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The Tactile Reading Systems in East Asia: Missionaries, Colonialism, and Unintended Consequences

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Title: The Tactile Reading Systems in East Asia: Missionaries, Colonialism, and Unintended Consequences
Language: English
Authors: Tasing Chiu
Source: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2024 60(4):616-633.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Evaluative
Descriptors: Educational History, Blindness, Foreign Countries, Tactile Adaptation, Students with Disabilities, Reading Materials, Reading Instruction, Japanese, Colonialism, Braille, Educational Discrimination, Disability Discrimination, Equal Opportunities (Jobs), Equal Education, Service Occupations, Religious Factors, Religious Organizations, Protestants, Individual Differences, Asians
Geographic Terms: Taiwan, South Korea
DOI: 10.1080/00309230.2023.2269860
ISSN: 0030-9230
1477-674X
Abstract: In the late nineteenth century, Protestant missionaries introduced modern education for the blind people in Taiwan and Korea. They developed various tactile reading systems to enhance literacy and provided handicraft training for self-sufficiency. When these regions came under Japanese colonial rule in the first half of the twentieth century, the colonial government introduced Japanese Braille and massage training for blind students. However, most of these training programmes fell short in effectively equipping blind individuals for sustaining their livelihoods upon completing their education. As a result, paradoxically, tactile reading systems initially designed to discourage blind individuals from participating in traditional fortune-telling practices ended up inadvertently catalysing the modernisation of these longstanding traditions. This case study highlights the intricate and diverse nature of special education in East Asia.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1434756
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0178911315;j5401aug.24;2024Aug12.03:48;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0178911315-1">The tactile reading systems in East Asia: missionaries, colonialism, and unintended consequences </title> <p>In the late nineteenth century, Protestant missionaries introduced modern education for the blind people in Taiwan and Korea. They developed various tactile reading systems to enhance literacy and provided handicraft training for self-sufficiency. When these regions came under Japanese colonial rule in the first half of the twentieth century, the colonial government introduced Japanese Braille and massage training for blind students. However, most of these training programmes fell short in effectively equipping blind individuals for sustaining their livelihoods upon completing their education. As a result, paradoxically, tactile reading systems initially designed to discourage blind individuals from participating in traditional fortune-telling practices ended up inadvertently catalysing the modernisation of these longstanding traditions. This case study highlights the intricate and diverse nature of special education in East Asia.</p> <p>Keywords: Education for blind people; literacy; history of special education; disability studies; formal and informal imperialism</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In 1784, Valentin Haüy (1745–1822) initiated public education for blind individuals in France, a significant milestone in the development of modern education for blind students. This movement quickly gained traction, leading to the establishment of similar institutions in Europe and North America. By the late nineteenth century, Western countries had established over 400 specialised educational institutes, trade schools, and asylums dedicated to blind education. Throughout this period, these institutions placed strong emphasis on vocational training, practical skills, and tactile reading instruction as essential components of blind students' education. The focus on manual occupations and the mechanical arts was intended to foster the self-support and self-sufficiency of blind individuals, whereas the provision of reading materials, primarily Christian books, sought to prevent their moral degradation. With the spread of Protestant Christianity facilitated by the expansion of imperialism and colonialism, the ideas and practices of blind education spread globally.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]</p> <p>Haüy's initial efforts involved creating embossed French scripts specifically designed for blind individuals to read using their fingers. He believed that introducing unfamiliar scripts to blind individuals could exacerbate their isolation from the sighted world. Using embossed French scripts, blind individuals could access written information in a familiar format, thereby promoting their integration into society and mitigating the potential barriers to communication and literacy. Building on Haüy's concept, a range of line-type styles was subsequently developed and gained widespread acceptance throughout the Western world.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] However, these line-type styles gradually gave way to point-print braille in Europe. Louis Braille (1809–1852), a blind student at the Institution des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, invented braille using a system of six dots arranged in two vertical rows of three each. This arrangement proved to be more practical for the writing needs of blind individuals, allowing them to write independently using a stylus and writing board. Braille quickly gained popularity because of its simplicity and efficiency in tactile reading and writing. Despite its widespread use, however, braille has certain limitations. In response, William B. Wait (1839–1916), the sighted principal of the New York School for the Blind, introduced an alternative system called New York Point[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] which competed with American Braille in the United States.</p> <p>Both line- and dot-type tactile reading systems are generally well suited for phonetic languages, where a limited set of written symbols correspond to specific sounds or phonetic units. However, when these systems are applied to non-phonetic languages, such as Chinese, whose scripts do not function as letters or concise syllabaries, several challenges emerge. In line-type systems, the intricate and complex nature of Chinese characters is a significant obstacle. Chinese characters often consist of multiple strokes and intricate details, making it difficult to accurately represent them in a tactile format. The level of detail required for embossing can create challenges during production, resulting in reduced legibility for visually impaired individuals. Similarly, dot-type systems are limited in that they represent an extensive range of Chinese characters. The limited combinations of dots available in dot-type systems are insufficient to cover the vast array of Chinese characters effectively.</p> <p>The challenges posed by Chinese characters spurred the exploration of alternative solutions, including the transliteration of Chinese characters into phonetic systems. Western missionaries who faced difficulties in learning Chinese characters had already begun investigating this approach long before attempts were made to develop tactile reading systems for blind individuals in these regions. They generally believed that introducing phonetic elements into Chinese script would simplify the learning process and improve literacy rates among the local population. As a result, the initial inclination of missionaries was to adapt Romanised languages to tactile reading systems for individuals with visual impairments, leveraging their existing knowledge and past experiences of learning these languages.</p> <p>Many Eastern societies, including Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, have long been influenced by Chinese civilisation, encompassing language, customs, educational philosophy, and cosmological perspectives, owing to their geographical proximity and historical interactions. Starting in the mid-nineteenth century, Christian missionaries arrived in Korea and Taiwan and established schools, hospitals, and churches, playing a significant role in disseminating new knowledge and shaping the intellectual and social landscapes of these societies. In the late nineteenth century, Japan emerged as a major power and expanded its influence in the region. Taiwan became Japan's first overseas colony in 1895 and Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910. These events had a profound impact on the cultural, social, and political development of Taiwan and Korea, shaping their trajectories throughout the twentieth century. This study focuses on the historical development and utilisation of tactile reading systems in Taiwan and Korea during this period. By examining the historical context, key influences, and various power dynamics at play, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the contributions of early advocates of blind education, the impact of policies implemented by Japanese colonial governments, and the adaptation efforts of the local elites. The findings illuminate the multidirectional evolution of braille and other tactile reading systems in these regions and contribute to a broader understanding of the relationship between special education and imperialism.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-3">Pioneering efforts of Protestant missionaries</hd> <p>As Western imperialism expanded and opened the East Asian market in the mid-nineteenth century, it created opportunities for Protestant missionaries to enter the region and introduce modern education for the blind people. In the late 1850s, the Qing government faced serious setbacks during the Second Opium War, which led to the signing of the Tianjin Treaty in 1858 with Britain and France. The treaty opened treaty ports in Taiwan, allowing foreign countries to engage in trade and missionary activities there. In 1871, the Scottish Presbyterian missionary William Campbell (1841–1921) arrived in Taiwan and learned about the need for tactile reading materials through stories shared by local blind Christians. In response, Campbell developed various tactile reading methods. His efforts eventually led to the establishment of the first school for blind students in Taiwan Prefecture in 1891, with the aim of providing blind individuals with reading skills and basic arithmetic and vocational training such as weaving, rope-making, and fishing-net-making.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] Similarly, in 1884, Korea signed the Korea-US Amendment Treaty (조·미수호통상조약) with the United States at a time when Japan's influence in Korea was steadily increasing. From 1884 to 1910, the United States sent a large number of missionaries to Korea, accounting for approximately 77.6% of the country's total missionary presence.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] The American missionary Rosetta Hall (1865–1951), who arrived in Seoul in 1890 to perform medical missionary work, encountered blind patients during her work. To assist them, Hall began educating a blind girl in Pyongyang in 1894, marking the beginning of her efforts to educate blind individuals.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] It is worth noting that neither Campbell nor Hall was blind and initially had little knowledge of blind education.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-4">Revised Moon type and Taiwanese Braille</hd> <p>Taiwanese is primarily a spoken language with no standardised written form. Romanisation systems such as Péh-ōe-jī (POJ) or the Taiwanese Romanisation System (Tâi-lô) were initially developed for foreigners to learn the Xiamen dialect and were later introduced to Taiwan by Presbyterian missionaries. When Campbell embarked on the establishment of blind education in Taiwan, he used raised Roman letters to teach letter recognition to blind individuals. During his first return visit to the United Kingdom in November 1878, he toured the Asylum for the Blind in Glasgow, where he had the opportunity to learn about training methods for blind education from Margaret Scott Alston, the daughter of John Alston, inventor of the Alston type.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] Upon his return to Taiwan, Campbell began producing Christian books for blind patients at missionary hospitals. These patients began learning to read independently with the assistance of the wives of missionaries and other blind individuals.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1887, during his second trip to England, Campbell studied various tactile writing systems for the blind people in Europe. During this period, he became acquainted with the Moon type, which was widely used. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, there were approximately 30,000 visually impaired individuals in Great Britain, 90% of whom were older than 21 years. As people age, their finger sensitivity tends to decrease, which can be exacerbated by heavy manual labour. To address this concern, William Moon, the inventor of the Moon type, designed a simplified typeface that utilised geometric patterns specifically for individuals who had difficulty recognising dot-type systems or Roman letters.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] A survey conducted in 1880 revealed that nearly half of the blind individuals in Glasgow who were able to read utilised the Moon type.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] Although no similar investigation or statistics were available for blind individuals in Taiwan, Campbell believed that their circumstances were similar.</p> <p>Campbell modified some Moon type letters and changed how they were read. For example, the Taiwanese Roman alphabet does not use the letters <emph>d, f, q, r, v, w, x, y</emph>, or <emph>z</emph>. Therefore, Campbell did not use the entire Moon type but added seven tone marks. Furthermore, for easier identification, he drastically changed the Moon type, making it more similar to the Roman alphabet (Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Revised Moon Type.</p> <p>The Moon script is read from left to right in the first line, from right to left in the next line, and again from left to right in the following lines. This boustrophedon-like system makes it easier for readers to follow without having to lift their fingers and potentially lose their place. However, arranging letters in reverse order when changing lines was a problem, because it could make reading more difficult and reduce the willingness of the sighted to help blind people read. Therefore, Campbell did not adopt Moon's reading method completely.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]</p> <p>Regarding braille's popularity in Europe, Campbell believed that while braille was useful for writing and learning music, most blind people did not want to become writers or musicians. Learning braille could be "surprising, but ultimately impractical" for blind people who did not want to work in places like churches or schools for the blind people.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>] A complete transition to braille could be an indescribable disaster for both blind workers and the elderly. It was also more convenient for blind individuals to learn line-type letters from sighted people who were familiar with the Taiwanese Romanisation System. This saved them from the need to travel to Tainan, where the missionary blind school was located, especially considering the limited transportation facilities available to blind individuals in Taiwan at that time. With the support of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Campbell published four books for blind people in April 1888 using his revised Moon type: <emph>Primary Textbook</emph>, <emph>Reading Practice</emph>, <emph>St. Matthew's Gospel</emph>, and <emph>Conversations with a Temple-keeper</emph>.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>]</p> <p>However, upon Campbell's return to Taiwan in late 1889 to establish the Tainan School for the Blind, which aimed to educate younger blind individuals, he started producing books in braille using Romanised Taiwanese (Figure 2).[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Taiwanese Braille.</p> <p>In January 1892, Campbell and his blind students successfully converted the Book of Ephesians and a significant portion of <emph>The Pilgrim's Progress</emph> into braille.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] At the Tainan School for the Blind, students were tasked with creating thousands of books for blind individuals using needle pens within a short period of time to distribute them to various locations. Campbell later acquired a printing machine with movable type from Kobe, Japan, that was capable of printing embossed letters on both sides. Campbell began producing church news and Christian teachings in Taiwanese Braille for blind readers in Taiwan and the Xiamen region using this printing machine.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-5">Pyongyang point</hd> <p>Until the late nineteenth century, literacy in Korea, as in other East Asian societies, was open largely to the privileged ruling class. This exclusive group received education in reading and writing with a primary focus on Chinese characters, which served as the dominant written language of the time. The Joseon Dynasty witnessed a clear division between intellectuals and the common people, with knowledge of Chinese characters serving as a defining factor. Chinese characters held high prestige among Korean nobles and scholars, whereas Hangeul, the native Korean script, was predominantly used by lower-status individuals such as women and children. There was even a period when Hangeul was banned under the order of Lord Yanshan. However, as the Joseon Dynasty progressed, Korean nationalist groups supported by Western missionaries in Korea began advocating the revitalisation of Hangeul, leading to its increasing popularity and usage.</p> <p>The initiation of modern blind education in Korea can be attributed to the endeavours of an American missionary who pioneered the creation of tactile materials using Hangeul. In 1894, Rosetta Hall encountered a blind girl named Penglai Wu (오봉래) in Pyongyang and made the decision to teach her how to read.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>] However, the prevailing cultural beliefs at that time in Korea suggested that girls did not require education, and there were rumours of Western doctors using their eyes for medicinal purposes.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] These cultural misperceptions initially made Hall hesitant to educate blind girls. Nevertheless, Wu's father, a Christian, had complete faith in Hall's abilities and granted her permission to teach his daughter.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1897, during a visit to the New York Institution for the Blind, Hall learned about the New York Point writing system from its inventor, William Bell Wait.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>] New York Point was one of the earliest writing systems for blind people in the United States and the accepted script for the American Association of Instructors of the Blind at the time. Additionally, it was the sole system used by the government-funded American Printing House for the Blind.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>] Hall thus applied the New York Point system to the Korean language and created a tactile system called "Pyongyang Point" (평양점자) (Figure 3). She then started producing tactile textbooks using this system in the spring of 1898 by translating part of the contents of a Korean language primer called <emph>Hangul Beginner</emph> (초학언문). She cut 16 K oil paper to a slightly smaller size, drew the Pyongyang Point system line-by-line using a pencil, and then created tactile dots using a needle to pierce the paper.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Pyongyang Point.</p> <p>In January 1900, Hall began teaching New York Point to blind girls at the Women's Hospital of Extended Grace.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] The goal of the missionaries was to establish and run schools to introduce Christianity to Koreans and ensure that they become Christians and not be labelled "vile sorceresses".[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>] In 1903, with the support of Mrs. Clock in New York, the Jongjin Girls' School (정진소학교) was established outside the west gate of Pyongyang. As part of this school, a clock class for blind girls was introduced with Penglai Wu as the teacher.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] In addition to teaching braille to blind girls, Wu imparted skills such as weaving and embroidery.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] The blind girls at the school also participated in various activities at the missionary hospital. They would visit patients to read the Bible, clean the clam shells used for ointments, and perform tasks such as sweeping the hospital floor. One of their favourite responsibilities was to care for the babies at the hospital. In 1909, Pyongyang School for the Blind expanded its scope by admitting deaf students. However, because of financial difficulties, the school was unable to enrol many free students, and some students had to pay their own fees.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-6">Implementation of Japanese colonial education</hd> <p>Both Taiwan and Korea were colonised by Japan: Taiwan in 1895 and Korea in 1910. From the period of colonisation until the end of the Pacific War, the relationship between the Japanese colonial government and Western missionaries in these regions underwent various changes and evolved. While both regions introduced Japanese Braille and vocational education for blind individuals, the responses and outcomes differed between the two societies, influenced by the evolving dynamics of their relationships.</p> <p>As Japan's first overseas colony, Taiwan was handled with great care and caution by Japanese authorities, especially during the early stages of colonisation. This approach was also applied to Western missionaries present in Taiwan at that time. The Western missionaries in turn had a favourable view of Japanese colonial rule, considering the Japanese more open-minded than the Qing dynasty. Campbell's blind school, which had been established in 1891, faced financial difficulties and eventually closed in 1897. Partly at Campbell's request and partly as a demonstration of Japan's modernisation efforts, responsibility for the school was transferred to government-assisted local charity organisations in 1900. Under the new management, the school started offering courses in Japanese Braille and Japanese massage, which were part of the standard vocational training provided in blind schools in Japan at that time.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] Although the Taiwanese language was not included in the curriculum of blind schools in Taiwan, blind students still had the opportunity to learn Taiwanese Braille and receive religious instruction from Christian missionaries outside regular school hours. However, in 1915, the Japanese government imposed restrictions on religious instruction in schools, including those for the blind. In 1922, the Tainan state government took over the Tainan School for the Blind and made it a public school. This led to a significant shift in the school's administration and governance, as well as its overall orientation and emphasis. As the state government gradually assumed greater responsibility for the education and socialisation of blind people, the role of religious organisations and other private institutions in this area began to wane.</p> <p>In a comparable manner, following Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910, the Japanese government pursued a cooperative relationship with the United States and implemented policies aimed at containing and appeasing Korean missionary forces. In 1911, the Japanese Government General of Korea established the charity organisation Jesaengwon (濟生院) as part of their efforts to promote Japanese culture.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] The organisation began enrolling blind and deaf students in 1913, offering a curriculum that included subjects such as reading and writing Japanese Braille, as well as vocational training in areas such as massage and acupuncture.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] However, the Pyongyang School for the Blind, which was established by an American missionary, was allowed to continue its operations under the supervision of the Japanese government. Although the missionaries did not directly confront the colonial authorities on political issues, there was some underlying anti-Japanese sentiment among teachers at the Pyongyang School for the Blind, as the school was established by Americans and was a Christian institution. As a result, they initially had difficulty accepting Japanese-language education and 6-dot Japanese Braille. Over time, however, as Japanese control of Korea intensified, Japanese influence expanded to encompass the entire education system, including blind education, decisions regarding textbooks, vocational education content, and graduate qualification permits. This situation posed challenges for Hall's educational and social endeavours, leading to their gradual contraction.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-7">Kanji and massage education</hd> <p>In Japan, there is a saying that "Kanji is the enemy of the blind".[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>] This reflects the challenges visually impaired individuals face when reading and writing Kanji, the Chinese characters incorporated into the Japanese writing system in ancient times. Despite the inclusion of syllabic scripts such as hiragana and katakana, kanji remains an integral part of written Japanese. Taishiro Furukawa (古河太四郎, 1845–1907), a prominent figure in the development of education for visually impaired individuals in modern Japan, thus believed that it was crucial for blind individuals to possess knowledge of Kanji in order to comprehend texts and communicate with others effectively.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] While modern education for blind individuals primarily focuses on braille, which could result in a diminished understanding of traditional Japanese literature, schools for blind people should incorporate the teaching of kanji with fewer than five strokes to ensure comprehensive education for blind students. To facilitate the understanding of kanji, several methods were developed that took their intricate strokes into account.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>] Characters with simpler strokes were written on the palm, while those with more complex strokes were written on the back of the hand. In cases in which there were radical components within a character, the radical and phonetic parts of the character were traced separately. If the nails used to draw on the back of the hand caused discomfort or itchiness, individuals would use their fingertips instead. This tactile approach enabled individuals to better comprehend and memorise the intricate structure of kanji.</p> <p>Traditionally, blind individuals in Japan supported themselves through musical and religious activities. During the Edo period, a shift occurred, and blind individuals began to engage in acupuncture and massage as a means of earning a livelihood. The demand for massage grew as it was considered easier to learn than playing musical instruments, attracting many blind individuals living in poverty. With the colonisation of Taiwan by Japan, the demand for massage services increased, leading to significant developments in blind education during that period. In southern Taiwan, the division for blind education within one charity organisation eventually transformed into the Private Tainan School for the Blind and Deaf in 1915. This school was later taken over by the government and renamed the Tainan State School for the Blind and Dumb in 1922. In the northern part of Taiwan, Kingo Kimura (木村謹吾, 1869–?), a Japanese physician, founded the Kimura Educational Institute for the Blind and Deaf (木村盲啞教育所) in Taipei in 1917, which later became the Private Taipei School for the Blind and Deaf in 1922. Although the number of graduates from these two schools was much smaller than the large number of blind individuals in Taiwan at the time, their income from massage after graduation was three times higher than that of ordinary farmers, resulting in an improved social status.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-8">Korean Braille</hd> <p>In 1913, the Blind and Deaf Division of Jesaengwon began to enrol students. In the first and second years, the emphasis was on teaching simple Japanese conversation and Japanese Braille.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] Doo-seong Park (朴斗星, 1888–1963), a young sighted Christian, joined the Blind Division of Jesaengwon in the same year, and was subsequently assigned to teach Japanese Braille. In addition to Japanese-language courses, blind students in Jesaengwon dedicated a significant portion of their time to studying massage, acupuncture, moxibustion, anatomy, and other related subjects.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] In 1914, the Japanese colonial government of Korea enacted the Regulations for the Prohibition of Massage, Acupuncture, and Moxibustion. Subsequently, acupuncture and massage were recognised as modern regulated professions in Korea. Individuals were required to receive proper education in massage or acupuncture and obtain a licence to practise these medical activities. On the other hand, Pyongyang School initially taught blind girls skills such as tailoring, clothes modification, basket weaving, mat weaving, and straw sandal weaving; it was later realised that these jobs were not sufficient for blind girls to make a living. Initially, teachers at the school encountered difficulties accepting and implementing Japanese Braille. This posed challenges in translating textbooks related to moxibustion and massage used by Jesaengwon, as these textbooks were exclusively available in Japanese Braille. Teachers who were not proficient in Japanese and Japanese Braille thus found it challenging to teach these subjects effectively to their students.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1917, Hall was transferred to Dongdaemun (東大門) Women's Hospital in Seoul, and the Pyongyang School for the Blind was entrusted to other missionaries. In 1918, the Pyongyang School for the Blind and Deaf began receiving Japanese Braille textbooks from the Japanese colonial government. This enabled blind students to learn Japanese Braille and receive vocational education in acupuncture and massage. The introduction of these subjects also aimed to discourage blind individuals from relying solely on fortune-telling practices while allowing them to uphold their Christian beliefs. As a result, the Pyongyang School for the Blind, which initially taught in English and Korean, eventually incorporated Japanese education and teaching materials.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>]</p> <p>Meanwhile, blind students at Jesaengwon, who were already accustomed to the Japanese six-dot braille system, faced challenges when using the Pyongyang four-dot point system. Difficulty in distinguishing characters often led to misreading. As a result, they discussed the idea of creating a six-dot Korean Braille system with Park, and Park then proposed to Hall that they collaborate to develop this new system.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>] Park believed that if he worked with Western missionaries, the chances of interference or punishment by the Japanese colonial government would be lower. However, Hall rejected Park's proposal, stating that Pyongyang Point had already laid a solid foundation and that a new tactile system was unnecessary.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] Instead, she modified the existing Japanese six-dot system into a four-dot system and gave a copy to Park.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>]</p> <p>Consequently, Park and his students had no choice but to establish a clandestine organisation known as the "Yukhwa Temple Society" (육화사) to study braille and develop a six-dot Korean Braille system on their own. They solicited proposals for the Korean Braille system from various sources and collected 12 proposals, including one created by Park himself. After careful evaluation, Park determined that his own plan had the fewest characters and was the easiest to learn, making it the most suitable Korean Braille system among the 12 proposals. Park's system used six-dot cells, similar to existing braille systems, but arranged them uniquely to represent the Korean alphabet and other characters. On 4 November 1926, in commemoration of the 480th anniversary of the "Hunmin Jeongeum" (訓民正音) announced by King Sejong, which aimed to provide correct sounds for instructing the common people, Park and his students introduced a new braille system called "Hunmaeng Jeongeum" (訓盲正音) (Figure 4), meaning it was specifically designed to provide correct sounds for instructing blind people.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>] Park's Korean Braille system has been widely adopted in Korea and continues to be used today.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. Korean Braille.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-9">Reactions by local elites</hd> <p>In many East Asian societies, divination was a traditional activity closely associated with visual impairment.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] For example, Korean culture has a long-standing tradition and a strong belief in divination and prophecy. This is evident in the establishment of a dedicated government office for blind fortune-tellers during the ancient Joseon Dynasty. These fortune-tellers were responsible for making predictions for the royal family and aristocrats, as well as performing important rituals related to royal rain ceremonies.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] Similarly, when Campbell arrived in Taiwan in 1871, he observed that fortune-telling was the predominant occupation of the blind individuals.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>] Blind individuals were believed to have a unique connection to the spiritual realm and to possess the ability to predict the future. Divination served as a significant means of livelihood for these individuals, who often encountered difficulties in accessing social security or receiving support from their families.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-10">Persistence of the old profession</hd> <p>Early missionaries focused on teaching blind people tactile reading and weaving techniques to steer them away from fortune-telling and begging. Tactile reading, which incorporated Christian teachings, aimed to provide enlightenment to blind individuals as they engaged in weaving and other crafts, allowing them to create various handicrafts, such as scarves, hats, gloves, clothing, and socks, and secured a livelihood. Campbell believed that weaving and other crafts helped blind individuals maintain the essential "tactile sensitivity needed for reading" while also supporting themselves financially.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>] However, weaving, associated with rural women or those with limited resources, often yields wages insufficient to ensure financial sustainability.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>] Consequently, after completing their education at blind schools, blind individuals had limited options available to them. They could either create braille tablets and books to be distributed among blind readers[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] or provide support and encouragement to patients at church hospitals.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] Some blind individuals might eventually return to traditional occupations, such as fortune-telling, aligned with their skills and abilities.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]</p> <p>In 1900, during the Japanese colonial period in Taiwan, schools for blind individuals introduced education on acupuncture and massage. Campbell thought that there were few Japanese settlers in Taiwan at the time and that the local population had limited knowledge of massage, making it difficult for blind individuals to pursue massage as a profession for independent livelihoods. Campbell thus suggested to the Japanese government that educated blind individuals fluent in Japanese work as interpreters in Japanese government departments. However, his proposal was not accepted by the authorities.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] Later, as the number of Japanese individuals working in Taiwan increased, a small minority of blind individuals engaged in massage received good treatment and improved their social status.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>] However, this opportunity remained limited to a small number of blind individuals who had received education at blind schools. On the other hand, blind individuals with strong communication skills and sharp memories could earn a decent income through fortune-telling. Unlike massage, which posed the risk of hand injuries and had age restrictions due to its physical demands, fortune-telling had no such limitations and could be pursued regardless of age. As a result, despite the Japanese government's attempts to regulate divination through investigations and regulations, fortune-telling continued to be widely practised.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>]</p> <p>The tradition of fortune-telling also faced setbacks during the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945. During the period of Japanese colonisation in Korea, the Japanese colonial government also regarded divination and chanting practices as superstitious beliefs, and implemented the Government General Reform (서정개혁) to suppress the divination industry.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>] In response to this oppression, the blind community united to protest against the Japanese colonial government in 1917. As a result of their united efforts, the oppressive treatment of blind fortune-tellers was ended, allowing blind Koreans to continue practising divination.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>]</p> <p>The Acupuncture and Massage Business Ban Regulations, enacted in 1914, did not specify that the massage business was exclusively reserved for blind individuals. Part-time massage and acupuncture were permitted for licensed midwives and nurses. Even individuals without licences but with medical qualifications could engage in massage, acupuncture, moxibustion, and other related businesses. In an environment with numerous competitors, the growth and development of blind acupuncture and massage practitioners in Korea were quite limited. According to surveys conducted by Jesaengwon in 1921 and 1927, divination, scripture reading, and witchcraft dominated the occupational landscape of blind individuals in Korea.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-11">Braille adaptations for fortune-telling</hd> <p>In the past, blind individuals relied on oral traditions for the transmission of knowledge and skills, with teachers guiding apprentices through repetitive chanting and memorisation. Rhyming formulas, used for memorising correspondences, alleviate memory strain; however, extensive practice is still required to grasp and manipulate all the parameters involved.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] Blind fortune-tellers were known for their competence and integrity, which earned them a reputation for trustworthiness. Clients recognised that these fortune-tellers had undergone extensive training from a young age and had to rely on memorised techniques, as they were unable to use visual cues to deceive or cheat their clients. Interestingly, while disability can be a basis of social discrimination, it can also be viewed as a divine indicator of superiority.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>]</p> <p>After developing the Korean Braille "Hunmaeng Jeongeum", Park began to promote it in various ways. Initially, with the assistance of the American Bible Society, he created a Korean Braille version of the Bible by punching holes into sub-leaded plates. Later, along with his followers, he established the Korean Braille Research Society, which organised braille seminars throughout the country. As blind people were scattered throughout Korea, Park taught braille through correspondence to those who could not attend school. Those who wanted to study braille had only to mail an application to the Society, and they would receive Korean Braille instructions, papers, boards, and other materials that they could learn to use with the help of a sighted person who understood Korean characters.[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] Once their braille reading skills had improved, they could borrow various books translated by Park. Park translated more than 200 books, including divination books, and encouraged blind people to practise divination in a learned manner.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] Later, fortune-teller groups in many places began to hold divination classes and hire blind lecturers to teach braille.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>]</p> <p>After Japan's departure from Taiwan following the war, the massage industry for visually impaired individuals experienced a sharp decline in the 1950s, leading to the resurgence of fortune-telling as a prominent occupation for blind individuals to sustain their livelihoods. During this time, the blind community began incorporating braille into the fortune-telling industry, with organisations such as the Taiwan Welfare Association for the Blind, established in 1958, utilising Taiwanese Braille to produce a variety of fortune-telling books. Many blind individuals who had not learned braille in school took the initiative to self-learn Taiwanese Braille and pursued the study of fortune-telling.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-12">Conclusion</hd> <p>While the history of special education is often perceived as a global progression, suggesting a shared journey in the field,[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] the development of blind education in East Asia presents a complex and nuanced narrative. Protestant missionaries, for example, used tactile reading tools to spread religious beliefs, where Japanese colonists viewed blind education as a symbol of modernity. Local elites in Korea saw Korean Braille as a means of establishing an anti-colonial identity, while the average blind population in Taiwan primarily embraced braille when it directly supported their livelihoods. These diverse objectives have played a crucial role in the selection of tactile reading systems, which in turn have significantly influenced the development of education for blind individuals in East Asia.</p> <p>The majority of tactile reading systems in East Asia, similar to those in Western societies, were developed by sighted individuals. These advocates strongly emphasised integration between blind and sighted individuals, leading to numerous efforts to create shared symbols and writing systems for use by both groups. William Campbell, as noted earlier, decided to use his modified Moon type system instead of braille to facilitate learning by blind individuals. Both the blind and sighted individuals used the same characters, albeit through different modes of interaction. Blind individuals relied on touch to perceive and comprehend the characters, whereas sighted individuals relied on visual perception. Campbell believed that the shared use of characters benefited both blind individuals and sighted teachers. Blind individuals did not need to travel to the only blind school on Taiwan Island at that time, while sighted teachers did not have to learn additional unfamiliar symbols if they were already familiar with the Taiwanese Roman alphabet.</p> <p>William Hill Murray (1843–1911), a Scottish missionary in Beijing, developed a tactile reading system for blind school students known as the Murray Numeral Type. In 1889, Murray made further innovations by connecting dots with lines to assist sighted but illiterate individuals in China in acquiring reading and writing skills.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>] Murray believed that by using the same writing system, both blind and sighted individuals could teach and learn together, creating new job opportunities for blind individuals to be teachers of the sighted, and reducing illiteracy and begging among the blind population in China.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] Kuraji Ishikawa (石川倉次, 1859–1944), the founder of Japanese Braille, also advocated the idea of connecting the dots of Japanese Braille to create a common language for both sighted and blind individuals. He believed that this would allow sighted individuals to read and write with their eyes and a pen, thus fostering direct communication with blind individuals.[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>]</p> <p>Although these ideas were ambitious and promising, they were not realised for various reasons. In traditional East Asian societies, the study of literature held greater importance for the elite class, serving not only as an intellectual pursuit, but also as a strategic endeavour to secure positions within the prestigious and stable bureaucratic system. The complexity and difficulty of learning Chinese characters were not necessarily seen as disadvantages; instead, they were often regarded as a way to uphold the social hierarchy in many East Asian societies. The simplification of characters or the use of phonetic symbols, as observed in Korean Hangeul, was thus often associated with individuals from lower social classes or women. As a result, the prospect of sighted literate individuals abandoning their established writing system to adopt the same phonetic symbols used by the blind population appeared quite improbable.</p> <p>Tactile reading is considered a tool that empowers blind individuals by granting them access to knowledge and education, ultimately promoting greater independence, but it should be noted that offering tactile readings alone would not necessarily improve the lives of blind individuals or alter their social status. For most people, literacy was not considered essential for everyday life or work, resulting in little motivation to acquire reading and writing skills. Therefore, enrolment in most of these blind schools was relatively small compared to the overall number of blind individuals during that period. Despite the initial emphasis on vocational training in blind education, most programmes did not effectively prepare blind individuals to sustain their livelihoods after graduating from school. Even those proficient in braille faced challenges in pursuing further education or applying their skills in the workforce because of insufficient materials and resources. This was especially true when blind students were confined to reading religious texts and had limited job prospects within religious institutions or churches after completing their education, as was the case in schools established by missionaries. Such restrictions are likely to have deterred many blind individuals from pursuing an education. Moreover, owing to the limited resources available to churches in East Asia compared to those in the West and the underdeveloped social welfare systems under Japanese colonial rule,[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>] most blind individuals had to rely on their own efforts to make a living. Therefore, both school administrations and blind individuals had to adopt suitable tactile reading systems to secure the future livelihoods of the blind individuals. For instance, the initial preference for the 4-dot Pyongyang Point as the tactile reading system shifted towards the 6-dot Japanese Braille system when the demand for massage training and Japanese books increased. Meanwhile, in the face of challenges in the massage market, blind individuals adopted braille to create fortune-telling books, enabling them to sustain their divination business despite its conflicts with Christian beliefs and Japanese regulations.</p> <p>In addition to potential livelihood opportunities, gender was a significant factor influencing school attendance rates. In some regions of East Asia during that period, many female individuals with visual impairments experienced more difficult circumstances than their male counterparts, including being abandoned as blind children or resorting to prostitution as they grew older as a means of survival. In response to these issues, Western missionaries established several schools specifically for blind girls to offer them protection and education. Indeed, the first blind education programme initiated by Mary Wanstall (1799–1849) in Macau was exclusively for blind girls.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>] Consequently, up until the mid-twentieth century, there was a significantly higher enrolment of female students in China's schools for the blind than of male students. According to a questionnaire survey conducted by the Church in 1920, there were a total of 745 blind children enrolled in 29 schools for the blind in China.[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] Among them, 498 were girls and 247 were boys. In addition, based on Fryer's survey of 38 blind education and training institutions across China from 1931 to 1941, there were 845 female and 387 male students.[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>]</p> <p>Many of those who initiated education for blind girls were either female missionaries or the wives of missionaries, as demonstrated by the examples of Hall in Korea and Wanstall in Macau. In mixed-gender co-educational settings established by male missionaries such as Campbell's in Taiwan or Murray's in Peking, a range of individuals, including the missionaries' wives, female assistants, and blind boys, could take on teaching roles for blind female students. In certain cases in China, special arrangements were required to make the education of young blind women possible. For example, some blind women would extend their hands through curtains during lessons, and male teachers, such as Murray, would guide them in reading braille.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>] This practice resembles the manner in which Chinese medical doctors would examine their female patients.</p> <p>Finally, it is crucial to highlight that the primary goal of special education in Japan's colonies was to showcase colonial modernity, although Japan's approach to modernising blind education differed significantly from Western practices. For example, instead of fully embracing Western missionaries' methods of Romanising Chinese characters, Japan developed numerous educational methods and tools for teaching Kanji. Schools for the blind also employ a modified abacus to teach mathematics. While the School for the Blind continued to teach massage to the blind, it began to incorporate Western anatomical and physiological methods, departing from traditional meridian concepts. These innovative approaches were frequently showcased in exhibitions held in Western countries during this era, serving as demonstrations of Japan's progress. Many of these innovations were introduced in Taiwan and Korea during the colonial period, and had a lasting impact on blind education in these regions. After the war, massage became a specialised occupation exclusively for the blind in Taiwan and Korea, despite the fact that blind organisations in Japan failed to pass legislation reserving massage for blind practitioners. In the immediate post-war period, as the Japanese departed from Taiwan and Korea, the demand for massage temporarily decreased, resulting in a resurgence of fortune-telling as a prominent occupation for the blind. Braille fortune-telling books have become indispensable tools for blind fortune-tellers. Tactile reading systems, originally introduced by Western missionaries with the aim of eradicating fortune-telling among the blind population, were later adopted by Japanese colonial administrators to promote modern blind education. It is quite ironic that this ultimately resulted in the unintended consequence of modernising traditional fortune-telling practices.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-13">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Yawen Tsai for her invaluable assistance in collecting and translating Korean materials. I also wish to extend my deep appreciation to Maria Romeiras for her unwavering friendship and support during the creation of this article. The data collection for this work was financially supported by the National Science and Technology Council of Taiwan through Grant 108-2410-H-037-011-MY2.</p> <hd id="AN0178911315-14">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.</p> <ref id="AN0178911315-15"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> M. Miles, "Blindness in South and East Asia: Using History to Inform Development", in <emph>Disability in Different Cultures: Reflections on Local Concepts</emph>, ed. Brigitte Holzer, Arthur Vreede, and Gabriele Weigt (Netherlands: transcript Verlag, 1999), 88–101.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> H. J. 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"可風之三盲人 (下)", <emph>漢文臺灣日日新報</emph> (22 January 1907): 5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 寺島小五郎, <emph>台灣慣習記事</emph> 5, no. 4 (1905): 183–4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 김만태, "한국 맹인 점복자의 전개양상", <emph>한국역사민속학회</emph> 28 (2008): 245–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 永井彰子, <emph>日韓盲僧の社会史</emph> (福岡:葦書房, 2002).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 朝鮮總督府濟生院, <emph>朝鮮盲啞者統計要覽</emph> (京城:朝鮮總督府濟生院, 1921).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 42 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 216.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 주윤정, "식민지기 문화정책의 균열 – 박두성의 訓盲點子와 盲人",<emph>인천학연구</emph> 9 (2008): 262.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 김만태, "한국 맹인 점복자의 전개양상", <emph>한국역사민속학회</emph> 28 (2008): 245–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 주윤정, "식민지기 문화정책의 균열 – 박두성의 訓盲點子 와 盲人", <emph>인천학연구</emph> 9 (2008): 245–70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ronghua Su (蘇榮華) interview record, 19 August 2013, interview location: New Taipei City.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> J. S. Hurt, <emph>Outside the Mainstream: A History of Special Education</emph> (London: Batsford, 1988); J. G. Richardson and J. J. W. Powell, <emph>Comparing Special Education: Origins to Contemporary Paradoxes</emph> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011); D. G. Pritchard, <emph>Education and the Handicapped 1760–1960</emph> (London: Routledge, 2013); and S. Tomlinson, <emph>A Sociology of Special Education</emph> (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> H. Blodget, "Mr. Murray's Method of Applying Braille's System for the Instruction of the Blind", <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> 22, no. 6 (1891): 256–60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> F. Boden, "Work for the Blind in China", <emph>Work and Workers in the Mission Field</emph> 2 (1893): 471–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 石川倉次, "明盲共通字", <emph>教育公報</emph> 238 (1900): 13–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 大友昌子, <emph>帝国日本の植民地社会事業政策研究: 台湾. 朝鮮</emph> (京都: ミネルヴァ書房, 2007).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Eastern Female Education (1838) China, and India beyond the Ganges, <emph>Missionary Register for 1838</emph>, 277–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Milton Theobald Stauffer, Tsinforn C. Wong, and M. Gardner Tewksbury, <emph>The Christian Occupation of China: A General Survey of the Numerical Strength and Geographical Distribution of the Christian Forces in China Made by the Special Committee on Survey and Occupation China Continuation Committee 1918–1921</emph> (Shanghai: China Continuation Committee, 1922), 365–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> George B. Fryer, <emph>Those who Sit in Darkness</emph> (New York: The American Committee of the Institution for the Chinese Blind, 1941).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> 劉蕊 (2020),〈塑造與進步:中國近代盲女的教導與角色 – 以北京盲人學校為例(1874–1911)〉,《山東女子學院學報》,期150,頁45–54.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Tasing Chiu</p> <p>Reported by Author</p> <p></p> <p>Tasing Chiu received his doctoral degree from the Department of Sociology at Purdue University and currently holds the position of professor at the Department of Medical Sociology and Social Work at Kaohsiung Medical University in Taiwan. He also served as a visiting scholar at the College of Sociology in Rikkyo University, Japan, during the spring of 2023. His research interests revolve around disability studies, medical sociology, and STS, with a specific focus on the early development of education for the blind in East Asia.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref71"></nolink>
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  Data: The Tactile Reading Systems in East Asia: Missionaries, Colonialism, and Unintended Consequences
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tasing+Chiu%22">Tasing Chiu</searchLink>
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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– Name: Pages
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  Data: 18
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  Label: Publication Date
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  Data: 2024
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Evaluative
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Blindness%22">Blindness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tactile+Adaptation%22">Tactile Adaptation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Materials%22">Reading Materials</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reading+Instruction%22">Reading Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japanese%22">Japanese</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Colonialism%22">Colonialism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Braille%22">Braille</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Discrimination%22">Educational Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disability+Discrimination%22">Disability Discrimination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Opportunities+%28Jobs%29%22">Equal Opportunities (Jobs)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Equal+Education%22">Equal Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Service+Occupations%22">Service Occupations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Factors%22">Religious Factors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Organizations%22">Religious Organizations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Protestants%22">Protestants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individual+Differences%22">Individual Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Asians%22">Asians</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Taiwan%22">Taiwan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1080/00309230.2023.2269860
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  Data: 0030-9230<br />1477-674X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In the late nineteenth century, Protestant missionaries introduced modern education for the blind people in Taiwan and Korea. They developed various tactile reading systems to enhance literacy and provided handicraft training for self-sufficiency. When these regions came under Japanese colonial rule in the first half of the twentieth century, the colonial government introduced Japanese Braille and massage training for blind students. However, most of these training programmes fell short in effectively equipping blind individuals for sustaining their livelihoods upon completing their education. As a result, paradoxically, tactile reading systems initially designed to discourage blind individuals from participating in traditional fortune-telling practices ended up inadvertently catalysing the modernisation of these longstanding traditions. This case study highlights the intricate and diverse nature of special education in East Asia.
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  Data: 2024
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  Data: EJ1434756
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 616
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Educational History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Blindness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Tactile Adaptation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Materials
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      – SubjectFull: Reading Instruction
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      – SubjectFull: South Korea
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      – TitleFull: The Tactile Reading Systems in East Asia: Missionaries, Colonialism, and Unintended Consequences
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