This marker refers to the name of the institution's department that deals with topics such as religion, Christianity, and/or the Bible. The major reason we use it is because it indicates an administrative decision to focus exclusively on theology (which maintains emphasis on the Christian tradition) versus religious studies (which includes the study of non-Christian traditions and more closely mirrors what would occur in a secular university). To put it another way, secular or secularized institutions do not have theology departments. They have religious studies or religion departments.</item> <p></p> <item> Theology, Christian Studies, or Similar Distinctly Christian Department Title (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref130">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> Religion or Religious Studies Department Title (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Required Bible/Theology Classes:</item> <p></p> <item> Required <emph>Christian</emph> Bible/Theology Classes (1–10). We decided to use the number of courses instead of total hours because we thought the number of courses is the most significant indicator of a particular commitment to the Christian faith identity. The largest number of required theology courses we found was ten.</item> <p></p> <item> Existence of Christian/Catholic Institute, Center, or Program: The center, institute, or program is not simply moral (e.g., focus on business ethics or social justice) but it focuses on fostering a Catholic identity.</item> <p></p> <item> One or more (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref131">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> None (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Chapel/Mass: This section evaluates the presence of chapel or Mass on campus.</item> <p></p> <item> Required chapel/Mass (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref132">2</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> Voluntary university chapel/Mass available (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref133">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> No university-sponsored chapel/Mass (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Student groups.</item> <p></p> <item> C: The religious student groups on campus are exclusively Christian (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref134">1</reflink>). One limitation with this coding is that it is not possible to tell whether this is an administrative decision or simply a lack of religious diversity. Either way, it says something about the campus ethos.</item> <p></p> <item> MF: Other religious groups (0). The approach to student organizations is similar to that of a state university.</item> <p></p> <item> NRG: No student religious groups on the campus (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Code of Conduct: We located the code of conduct and classified it as follows:</item> <p></p> <item> C: "Christian"—the student handbook refers to explicitly Christian language (theological, biblical, Catholic social teaching) to justify a particular moral position (e.g., sexual conduct forbidden outside of marriage between a man and woman justified by Catholic theology or social teaching) (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref135">2</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> M: "Moral"—this community covenant does not use explicitly Christian language, but it takes moral positions that are uniquely Christian (e.g., sexual conduct forbidden outside of marriage) (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref136">1</reflink>)</item> <p></p> <item> L: "Legal"—this community covenant or student handbook code does not use explicitly moral or Christian language. Instead, it reads much more like a legal document found at pluralistic institutions (0)</item> <p></p> <item> Church or Order Financial Support: Does a church, denomination, set of churches, diocese, or sponsoring order to provide financial support?</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• Yes (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref137">1</reflink>)</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> No or don't know (0)</item> </ulist> <p>Highest possible total: 28</p> <ref id="AN0178530669-21"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref51" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Alphacrucis College. (2022). Who we are: AC history. https://<ulink href="http://www.ac.edu.au/about/history/">www.ac.edu.au/about/history/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref75" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alphacrucis University College. (2024a). About our story. https://<ulink href="http://www.ac.edu.au/about/our-story/">www.ac.edu.au/about/our-story/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref84" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Alphacrucis University College. (2024b). Course handbook: Diploma of Business. https://d3nr8uzk0yq0qe.cloudfront.net/media/upload/documents/2023/February/DPB_Course_of_Study_Handbook_221222.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref92" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Alphacrucis University College. (2024c). Code of conduct policy. https://<ulink href="http://www.ac.edu.au/ppm/code-conduct-policy/">www.ac.edu.au/ppm/code-conduct-policy/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref41" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L. &amp; Rumbley, L. (eds.). (2009). Trends in global higher education: Tracking an academic revolution. Boston College Center for International Higher Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref52" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Austin, D. A. (2013). Our college: A history of the National College of Australian Christian Churches (Assemblies of God in Australia). Australian Pentecostal Studies.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref45" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Australian Catholic University. (2022). History: A brief history of ACU. https://<ulink href="http://www.acu.edu.au/about-acu/reputation-and-ranking/history">www.acu.edu.au/about-acu/reputation-and-ranking/history</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref76" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Australian Catholic University. (2024a). Mission, identity, and values. https://<ulink href="http://www.acu.edu.au/about-acu/mission-identity-and-values">www.acu.edu.au/about-acu/mission-identity-and-values</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref85" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Australian Catholic University. (2024b). Core curriculum. https://<ulink href="http://www.acu.edu.au/study-at-acu/find-a-course/core-curriculum">www.acu.edu.au/study-at-acu/find-a-course/core-curriculum</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Australian Catholic University. (2024c). Student conduct policy. https://<ulink href="http://www.acu.edu.au/handbook/handbook-2023/policies-and-general-information/student-conduct-policy-and-procedures/student-conduct-policy">www.acu.edu.au/handbook/handbook-2023/policies-and-general-information/student-conduct-policy-and-procedures/student-conduct-policy</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Australian Christian Higher Education Alliance. (2020). Together we can. https://achea.org/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Australian Government. (2021). Higher Education Standards Framework (Threshold Standards). Federal register of legislation. https://<ulink href="http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2022C00105">www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2022C00105</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Avondale University. (2022a). Our history. https://<ulink href="http://www.avondale.edu.au/about/history/">www.avondale.edu.au/about/history/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Avondale University. (2022b). Our history: Avondale's name changes. https://<ulink href="http://www.avondale.edu.au/about/history/name-changes/">www.avondale.edu.au/about/history/name-changes/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Avondale University. (2024a). Purpose, way, impact, values, motto and graduate attributes. https://<ulink href="http://www.avondale.edu.au/about/mission-vision-values-attributes/">www.avondale.edu.au/about/mission-vision-values-attributes/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Avondale University. (2024b). Study. https://<ulink href="http://www.avondale.edu.au/study/courses/">www.avondale.edu.au/study/courses/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Avondale University. (2024c). Values and expectations. https://<ulink href="http://www.avondale.edu.au/campus-life/values-and-expectations/">www.avondale.edu.au/campus-life/values-and-expectations/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Benne, R. (2001). Quality with soul: How six premier colleges and universities keep faith with their religious traditions. William B. Eerdmans Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Berends, W. (. (2012). Tertiary education in Australia: Part II. Christian Higher Education, 11 (5), 303 – 309. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363759.2010.532750</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cable, K. (1964). The University of Sydney and its affiliated colleges. Australian University, 2 (3), 183 – 203.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Carpenter, J. C., Glanzer, P. L., &amp; Lantinga, N. (2014). Christian higher education: A global reconnaissance. William B. Eerdmans Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christian Heritage College. (2022). History of CHC. https://chc.edu.au/history/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christian Heritage College. (2024a). Our core values. https://chc.edu.au/vision-values/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christian Heritage College. (2024b). Unit outlines. https://chc.edu.au/unit-outlines/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christian Heritage College. (2024c). Student code of conduct. https://chc.edu.au/study-visa/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Creswell, J. W. (2012). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. (3rd ed.). SAGE.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Croucher, G., Sarginson, S., Norton, A., &amp; Wells, J. (eds.). (2013). The Dawkins revolution 25 years on. Melbourne University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Croucher, G., &amp; Waghorne, J. (2020). Australian universities: A history of common cause. UNSW Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Davis, G. (2017). The Australian idea of a university. Melbourne University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. (1998). The characteristics and performance of higher education institutions. <ulink href="http://www.detya.gov.au/highered/otherpub/characteristics.pdf">http://www.detya.gov.au/highered/otherpub/characteristics.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> de Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.). (1996). A history of the university in Europe: Vol. II. Universities in early modern Europe (1500–1800). Cambridge University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Eastern College. (2024a). About us. https://<ulink href="http://www.eastern.edu.au/about-us/">www.eastern.edu.au/about-us/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Eastern College. (2024b). Study with us. https://<ulink href="http://www.eastern.edu.au/study-with-us/">www.eastern.edu.au/study-with-us/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Eastern College. (2024c). Student code of conduct. https://policy.eastern.edu.au/policy/student-code-conduct</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Excelsia College. (2024a). Our mission. https://excelsia.edu.au/about/our-mission/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Excelsia College. (2024b). Study. https://excelsia.edu.au/study/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Excelsia College. (2024c). Code of conduct for students. https://excelsia.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/student-code-conduct.pdf</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ferguson, H. (2021). A guide to Australian government funding for higher education learning and teaching. Parliament of Australia.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ferguson, H. (2022). University research funding: A quick guide. Parliament of Australia.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Forsyth, H. (2014). A history of the modern Australian university. NewSouth.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glanzer, P. L. (2008). Searching for the soul of English universities: An analysis of Christian higher education in England. British Journal of Educational Studies, 56 (2), 163 – 183. https://<ulink href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20479588">www.jstor.org/stable/20479588</ulink> https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2008.00404.x</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glanzer, P. L., Carpenter, J. A., &amp; Lantinga, N. (2011). Looking for God in the university: Examining trends in global Christian higher education. Higher Education, 61 (6), 721 – 755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-010-9359-x</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glanzer, P. L., Cockle, T. F., &amp; Martin, J. (2023). Christian higher education: An empirical guide. Abilene Christian University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glanzer, P. L., Cockle, T. F., Martin, J., &amp; Alexander, S. (2023a). Getting rid of "church-related" colleges and universities: Applying a new operationalizing faith-based identity guide to Protestant higher education. Religious Education, 118 (2), 146 – 172. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2023.2184962</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Glanzer, P. L., Cockle, T. F., Martin, J., &amp; Alexander, S. (2023b). Understanding the diversity of Catholic higher education: A new empirical guide for evaluating the influence of Catholic identity. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 62 (1), 49 – 67. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12815</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hook, M. (1998). Avondale: Experiment on the Dora. Avondale Academic Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Horne, J., &amp; Sherington, G. (2012). Sydney: The making of a public university. The Miegunyah Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Independent Higher Education Australia. (2023). https://ihea.edu.au/members-directory/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> MacIntyre, S., &amp; Selleck, R. J. W. (2003). A short history of the University of Melbourne. Melbourne University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Malloy, E. A. (n.d.). An Australian Catholic University: The original dream, 1945–1954. https://<ulink href="http://www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0022/32791/The-Original-Dream.pdf">www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0022/32791/The-Original-Dream.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Marginson, S., &amp; Considine, M. (2000). The enterprise university: Power, governance, and reinvention in Australia. Cambridge University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Marsden, G. (2021). The soul of the American university revisited: From protestant to postsecular. Oxford University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. Jossey-Bass.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Morey, M., &amp; Piderit, J. (2006). Catholic higher education: A culture in crisis. Oxford University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Norton, A., Cherastidtham, I., &amp; Mackey, W. (2018). Mapping Australian higher education. Grattan Institute.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sands, E. W., &amp; Berends, W. (. (2012). Tertiary education in Australia: Part I. Christian Higher Education, 11 (5), 293 – 302. https://doi.org/10.1080/15363759.2010.532747</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Simpson, G. L. (2004). Reverend Dr. John Woolley and higher education. In C. Turney (Ed.), Pioneers of Australian education: A study of the development of education in New South Wales in the nineteenth century (pp. 81 – 114). Sydney University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Soper, C. J., den Dulk, K. R., &amp; Monsma, S. V. (2017). The challenge of pluralism: Church and state in six democracies. (3rd ed). Rowman &amp; Littlefield.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Statista. (2023). Share of population who hold a bachelor level degree or above in Australia from 1989 to 2022. https://<ulink href="http://www.statista.com/statistics/612854/australia-population-with-university-degree/">www.statista.com/statistics/612854/australia-population-with-university-degree/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tabor College. (2024a). About us. https://tabor.edu.au/about/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tabor College. (2024b). Courses. https://tabor.edu.au/courses/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tabor College. (2024c). Code of conduct policy. https://<ulink href="http://www.drivehq.com/folder/p14383745/19530370584.aspx">www.drivehq.com/folder/p14383745/19530370584.aspx</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tannock, P. (2014). The founding and establishment of the University of Notre Dame Australia, 1986–2014. https://<ulink href="http://www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0029/32789/Founding-and-Establishment-of-Notre-Dame-WEB.pdf">www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0029/32789/Founding-and-Establishment-of-Notre-Dame-WEB.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The Application of Ex Corde Ecclesiae in the United States. (2000). https://<ulink href="http://www.usccb.org/committees/catholic-education/application-ex-corde-ecclesiae-united-states">www.usccb.org/committees/catholic-education/application-ex-corde-ecclesiae-united-states</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The University of Notre Dame Australia. (2024a). Introducing UNDA. https://<ulink href="http://www.notredame.edu.au/about-us/introducing-unda">www.notredame.edu.au/about-us/introducing-unda</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The University of Notre Dame Australia. (2024b). Core curriculum. https://<ulink href="http://www.notredame.edu.au/about-us/faculties-and-schools/school-of-philosophy-and-theology/sydney/core-curriculum">www.notredame.edu.au/about-us/faculties-and-schools/school-of-philosophy-and-theology/sydney/core-curriculum</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The University of Notre Dame Australia. (2024c). Code of conduct: Students. https://<ulink href="http://www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0010/2035/CODE-OF-CONDUCT-Students.pdf">www.notredame.edu.au/%5f%5fdata/assets/pdf%5ffile/0010/2035/CODE-OF-CONDUCT-Students.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Walker, I. (2001). [ Church, college, and campus: The sacred and the secular in the foundation of denominational colleges in Australian universities established in the period 1945 to 1975 ]. [Doctoral dissertation]. University of New South Wales. https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/4169</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Perry L. Glanzer</p> <p>Reported by Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref95"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref109"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref125"></nolink> |
|---|---|
| Header | DbId: eric DbLabel: ERIC An: EJ1432218 AccessLevel: 3 PubType: Academic Journal PubTypeId: academicJournal PreciseRelevancyScore: 0 |
| IllustrationInfo | |
| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: The Recent Emergence of Australian Christian Higher Education Institutions: How They Operationalize Their Christian Identity – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Perry+L%2E+Glanzer%22">Perry L. Glanzer</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3649-2516">0000-0002-3649-2516</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Christian+Higher+Education%22"><i>Christian Higher Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 23(4):377-396. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 20 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Christianity%22">Christianity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Education%22">Religious Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Administration%22">College Administration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutional+Characteristics%22">Institutional Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Presidents%22">College Presidents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Faculty%22">College Faculty</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Governing+Boards%22">Governing Boards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutional+Mission%22">Institutional Mission</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Colleges%22">Religious Colleges</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personnel+Selection%22">Personnel Selection</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Curriculum+Development%22">Curriculum Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethics%22">Ethics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Standards%22">Standards</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1080/15363759.2024.2336447 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 1536-3759<br />1539-4107 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Historically, Australian higher education has been statist, uniform, and secular. Indeed, up until 1989, even communist Poland had more Christian universities than Australia. Only in the last 3½ decades have eight different Christian universities and colleges emerged. This article first explores the origins of these new institutions and the historical factors that allowed for the emergence of Australian Christian higher education (CHE). It then employs the recently developed "Operationalizing Christian Identity Guide" (OCIG) to determine the extent to which these new Australian institutions use their Christian identity to guide administrative decisions. The OCIG identifies the number of publicly expressed markers that indicate whether and how Christian identity makes a difference in key administrative decisions regarding the life of the institution. These markers include things such as membership requirements for the board, president, faculty, and students; the institution's official rhetoric and mission; the number of required Christian courses; and the nature of co-curricular programming. An analysis of these institutions using the OCIG reveals that Australia's Christian institutions are observably distinct from their secular Australian counterparts in key areas such as mission, hiring practices, curricular requirements, co-curricular opportunities, and student conduct codes. All of these Christian institutions require core courses that extend beyond professional education. Within the Christian sector, significant diversity also exists regarding religious symbols, funding, and governance. A comparison of these Australian institutions to Christian institutions in the United States and Canada, however, finds that Australian institutions operationalize their Christian identities less than institutions in these countries. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1432218 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1432218 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1080/15363759.2024.2336447 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 20 StartPage: 377 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Christianity Type: general – SubjectFull: Religious Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Higher Education Type: general – SubjectFull: Decision Making Type: general – SubjectFull: Self Concept Type: general – SubjectFull: College Administration Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational History Type: general – SubjectFull: Institutional Characteristics Type: general – SubjectFull: College Presidents Type: general – SubjectFull: College Students Type: general – SubjectFull: College Faculty Type: general – SubjectFull: Governing Boards Type: general – SubjectFull: Institutional Mission Type: general – SubjectFull: Religious Colleges Type: general – SubjectFull: Personnel Selection Type: general – SubjectFull: Curriculum Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Ethics Type: general – SubjectFull: Standards Type: general – SubjectFull: Student Behavior Type: general – SubjectFull: Australia Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: The Recent Emergence of Australian Christian Higher Education Institutions: How They Operationalize Their Christian Identity Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Perry L. Glanzer IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 01 Type: published Y: 2024 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 1536-3759 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1539-4107 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 23 – Type: issue Value: 4 Titles: – TitleFull: Christian Higher Education Type: main |
| ResultId | 1 |
