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Practice Matters: How Practicum Experiences Change Student Beliefs

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Title: Practice Matters: How Practicum Experiences Change Student Beliefs
Language: English
Authors: Christine N. Lippard (ORCID 0000-0002-5828-9260), Claire D. Vallotton, Maria Fusaro, Rachel Chazan-Cohen, Carla A. Peterson, Loria Kim, Gina A. Cook
Source: Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education. 2024 45(3):371-395.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 25
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Undergraduate Students, Infant Care, Toddlers, Caregiver Child Relationship, Preservice Teachers, Preservice Teacher Education, Practicums, Student Teaching, Student Attitudes
DOI: 10.1080/10901027.2024.2351471
ISSN: 1090-1027
1745-5642
Abstract: Development of professional competencies is a key outcome of undergraduate programs preparing practitioners to work with infants and toddlers. Competencies for working with young children were examined among 1300 undergraduate students at 12 universities. Students completed a series of online questionnaires indicating their knowledge, beliefs, and hypothetical practices with young children; end-of-semester scores were analyzed using linear regression. Having had a practicum course is associated with more positive dispositions for supporting the development of teacher-child relationships, building partnerships with diverse families, guiding children's behavior, and fostering development and learning. Further, we examined development of dispositions over the course of a semester based on undergraduates' current and past practicum experiences. Implications for programs who prepare infant and toddler practitioners are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1436026
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0179069503;[15u7]01jul.24;2024Aug20.05:44;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0179069503-1">Practice matters: how practicum experiences change student beliefs </title> <p>Development of professional competencies is a key outcome of undergraduate programs preparing practitioners to work with infants and toddlers. Competencies for working with young children were examined among 1300 undergraduate students at 12 universities. Students completed a series of online questionnaires indicating their knowledge, beliefs, and hypothetical practices with young children; end-of-semester scores were analyzed using linear regression. Having had a practicum course is associated with more positive dispositions for supporting the development of teacher–child relationships, building partnerships with diverse families, guiding children's behavior, and fostering development and learning. Further, we examined development of dispositions over the course of a semester based on undergraduates' current and past practicum experiences. Implications for programs who prepare infant and toddler practitioners are discussed.</p> <p>More than half of the 12 million infants and toddlers in the United States (Mamedova, Redford, & Zukerberg, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref1">44</reflink>]; ZERO to THREE, [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref2">72</reflink>]) spend time in non-parental care. High-quality child care is important to children, their families, and the wider society (Dingel, Patterson, Vavra, & Childcare Obligations Will Constrain Many Workers When Reopening the US Economy, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref3">23</reflink>]). Infants' and toddlers' interactions with their caregivers, both parents and child care providers, influence their rapid and vitally important early brain development (Center on the Developing Child, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref4">13</reflink>]). This can be especially important for the one in five infants who face developmental risks from the toxic stress associated with living in poverty (Kids Count Data Center, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref5">36</reflink>]). High-quality child care can help parents seek and maintain education and employment, build careers (Schochet & Malik, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref6">52</reflink>]), and be more productive (Madowitz, Rowell, & Hamm, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref7">43</reflink>]), as well as enhance their lifetime earnings substantially (Bivens, Garcia, Gould, Weiss, & Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]). Economists estimate investment in high-quality early child care and education (ECCE) would boost overall US productivity today (Bivens, Garcia, Gould, Weiss, & Wilson, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>]) and in the future (Garcia, Heckman, Leaf, & Prados, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref10">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite recognition of the importance of high-quality care for young children, the US lacks sufficient policies and programs to educate the ECCE workforce and ensure quality in children's experiences. Training requirements vary widely across the ECCE workforce, dependent on the employing agency and/or state in which the program operates (Chazan-Cohen, Vallotton, Harewood, & Buell, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]; Institute of Medicine [IOM] and National Research Council [NRC], [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]). Overall, educational expectations for early care and education practitioners are lower than those for teachers of older children (Austin, Whitebook, & Amanta, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref13">4</reflink>]), although this is beginning to shift (Bernstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref14">7</reflink>]; Friedman-Krauss et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref15">26</reflink>]). The <emph>Power to the Profession</emph> campaign, led by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), is advocating for an increased role of higher education in the credentialing of the workforce, although with lower requirements for the infant/toddler (I/T) workforce and those serving preschool age children outside of the PK-12 public school system (NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref16">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given the increased call for degree-holding teachers, institutions of higher education must meet the pre-service training needs for the infant/toddler workforce. Many questions remain about how to best structure these preparation programs. One important aspect of teacher preparation programs is the practicum experiences, where students apply the knowledge learned in traditional courses to interacting with and teaching young children in supervised early childhood classrooms. In this paper, we examined the role of practicum experiences in supporting undergraduates' infant/toddler caregiving competencies over time.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-2">Theoretical framework: whole teacher development approach</hd> <p>A recent emphasis on ECCE workforce competencies lends guidance to instructors and trainers for preparing practitioners to work with infants and toddlers (Caronongan, Niland, Manley, Atkins-Burnett, & Moiduddin, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]). The quality of ECCE is revealed in the interactions between children and early childhood practitioners, and the quality of these interactions is predicted by practitioners' preparation, well-being, and competencies for the work (IOM & NRC, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref18">33</reflink>]). This connection between competencies and practices is consistent with the factors posited to influence teachers' practices in the Whole Teacher development approach (Chen & McCray, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>]). It is with this lens that we view the necessary competencies for supporting the learning and development of infants and toddlers, and thus competencies that must be developed in pre-service preparation.</p> <p>The Whole Teacher development approach posits professional development as continuous and complex, acknowledging the simultaneous development of multiple components of teaching competencies – teachers' dispositions, knowledge, skills, and practices (Chen & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref20">15</reflink>]; Chen & McCray, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref21">16</reflink>]). Through the lens of the Whole Teacher development approach (WT), we examine influences on the development of pre-service teachers' dispositions, or "habits of professional action and moral commitments that underlie an educator's performance" (Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation [CAEP], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref22">20</reflink>]) that are foundational for work with infants and toddlers. Many dispositions are influenced by practitioners' preparation, experiences, and development as professionals (Chen & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref23">15</reflink>]; La Paro, Lippard, Fusaro, & Cook, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref24">38</reflink>]; Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref25">41</reflink>]). Dispositions, either implicit or explicit, predict a whole suite of practitioner behaviors including classroom decisions, responses to children, and the way practitioners talk and act with young children (IOM & NRC, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref26">33</reflink>]; Pajares, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref27">48</reflink>]; Vartuli, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref28">66</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-3">Competency areas for working with infants and toddlers</hd> <p>There have been recent efforts in the US to define core competencies specific to infant/toddler educators, for example, by Zero to Three (ZERO to THREE, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref29">71</reflink>]) and the Collaborative for Understanding the Pedagogy of Infant/toddler Development ([CUPID]; Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref30">61</reflink>]). A 2019 report commissioned by the US Department of Health and Human Services (Coronongan et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref31">19</reflink>]) provides a list of competency frameworks specifically for infant/toddler educators, and those that include infant/toddler-specific competencies, or birth to age 5 competencies, currently in use in the United States. CUPID is one of the few that is focused on the specific competencies needed by infant/toddler educators, and has articulated competencies in nine dimensions. These include: reflective practice; building and supporting relationships; partnering with and supporting diverse families; guiding infant/toddler behavior; supporting development and learning; assessing behavior, development, and environments; including infants and toddlers with special needs; leadership, mentoring, and coaching; and professionalism (Fusaro et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref32">27</reflink>]). The current study assesses dispositions underlying four of the nine competency dimensions for educators of infants and toddlers (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref33">61</reflink>]) – building and supporting relationships, partnering with and supporting diverse families, guiding I/T behavior, and supporting development and learning. This study is part of an ongoing effort to establish the competencies needed by the infant/toddler workforce, to develop assessments of those competencies, and to use assessment of teaching and learning to improve the preparation of the workforce. These four competency dimensions were chosen as a focus for measurement development and for this study for two reasons: first, they are the most well-established and agreed upon competency dimensions for educators of infants/toddlers (Caronongan, Niland, Manley, Atkins-Burnett, & Moiduddin, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref34">11</reflink>]); second, there were at least some existing measures of these competencies that could serve as a starting place for measuring them among pre-service educators (Shah, Niland, Kharsa, Caronongan, & Moiduddin, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref35">55</reflink>]; Vallotton, Torquati, Anderson, & Harewood, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref36">62</reflink>]). Broad scale assessment of undergraduates' development of competence in these nine areas is beyond the scope of the current study; therefore, we began with survey-based assessment of students' dispositions and change in these dispositions over time. The intent of the current study is to examine the effects of practicum experiences on dispositions related to these four competencies.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-4">Building and supporting relationships</hd> <p>Young children thrive in sensitive and supportive relationships (Halle, Anderson, Blasberg, Chrisler, & Simkin, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref37">30</reflink>]; Harrist & Waugh, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref38">31</reflink>]); thus, building supportive relationships is a critical competency for infant/toddler care and education (IOM & NRC, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref39">33</reflink>]; La Paro, Williamson, & Hatfield, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>]; Recchia & Fincham, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref41">49</reflink>]). Underlying this competency are dispositions about responsiveness in caregiving and benefits or concerns related to responsive caregiving. For example, teachers' concerns about infants becoming overly dependent on adults are associated with their structuring of the environment and guidance with young children over time (Susman-Stillman, Pleuss, & Englund, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref42">59</reflink>]). Similarly, parents' child-centered dispositions have been associated with the sensitivity of their interactions with their children (Schofield & Weaver, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref43">53</reflink>]). Teacher preparation aims to build the habits of action that support sensitive and responsive caregiving, and these should be modeled and practiced in practicum placements.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-5">Partnering with diverse families</hd> <p>Viewing families as systems, practitioners must value not only their own relationship with the families they serve but also their role in supporting the relationships among children and their family members. Partnering with diverse families entails a commitment to respectful and trusting interactions, bidirectional communication, and shared goals for the child's education (Jeon, Kwon, Guss, & Horm, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref44">34</reflink>]; Kim & Sheridan, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref45">37</reflink>]). Existing research suggests that positive dispositions that support families are shaped by having had work experiences in formal or informal caregiving settings (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref46">27</reflink>]), and that the majority of undergraduates enrolled in ECE degree programs have had such work experiences (La Paro, Siepak, & Scott-Little, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref47">39</reflink>]). Further, undergraduates with formal caregiving experience report greater endorsement of practices that are supportive of parent–child relationships compared to those with only informal experience (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref48">27</reflink>]). Thus, practicum experiences may further enhance the positive dispositions of students who have had work experience and may serve a critical role for those who have not yet had such experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-6">Guiding infant/toddler behavior</hd> <p>Competence in guiding I/T behavior requires practitioners to approach guidance with dispositions that draw on appropriate developmental expectations and that maintain or enhance the positive teacher–child relationship. Lippard and colleagues (2019) found that undergraduates with formal or informal work experience were less likely to endorse strict discipline than those with no experience. Additionally, Gardner-Neblett and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref49">29</reflink>]) found that I/T educators' participation in professional development experiences was associated with more progressive and child-centered dispositions, including less authoritarian attitudes. Child care providers who hold less authoritarian attitudes were observed having more positive interactions (e.g., shared positive affect, positive physical contact, responding to children's vocalizations) with infants (Vandell & NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref50">64</reflink>]). Similarly, less authoritarian beliefs among pre-service educators were associated with endorsement of developmentally supportive responses to vignettes of common behavior guidance situations (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref51">63</reflink>]). Similar to partnering with diverse families, dispositions undergirding competency in guidance appear sensitive to experience with children, and further suggesting the valuable role of supervised and supported experiences with young children within preservice training programs.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-7">Supporting development and learning</hd> <p>Practitioners support infants' and toddlers' development and learning by understanding children's current development and interests, and responsively offering opportunities, environments, and interactions that encourage growth across developmental domains (Halle, Anderson, Blasberg, Chrisler, & Simkin, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref52">30</reflink>]). Dispositions of prekindergarten and elementary education teachers about specific content (e.g., use of technology, math, science) predict teachers' practices related to those content areas. In ECCE, it is more general dispositions about child development and learning, and ways to support development across domains, which predict classroom practices (Stipek & Byler, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref53">56</reflink>]). More child-centered and less authoritarian beliefs are associated with less directive teacher–child interactions (Tonyan, Mamikonian-Zarpas, & Chien, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref54">60</reflink>]). Further, pre-service early childhood students' views of development as malleable, and their child-centered (as opposed to teacher-directed) beliefs about supporting learning were associated with their endorsement of more developmentally supportive practices in response to vignettes describing realistic infant/toddler learning scenarios (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref55">63</reflink>]). Importantly, pre-service students' knowledge of child development – which should be influenced by their educational experiences – predicated these dispositions (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref56">63</reflink>]). Thus, we might expect dispositions undergirding students' competency in supporting learning and development to be predicted by students' experiences in practicum settings.</p> <p>Taken together, it is clear that dispositions regarding infant/toddler caregiving are influenced by a host of personal, professional, and academic experiences. More needs to be learned about how individuals' characteristics and experiences mutually shape I/T caregiving dispositions, and the extent to which these dispositions are malleable as undergraduates progress through preservice programs preparing them to work with young children and their families. There is some evidence to suggest that practicum experience, especially when it is with infants and toddlers, helps undergraduates change and develop their practices. Undergraduates who have had infant practicum experiences and participated in weekly journaling or teacher research have demonstrated changes in beliefs about infants and toddlers' development, assumptions about infant care and parent–provider relationships, feeling more comfortable communicating with families, and redefining the term "teaching" in infants and toddlers (Branscomb & Ethridge, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref57">9</reflink>]; Recchia & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref58">50</reflink>]). Undergraduates who received individualized feedback and support using videotaped observations of had higher quality interactions with infants and toddlers in the classroom, such as facilitating learning and modeling language (Kennedy & Lees, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref59">35</reflink>]). However, as our sample indicates, not all students in practitioner preparation programs will have the opportunity to complete a practicum with infants and toddlers.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-8">Variability in preparation programs</hd> <p>There is not a consistent "educational floor" expected for practitioners who work with infants and toddlers in child care settings (Whitebook, [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref60">69</reflink>]), but there is increasing support for higher education as one avenue to gaining professional competencies. Unlike teacher preparation programs for elementary and secondary education or specializations such as speech-language pathology, early childhood preparation programs have had great latitude in designing their course of study. Although some states have some required elements for ECCE preparation programs, not all do; some programs attain NAEYC or CAEP accreditation, but this is not widely expected. Thus, there is great variability in undergraduate programs that prepare students to work with infants and toddlers (IOM & NRC, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref61">33</reflink>]). Early childhood preparation programs can fall within several disciplines, departments, or colleges (e.g., education, human development, family studies, home economics, etc.) (Chazan-Cohen, Vallotton, Harewood, & Buell, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref62">14</reflink>]) at various universities. Furthermore, there is great variability in coursework, field experiences, admissions requirements, faculty characteristics, and credentials acquired (Early & Winton, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref63">24</reflink>]; Sumrall et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref64">58</reflink>]). Many programs are not geared toward infants and toddlers and provide limited I/T content and field experience. Given this variability in preparation programs, it is imperative to study how these variations are associated with the acquisition of competencies (Horm, Hyson, & Winton, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]; Whitebook et al., [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref66">70</reflink>]). A key aspect of higher education preparation programs of particular interest in this paper is field experiences, or practica, that occur prior to a culminating student teaching or internship experience.</p> <p>Practicum is a cornerstone of most ECCE practitioner preparation programs. These experiences give undergraduates an opportunity to "practice in practice" (Darling-Hammond, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref67">22</reflink>]), in other words, to practice their skills in the context of the professional practice. Practica are defined here as those "classroom-based experiences prior to student teaching that are completed under the supervision of a mentor or supervising teacher" (La Paro, Lippard, Fusaro, & Cook, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref68">38</reflink>]), are typically 3–6 hours per week, and involve interacting with children and participating in classroom happenings, such as planning and implementing activities and collecting assessment data. Darling-Hammond notes that in addition to being prepared in the knowledge, or "what" of teaching, "it is equally important to organize prospective teachers' experiences so that they can integrate and use their knowledge in skillful ways in the classroom" (Darling-Hammond, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref69">22</reflink>]). The IOM and NRC Report <emph>Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref70">33</reflink>]) emphasizes the importance of practicum occurring alongside formal coursework to provide application opportunities for what is learned in coursework. In turn, experiences in practicum raise questions and provide practical knowledge that feed back into coursework. Research on practitioner preparation has identified at least 30 weeks of field experiences that are well aligned to coursework (Darling-Hammond, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref71">22</reflink>]), including practicum and student teaching, as an important feature of preparation programs. Careful design of practica allows for repeated application of knowledge and skills within experience (Vartuli, Snider, Snider, & Holley, [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref72">68</reflink>]); multiple experiences over time support preservice practitioners in accumulating new experiences and moving to deeper levels of learning (Maynard, La Paro, & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref73">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within early education preparation programs, the inclusion of infant/toddler focused courses and practicum experiences vary widely. Many early childhood practitioner preparation programs focus more on the preschool age group and less on infants and toddlers, with bachelor's degree granting programs covering less infant/toddler content than associate degree programs (Austin, Whitebook, & Amanta, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref74">4</reflink>]). This is true across all types of courses, including practica. Although laboratory schools serving infants and toddlers are a resource for some programs, difficulties locating high-quality infant/toddler settings in the community for practicum placements (Chazan-Cohen, Vallotton, Harewood, & Buell, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref75">14</reflink>]) often mean that preparation programs do not require practica within infant/toddler settings. This is reflected in the current study, with the small number of students enrolled in practicum exclusively with infants and/or toddlers prohibiting analyses specific to this experience. Thus, students' past and current enrollment in an infant/toddler focused course is included as a covariate to help isolate the contribution of practica experiences, in general.</p> <p>Given the variability in the nuances of early educator teacher preparation, it is important to identify how experiences common across programs, such as a practicum within some type of early childhood setting, serve to support teacher candidates' competency development. We recognize the potential value of extended infant/toddler-specific practica to support teachers' developing I/T competencies directly. However, in light of the current higher education landscape, we seek to understand whether having one or more supervised practicum experience with young children more generally, over the course of an academic term, shapes pre-service teachers' readiness to support the development of our youngest learners.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-9">Current study</hd> <p>Recognizing the importance of dispositions to preparation of future infant/toddler practitioners, the current study examines how practicum experiences are associated with undergraduates' attitudes and beliefs about working with infants and toddlers. We address the following research questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref76">1</reflink>) Do previous practica predict undergraduates' dispositions at the beginning of the semester? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref77">2</reflink>) Does being in a practicum in the current semester predict end-of-semester dispositions (beyond beginning-of-semester dispositions)?</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-10">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-11">Study design and context</hd> <p>The Collaborative for Understanding the Pedagogy of Infant/toddler Development (CUPID) is a group of more than 60 scholars from 40 US institutions of higher education and professional development. Members have collaborated regularly since 2013 to discuss teaching practices and pedagogy, develop and refine a set of professional competencies for those working with infants, toddlers, and their families, and to collect and analyze data regarding undergraduates' experiences, education, beliefs, practices, and knowledge regarding infants and toddlers. Although we recognize the ideal assessment of competencies would be to observe preservice practitioners as they work with infants and toddlers, that is beyond the scope of this project. Therefore, we rely on survey assessment of students attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, and hypothetical practices to assess their "habits of professional action and moral commitments that underlie an educator's performance" (CAEP, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref78">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>In determining the experiences of individual students based on the coursework they reported completing, faculty from collaborating universities provided descriptive information about program features at their respective institutions. For the current study, we utilized faculty descriptions of program structure and university-specific courses with a practicum component and courses with a particular content focus on the infant/toddler period. We then incorporated this course specific information with data from undergraduate participants collected at 12 universities across the U.S. during the 2015–2016 academic year.</p> <p>Although participants in this study were drawn from a convenience sample of universities who had faculty involved in CUPID, a range of programs and experiences are represented. Twelve universities are represented in the current sample, including 11 public and 1 private university. All are four-year degree granting institutions, and 7 of the 12 are considered "very high research activity"/R1 universities (Center for Postsecondary Research, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref79">12</reflink>]) Additional details are provided in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Characteristics of participating universities.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Removed/ unblinded later</td><td>n=</td><td>College; Department</td><td>Lab school? Infants and toddlers?</td><td>% of undergrads in related majors who complete I/T practicum</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1</td><td>617 (47%)</td><td>Social Science, Human Development & Family Studies</td><td>Yes, 3–42 months</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>143 (11%)</td><td>Education & Human Services; Human Development & Family Studies</td><td>Yes, 6 weeks-3 years, also has PK</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>45 (3.5%)</td><td>Science; Psychology & Child Development</td><td>Yes, 3 months-5 years</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>144 (11%)</td><td>Education; Child & Adolescent Development</td><td>Yes, 2 years-5 years</td><td>10%</td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>12 (1%)</td><td>Human Environmental Sciences; Human Dev & Family Science</td><td>Yes, 6 weeks-5 years</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>33 (3%)</td><td>Human Environmental Sciences; Human Dev & Family Science</td><td>Yes, 6 weeks-5 years</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>34 (3%)</td><td>Education & Human Development, Curriculum & Instruction</td><td>No</td><td>0%</td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>10 (>1%)</td><td>Human Sciences, Human Development & Family Studies</td><td>Yes, 6 weeks-5 years</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>82 (6%)</td><td>Education & Human Development; Human Development & Family Studies</td><td>Yes, 2 years-5 years, also campus child care centers 6 m-school age</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>17 (1%)</td><td>Education</td><td>No</td><td>100%</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>129 (9.9%)</td><td>Education, Health & Human Development; Health & Human Development</td><td>Yes, 3 years-5 years</td><td>5–10%</td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>36 (2.76%)</td><td>Education and Human Sciences; Human Development and Family Science</td><td>Yes, 1 year-5 years</td><td>100%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Data presented here reflects programs as they were in 2015–2016.</p> <p>Given the dearth of documentation on the variability in infant/toddler preparation programs, we here explain variability among the participating programs on key aspects of their curriculum and practices related to practica. Of the 12 programs, all offer practica; only 7 require a practicum with infants or toddlers; two additional programs offer the option of a practicum with infants and/or toddlers. The number of courses including a practicum component offered by each university ranged from zero to 8. Programs on the higher end of the range often allowed undergraduates to choose a couple of courses from many choices so undergraduates in most of the participating programs were taking 4–6 courses that involved some practicum component. Most courses involved 2–3 hours a week in the field placement. Thus, on the extreme ends of programs in our sample a student may not take any practicum courses in their undergraduate program and on the other end a student may take four semesters of practicum courses starting with a 12/hours per semester practicum then three semesters of 36/hours per semester, followed by full-time internship or student teaching. Of the 12 programs, 10 offer courses in which the content specifically focused on infants and toddlers, and all offer courses that include some infant/toddler content. Nine of the 12 programs have an affiliated lab school; only 8 of these lab schools serving toddlers and 6 serving both infants and toddlers.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-12">Participants</hd> <p>Participants for this study were undergraduate students enrolled in courses related to child development, human development, and ECCE at 12 universities across the US Undergraduates were invited to complete a survey at the beginning and end of the semester, hereto forth referred to as <emph>pre-survey</emph> and <emph>post survey</emph> respectively. Participation in the research study was voluntary and did not impact course credit. Note that the pre- and post-surveys were the same, with additional time-invariant information (e.g., demographics) collected at the pre-survey. Of the original sample of 1649 undergraduate students who completed a pre-survey in Fall 2015 or Spring 2016, 344 students were removed from the sample because they were missing data that would indicate whether they previously had, or were currently, enrolled in a practicum. In total, 1302 undergraduates comprise the sample for pre-survey analyses. From this sample, any student who had pre-survey and post-survey data was retained in the analytic sample for pre/post models, yielding a pre/post sample of 952 undergraduates.</p> <p>Participants[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref80">1</reflink>] for the current study were predominantly female (88%), upperclassmen (51%), traditional college age (87% between 18 and 23 years old), and identified as white (69%, see Table 2). The majority of participants (70%) had some experience working with children, with 23% having formal experience working in center-based child care or family home child care. The pre-survey only sample differed from the pre-post sample in terms of previous practicum, informal work experience, and formal work experience. Undergraduates in the pre/post sample were more likely to have had a previous practicum <emph>t</emph>(1300)=-2.47, <emph>p</emph> =.013, more likely to have had informal work experience <emph>t</emph> (1300)=-6.25, <emph>p</emph> <.01, and more likely to have had formal work experience <emph>t</emph> (1300)=-2.03, <emph>p</emph> =.04 than those who only completed the pre-survey. Across universities, average student age and class standing was similar; however racial and ethnic diversity were more varied. Analytical comparison of students across universities is an important undertaking to examine regional, cultural, and religious differences; however, it is beyond the scope of this paper.</p> <p>Table 2. Participant demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Pre-survey Sample</td><td>Pre-Post Sample</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Age</td><td>21.33 (4.95) [18–71]</td><td>21.18 (4.72) [18–71]</td></tr><tr><td>Race</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>African American/Black</td><td>11%</td><td>11%</td></tr><tr><td>Asian/Pacific Islander</td><td>9%</td><td>7%</td></tr><tr><td>Multiracial</td><td>4%</td><td>4%</td></tr><tr><td>White</td><td>69%</td><td>72%</td></tr><tr><td>Other</td><td>7%</td><td>6%</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Latinx</td><td>10%</td><td>10%</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>88%</td><td>89%</td></tr><tr><td>Work Experience with I/Ts</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Had formal experience</td><td>28%</td><td>29%</td></tr><tr><td>Had informal experience</td><td>65%</td><td>70%</td></tr><tr><td>Class Standing</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Freshman</td><td>22%</td><td>22%</td></tr><tr><td>Sophomore</td><td>27%</td><td>27%</td></tr><tr><td>Junior</td><td>27%</td><td>27%</td></tr><tr><td>Senior</td><td>24%</td><td>24%</td></tr><tr><td>ECE Career Goal</td><td>35%</td><td>35%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 Formal and informal experience were not mutually exclusive.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-13">Procedures & measures</hd> <p>Undergraduates enrolled in participating courses were invited to participate in an online survey about their backgrounds and experiences, and their dispositions related to infant/toddler care and education. Undergraduates who chose to participate completed informed consent and the 45-minute survey, made up of a series of questionnaires, via Qualtrics online survey software. For the current study, responses to 7 attitude-based measures (described below) were used to assess dispositions. Most questions specified that they applied to infants or toddlers; however, for broader concepts that apply across ages in early childhood such as child-led learning, some questions used the more broad reference to <emph>children</emph>. Prior research using the same measures has resulted in high internal consistency across items within disposition, indicating the occasional use of the broader term <emph>child</emph> was acceptable (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref81">63</reflink>]). In each case, participants indicated the extent to which they agreed with the provided statement on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with 1 indicating lower endorsement of the statement and 5 indicating greater endorsement. For each measure, a mean score was created by reverse-coding appropriate items and then averaging across items. Means, standard deviations, and ranges are presented in Table 3.</p> <p>Table 3. Means, standard deviations, and ranges of Measures.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td /><td>Full Sample Pre-scores (<italic>n</italic> = 1302)</td><td>Pre/Post Sample Pre-scores (<italic>n</italic> = 952)</td><td>Pre/Post Sample Post Scores (<italic>n</italic> = 952)</td></tr><tr><td>Building Supportive Relationships</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Structure</td><td /><td>3.25 (.46) [2.08–5]</td><td>3.26 (.46) [2.33–5]</td><td>3.26 (.50) [1.83–5]</td></tr><tr><td>IT Dependence</td><td /><td>2.82 (.98) [1–5]</td><td>2.82 (.98) [1–5]</td><td>2.67 (1.04) [1–5]</td></tr><tr><td>Partnering/Supporting Diverse Families</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Parent Support</td><td /><td>3.85 (.66) [1–5]</td><td>3.86 (.66) [1–5]</td><td>3.88 (.69) [2.29–5]</td></tr><tr><td>Guiding Behavior</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Harsh Guidance</td><td /><td>2.34 (.73) [1–5]</td><td>2.34 (.74) [1–5]</td><td>2.35 (.79) [1–5]</td></tr><tr><td>Supporting Development & Learning</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Child Lead</td><td /><td>3.29 (.48) [1–5]</td><td>3.30 (.49) [1–5]</td><td>3.33 (.52) [1–5]</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher Directed</td><td /><td>3.46 (.59) [1–5]</td><td>3.46 (.60) [1–5]</td><td>3.41 (.62) [1–5]</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher Influence</td><td /><td>1.95 (.77) [1–5]</td><td>1.92 (.77) [1–5)</td><td>2.05 (.87) [1–5]</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0179069503-14">Practicum experience</hd> <p>Participants answered university-specific questions about their current and previous coursework. Courses were designated as having a practicum component (i.e., a field experience that required the student to interact directly with children) based on university faculty report. Participants were then divided into four mutually exclusive categories—(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref82">1</reflink>) those who had never had a practicum, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>) those who are currently enrolled in their first practicum (FP), (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref84">3</reflink>) those who are currently enrolled in a practicum and have had at least one previous practicum (2nd+ practicum; CPP), and (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref85">4</reflink>) undergraduates who have been previously enrolled in a practicum but are not currently (PP). The proportion of undergraduates in an infant/toddler practicum during the semesters of interest was so low (4%) that we divide undergraduates into groups based on all early childhood practica, regardless of age focus.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-15">Infant and toddler courses</hd> <p>Similarly, participants' infant/toddler course work was assessed based on their report of courses in which they were currently and previously enrolled. Courses were designated as having a focus on infant and toddler content based on university faculty report. Separate dichotomous variables were created to indicate if undergraduates were currently in an infant/toddler focused course and if they had previously taken one.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-16">Building supportive relationships</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-17">Support for teacher–child relationships</hd> <p>This 10-item questionnaire assessed the extent to which undergraduates endorsed classroom practices that promoted the building of teacher–child relationships (e.g., "It is important for infants and toddlers to stay with one teacher for as long as possible"). A higher score indicates stronger agreement with practices that support relationships. One item for this questionnaire was drawn from Anderson and McMullen's ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref86">2</reflink>]) Student Opinions about Infant/Toddler Care Survey, the rest were created by the CUPID group inspired by concepts in the Parent–Caregiver Relationships Survey (Elicker, Noppe, Noppe, & Fortner-Wood, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref87">25</reflink>]), which assesses beliefs about the importance of partnering with parents. Pre and posttest internal consistency were high (alpha =.81,.83 respectively).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-18">Infant/toddler dependency</hd> <p>To assess undergraduates' beliefs regarding responsive caregiving leading to over dependence, participants completed a five-item questionnaire (e.g., "It is likely that caregivers will spoil a baby if they respond every time the baby cries") with items adapted from the Parental Opinion Survey (Luster, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref88">42</reflink>]). Higher scores indicated greater concern that responsive caregiving would lead to overdependence. Thus, lower scores indicated dispositions aligned with more positive support for building relationships. Pre- and posttest internal consistency were high (alpha =.91,.93 respectively).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-19">Partnering with and supporting diverse families</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-20">Supporting parent–child relationships</hd> <p>Participants answered 7 items from the Beliefs about Infants Toddler Education and Care scale (Anderson & McMullen, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref89">2</reflink>]) about supporting parent–child relationships (e.g., "Before a baby or toddler begins attending a child care program, it is important for parents to spend time in the classroom with their child."). Higher scores indicate greater endorsement of practices supportive of parent–child relationships. Internal consistency was high for both pre and posttest (alpha =.89,.91 respectively).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-21">Guiding infants' and toddlers' behavior</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-22">Harsh guidance</hd> <p>Endorsement of harsh guidance techniques was assessed using a six-item questionnaire with higher scores indicating greater endorsement of the practice. Items were adapted from Luster's ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref90">42</reflink>]) Parental Opinion Survey and Bavolek and Keene's ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref91">5</reflink>]) Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory. Example items include, "Child care teachers should be strict with one-year-olds; otherwise they will be difficult to manage later on." and, "Spanking teaches children right from wrong." Internal consistency was high for pre and posttest (alpha =.82,.86).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-23">Supporting development and learning</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-24">Child-led learning</hd> <p>Participants' beliefs regarding child-led learning were assessed by six items such as, "The enthusiasm and interest children have in a task is more important than how well they can do it." Items were adapted from the Parent Opinion Survey (Luster, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref92">42</reflink>]), the Parent Modernity Inventory (Schaefer & Edgerton, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref93">51</reflink>]), and the Teaching Belief Scale (Stipek & Byler, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref94">56</reflink>]). Internal consistency for this scale was high (alpha =.82 pre,.85 post). Higher scores indicated greater belief in the value of child-led learning.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-25">Teacher-directedness</hd> <p>Participants responded to items reflecting their beliefs about the importance of children learning academic concepts, such as letter recognition and counting, and the use of teacher-led teaching strategies, such as whole-group circle times and repetition (e.g., "Circle time is a valuable learning activity for toddlers."). Items were drawn from Stipek and Byler's ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref95">56</reflink>]) Teaching Belief Scale and CUPID created items. Internal consistency for the measure was acceptable (alpha =.79 pre,.77 post). Higher scores indicated greater endorsement for teacher-directed learning strategies and focus on academic concepts, thus lower scores indicated dispositions aligned with more positive support for development and learning.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-26">Teacher influence</hd> <p>Participants' beliefs about the extent to which teachers can influence development, as opposed to development being intractable, was measured with four questions adapted from the Parental Opinion Survey ([Luster, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref96">42</reflink>]] e.g., "There is not much a that a teacher can do to influence a child's intellectual development before the child's second birthday."). Higher scores indicating greater belief in teachers' ability to influence development and thus less deterministic dispositions related to supporting development and learning. Pre- and posttest internal consistency were high (alpha =.86,.89 respectively).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-27">Control variables</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-28">Class standing</hd> <p>Undergraduates self-reported their current class standing at the beginning of the semester. Junior class standing was used as the reference in all analyses. Class standing served as an indicator of total coursework exposure.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-29">Informal and formal work experience</hd> <p>Undergraduates reported their previous work experience with children under 3 years of age, indicating if they had informal experience such as babysitting or nannying and if they had formal experience, such as working in a childcare center or family home child care. These variables are not mutually exclusive; each dichotomous variable reflects whether or not the student reported the relevant type of work experience. Note that in this sample 84% of the students who reported formal work experience with infants and toddlers also reported having informal work experience with this age group. Thus, the variable for formal work experience should be considered as capturing the effect of formal experience above and beyond informal work experience. This variable is included as a control due to previous research indicating the impact of work experience on undergraduates beliefs (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref97">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-30">Early childhood career goal</hd> <p>Students indicated their career/professional goals for shortly after completion of their education. From a list of 31 options, students could check all goals that applied, as well as options for "I don't know" and "other." If students checked one or more of the following options, they were coded as having an early-childhood related career goal: child care center director, child care provider, child life specialist, early child educator, early interventionist, and/or home visitor.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-31">University</hd> <p>Undergraduates reported their home university. University was controlled for, with a large Midwestern research university used as the reference; 47% of the participants attended this university.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-32">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179069503-33">Undergraduates beginning-of-semester beliefs</hd> <p>In an effort to examine aspects of undergraduates' educational and work experience associated with four dispositions, we first used linear regression analysis to predict undergraduates' beliefs and attitude at the beginning of the semester based on their prior experiences coming into the class (see Table 4). In all but one model, having had a previous practica was significantly associated with students' dispositions. Results for each belief and attitude are briefly summarized below (see Table 4 for details).</p> <p>Table 4. Regression models predicting pretest scores.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Building Supportive Relationships</td><td>Partnering & Supporting Parents</td><td>Guiding Behavior</td><td>Supporting Development & Learning</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Structure</td><td>Dependence</td><td>Parent Support</td><td>Harsh Guidance</td><td>Child Lead</td><td>Teacher Directed</td><td>Teacher Influence</td></tr><tr><td>Direction</td><td>+</td><td>-</td><td>+</td><td>-</td><td>+</td><td>-</td><td>+</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Previous Practicum</td><td>.08 (.04)*</td><td>−.33 (.08)***</td><td>.17 (.05)**</td><td>−.22 (.06)***</td><td>−.05 (.04)</td><td>−.21 (.05)***</td><td>.17 (06)**</td></tr><tr><td>Infant/Toddler Class</td><td>.06 (.05)</td><td>−.16 (.11)</td><td>.07 (.07)</td><td>−.01 (.08)</td><td>−.05 (.05)</td><td>−.13 (.07)*</td><td>−.02 (.08)</td></tr><tr><td>Class Standing<sup>a</sup></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Freshman</td><td>−.11 (.04)**</td><td>−.05 (.09)</td><td>−.14 (.06)*</td><td>.10 (.07)</td><td>−.08 (.05)</td><td>−.04 (.06)</td><td>−.22 (.07)**</td></tr><tr><td>Sophomore</td><td>−.11 (.04)**</td><td>−.08 (.08)</td><td>−.14 (.05)**</td><td>.14 (.06)*</td><td>−.07 (.04)</td><td>−.07 (.05)</td><td>−.13 (.06)*</td></tr><tr><td>Senior</td><td>−.05 (.04)</td><td>−.11 (.08)</td><td>−.07 (.05)</td><td>.01 (.06)</td><td>.05 (.04)</td><td>−.09 (.05)</td><td>−.02 (.06)</td></tr><tr><td>I/T Informal Experience</td><td>.05 (.03)</td><td>−.05 (.06)</td><td>.10 (.04)**</td><td>−.07 (.04)</td><td>.11 (.03)**</td><td>.09 (.04)*</td><td>.14 (.05)**</td></tr><tr><td>I/T Formal Experience</td><td>.07 (.03)*</td><td>−.09 (.07)</td><td>.15 (.04)**</td><td>−.06 (.05)</td><td>−.02 (.03)</td><td>−.04 (.04)</td><td>.02 (.05)</td></tr><tr><td>ECE Career Goal</td><td>.04 (.03)</td><td>.06 (.07)</td><td>.13 (.04)**</td><td>−.07 (.05)</td><td>.04 (.03)</td><td>.01 (.04)</td><td>.06 (.05)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 University was included as an additional control and significant in some, but not all, cases. Those results are not presented in the table due to space and are available upon request. * = p<.05, ** = p<.01, *** = p<.001 <sups>a</sups>Comparison group for class standing is junior.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-34">Building supportive relationships</hd> <p>Undergraduates' attitudes regarding classroom practices that promote teacher–child relationships were positively associated with undergraduates' having had a previous practicum and having had formal work experience with infants and toddlers. Additionally, undergraduates in their freshman and sophomore year indicated significantly lower endorsement for these practices than undergraduates in their junior year. Undergraduates who had a previous practicum indicated significantly lower concerns that responsive caregiving leads to overdependence of infants and toddlers on caregivers.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-35">Partnering with and supporting diverse families</hd> <p>Undergraduates' attitudes about the importance of supporting the parent–child relationship were also associated with having had a previous practicum, such that those with a prior practicum reported this was more important than those who had not had practicum experience. Other experience car for children, both informal and formal, was also associated with greater endorsement of this construct, as was having a goal of a career in an ECE field and being further in your academic program.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-36">Guiding infants' and toddlers' behavior</hd> <p>Having previous practicum experience was associated with lower endorsement of harsh guidance strategies. Sophomores indicated a greater endorsement for harsh guidance strategies than juniors, but freshmen were not significantly different from juniors.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-37">Supporting development & learning</hd> <p>Undergraduates dispositions toward child-led learning were only associated with having had informal experience with infants and toddlers, such that those who had informal experience indicated a higher value for child-led learning than those who had not. Indicators of teacher-directed beliefs reflected both endorsement of teacher-directed teaching strategies and beliefs about the importance of academic learning goals, which are not developmentally appropriate for infants and toddlers. Having had a previous practicum was associated with lower endorsement of teacher-directedness. Having taken a class focused on infants and toddlers was also associated with lower endorsement of teacher-directedness. However, having had informal experience with infants and toddlers was associated with greater endorsement of teacher directedness, suggesting that informal work experiences have a mixed effect on infant/toddler caregiving dispositions. Undergraduates who had completed a previous practica indicated greater belief in teachers' ability to influence children's learning and development, as did those who had informal experience working with infants and toddlers. Undergraduates who were further in their coursework (i.e., juniors) also indicated greater beliefs in teachers' influence than did freshmen or sophomores.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-38">Current and prior experiences and end-of-semester beliefs</hd> <p>To address questions regarding learning during the semester, we examine how <emph>current</emph> practicum experiences are associated with end-of-semester attitudes beyond beginning-of-semester attitudes, current and past infant/toddler courses, and other control variables. Detailed results for each disposition are briefly summarized below (see Table 5 for details). Note that across all dispositions, pre-scores were a significant predictor of post-scores.</p> <p>Table 5. Regression models predicting post test scores.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Building Supportive Relationships</td><td>Partnering & Supporting Parents</td><td>Guiding Behavior</td><td>Supporting Development & Learning</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Structure</td><td>Dependence</td><td>Parent Support</td><td>Harsh Guidance</td><td>Child Lead</td><td>Teacher Directed</td><td>Teacher Influence</td></tr><tr><td>Practicum Status</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>First Practicum</td><td>.03 (.04)</td><td>.03 (.09)</td><td>−.08 (.07)</td><td>−.01 (.07)</td><td>−.01 (.06)</td><td>−.04 (.07)</td><td>−.02 (.09)</td></tr><tr><td>Previous and Current Practicum</td><td>.15 (.05)**</td><td>−.15 (.11)</td><td>−.00 (.08)</td><td>−.20 (.09)*</td><td>−.08 (.07)</td><td>−.22 (.08)**</td><td>.25 (.11)*</td></tr><tr><td>Previous Practicum</td><td>.01 (.05)</td><td>.11 (.11)</td><td>−.03 (.08)</td><td>−.00 (.09)</td><td>.04 (.07)</td><td>.06 (.08)</td><td>.05 (.11)</td></tr><tr><td>Current I/T Class</td><td>.04 (.06)</td><td>.03 (.13)</td><td>.05 (.09)</td><td>.01 (.11)</td><td>.03 (.08)</td><td>−.16 (.09)</td><td>−.02 (.13)</td></tr><tr><td>Previous I/T Class</td><td>.18 (.06)**</td><td>−.11 (.12)</td><td>.07 (.08)</td><td>−.08 (.10)</td><td>−.04 (.08)</td><td>−.26 (.09)**</td><td>.03 (.12)</td></tr><tr><td>Class Standing</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Freshman</td><td>−.02 (.04)</td><td>.12 (.09)</td><td>−.06 (.06)</td><td>.04 (.07)</td><td>.00 (.06)</td><td>.07 (.06)</td><td>−.12 (.09)</td></tr><tr><td>Sophomore</td><td>−.00 (.04)</td><td>.13 (.08)</td><td>−.05 (.06)</td><td>.02 (.06)</td><td>.02 (.05)</td><td>.08 (.06)</td><td>−.07 (.08)</td></tr><tr><td>Senior</td><td>.01 (.04)</td><td>.00 (.08)</td><td>.02 (.05)</td><td>.00 (.06)</td><td>.03 (.05)</td><td>.08 (.06)</td><td>−.05(.08)</td></tr><tr><td>Pre-score</td><td>.28 (.01)***</td><td>.65 (.03)***</td><td>.36 (.02)***</td><td>.43 (.02)***</td><td>.18 (.02)***</td><td>.26 (.02)***</td><td>−.34 (.03)***</td></tr><tr><td>I/T Informal Experience</td><td>.01 (.03)</td><td>−.15 (.06)*</td><td>.03 (.04)</td><td>−.09 (.05)*</td><td>−.04 (.04)</td><td>.00 (.04)</td><td>.08 (.06)</td></tr><tr><td>I/T Formal Experience</td><td>.02 (.03)</td><td>.05 (.06)</td><td>.03 (.04)</td><td>−.02 (.05)</td><td>−.04 (.04)</td><td>−.06 (.04)</td><td>.02 (.06)</td></tr><tr><td>ECE Career Goal</td><td>.01 (.03)</td><td>.02 (.06)</td><td>.05 (.05)</td><td>−.04 (.05)</td><td>.05 (.04)</td><td>.00 (.04)</td><td>−.02 (.06)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 University was included as an additional control and significant in some, but not all, cases. Those results are not presented in the table due to space and are available upon request. Models presented are for practicum status compared to students who do not have not ever had a practicum. Comparisons for other practicum groups were examined and significant differences noted here. * = p<.05, ** = p<.01, *** = p<.001 <bold>Structure</bold>: Previous and Current Practicum (PCP)>First Practicum (FP) =.12 (.05)*; PCP>Previous Practicum (PP) =.13 (.06)*. <bold>Harsh Guidance</bold>: PCP<FP = −.19 (.09)*. <bold>Teacher Directed</bold>: PCP<FP = −.17 (.08)*; PCP<PP = −.27 (.09)**. <bold>IT Dependency</bold>: PCP<PP = −.26 (.13)* <bold>Teacher Influence</bold>: PCP<FP =.26 (.11)*.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-39">Building supportive relationships</hd> <p>With regard to attitudes about classroom practices that support the teacher–child relationship, undergraduates in the <emph>current and previous practicum</emph> group indicated greater endorsement for these practices than any of the other three groups. Undergraduates who had previously taken a course focused on infants and toddlers also further endorsed these attitudes. Regarding infants' and toddlers' over-dependence on caregivers, the <emph>previous practicum</emph> group indicated greater endorsement of these attitudes than the <emph>current and previous practicum</emph> group.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-40">Partnering with and supporting diverse families</hd> <p>Only undergraduates' attitudes at the beginning of the semester were significantly associated with their end-of-semester attitudes about the role of teachers in supporting parent–child relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-41">Guiding Infants' and Toddlers' behavior</hd> <p>The <emph>current and previous practicum</emph> group endorsed harsh guidance to a lesser degree than those who had never had a practicum and those in their first practicum. Undergraduates who had informal experience working with infants and toddlers also indicated less endorsement for harsh guidance, and undergraduates' beginning of semester attitudes were significantly associated with end of semester endorsement.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-42">Supporting development & learning</hd> <p>Undergraduates in the <emph>current and previous practicum</emph> group indicated significantly lower endorsement of teacher directed attitudes than any of the other practicum groups. Additionally, undergraduates who had previously taken an infant/toddler focused course endorsed this to a lesser extent than those who had not previously taken an infant/toddler course. Undergraduates in the <emph>current and previous practicum</emph> group also indicated beliefs that teachers had more influence on children's' learning and development than did undergraduates who had never had a practicum and those in their first practicum.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-43">Discussion</hd> <p>Our findings indicate that students with prior practicum experiences start courses with more appropriate dispositions, and that growth over the semester is greatest among those who both have prior practicum experience and are currently in a practicum placement. This provides further evidence that practical experience with young children is critical to the development of competencies among pre-service early childhood practitioners. Further, these findings align with prior work indicating that both formal and informal work experiences with children can be beneficial for undergraduates (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref98">27</reflink>]) and the theoretical suppositions asserting the importance of applying learning in real life settings (Darling-Hammond, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref99">22</reflink>]), as well as the Whole Teacher framework. The Whole Teacher development approach highlights the complex and on-going nature of teacher development, acknowledging that different components of teachers' competencies, including dispositions, knowledge, and skills develop in contingent ways (Chen & Chang, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref100">15</reflink>]; Chen & McCray, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref101">16</reflink>]). Dispositions, an important aspect of competency, influence teachers' work with children. Our current findings suggest that supervised practica experiences add to competent dispositions above and beyond the contribution of previous work experience with children.</p> <p>In addition to documenting a snapshot of the variability among four year undergraduate programs preparing practitioners to work with young children, our findings further the field by demonstrating the critical nature of multiple practicum experiences. The group of students whose attitudes changed most in a given semester were those who both had previous practicum experience and were currently enrolled in a practicum experience. These undergraduates showed more change in attitudes, related to structure, guidance, teacher directedness, and teachers' influence on children's development than those in their first practicum. In a time of limited resources in higher education, there is a temptation to reduce resource-heavy aspects of undergraduate programs; however, our findings highlight the necessity of repeated practica to actualize a high impact experience for students.</p> <p>Notably, neither practicum experience nor infant/toddler course work were related to change over the semester in attitudes related to parent support, child-led learning, and infant/toddler dependency. Given that having had a practicum was associated with these initial beliefs, but an additional practicum was not associated with further change, it is likely that the process of changing attitudes differs for different competnecies, with some attitudes requiring more than a semester to change. It is also important to recognize that across all dispositions, the most influential predictor of end-of-semester dispositions were those the student had coming in. This is not surprising given the complex set of experiences, beliefs, and values students have amassed prior to college, and aligns with prior findings of the role of attachment in students' dispositions (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref102">63</reflink>]). Sevimli-Celik ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref103">54</reflink>]) noted similar coalescing of students' prior experiences and values and their practicum experience in their end-of-semester reflections specific to early childhood physical education.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-44">Changing dispositions, growing competencies</hd> <p>The extent to which dispositions are malleable varies (Vartuli & Rohs, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref104">67</reflink>]). This is not surprising as undergraduates' dispositions are informed by their previous experiences with children (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref105">27</reflink>]), own experiences as children, personal characteristics such as adult attachment orientation (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref106">63</reflink>]), and knowledge. However, having had a practicum is consistently associated with undergraduates' dispositions (Branscomb & Ethridge, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref107">9</reflink>]; Recchia & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref108">50</reflink>]; Stities, Walter, & Krikorian, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref109">57</reflink>]), and in the current study having had practicum experiences is generally associated with supportive infant/toddler dispositions.</p> <p>However, child-led learning stands out as the disposition not associated with practicum experiences at either the beginning of the semester or the end. It is possible that having deep knowledge of how infants and toddlers learn is key for endorsing child-led learning and that gaining this knowledge happens through other modalities. Alternatively, teacher directedness would be readily observable during practicum, thus undergraduates would be able to observe children's responses to child or teacher directedness. Certainly, the questions used to assess these two dispositions may amplify that, as child-led learning is assessed through questions such as, "Children learn best through active, self-initiated exploration." whereas teacher directness is assessed through questions such as, "Toddlers need to be corrected when they give a wrong answer so that they can learn what the right answers are." Further measurement work in this area is needed. It is also possible that undergraduates are not seeing child-led learning in their practicum classrooms, either because it is not the intentional practice of the classroom or because undergraduates do not notice it. Further work is needed to probe this disposition to ensure undergraduates are not just acculturating to classrooms, but also learning why practices are done.</p> <p>Undergraduates may also need targeted support for dispositions with which they struggle. Some may need help to ensure they are noticing supportive aspects of ECCE practices that may not be apparent to them, as has been the case for elementary education STEM subjects (see Benedict-Chambers & Aram, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref110">6</reflink>]; van Es, Cashen, Barnhart, & Auger, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref111">65</reflink>]). For others, insecurity in their skills may be associated with less desirable attitudes (Cheung, Ling, & Leung, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref112">17</reflink>]). A holistic view should be taken, to consider the interplay of academic, work-related, personal, and cultural factors that contribute to ones' approach to teaching.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-45">Multiple practicum opportunities</hd> <p>Undergraduates in the current and past practicum group reported the most competent dispositions, controlling for initial scores, indicating that this group is experiencing the greatest growth over the semester. We hypothesized that undergraduates in practicum courses would show greater change than those enrolled in just coursework without practica. However, it seems that initial practicum experiences may prime the pump, so to speak, for learning during later practicum. It may be that undergraduates are more comfortable in the role of practicum student after the initial experience and thus able to learn more from later experiences. Practicum student is a unique role that often comes with some expectations to guide and instruct children but with limited input into classroom practices and expectations. As undergraduates acculturate to ECCE classrooms in general, and things like the handwashing procedures and general routines take less of their focus, they are likely able to attend to other aspects of the experience. It is also possible that many programs have their practica arranged such that the first experience is for very few hours as opposed to later experiences. A limitation of our study is the inability to account for the number of hours each individual student completed in a given semester or in total. Of all of the courses university faculty identified as early childhood courses, practicum hours ranged from 6 hours a semester to 400 hours; although, only 9 of the 69 classes identified as practicum courses had 10 or fewer hours per semester. However, previous work would suggest that as undergraduates accumulate experiences over time they garner different learning from the experiences (Maynard, La Paro, & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref113">46</reflink>]), such that undergraduates early in their experience working in classrooms report learning new songs, activities, and transition ideas. However, undergraduates with more experience tend to discuss learning of broader approaches to working with children, for example a shift from entertaining them to engaging them. This is not to simply say more practicum is better, given that the previous practicum group's change during the semester was similar to the first and no practicum groups. Rather, these findings reflect the importance of practical application opportunities alongside coursework content in order for undergraduates to experiment with what they are learning, see how children respond, and then internalize the information based on their own experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-46">Programmatic challenges to preparing Infant/Toddler workforce</hd> <p>As the push for increased education for infant/toddler practitioners continues (IMO & NRC, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref114">33</reflink>]; NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref115">47</reflink>]), bachelor's degree programs that prepare practitioners to work with young children must ensure undergraduates are developing knowledge, skills, and dispositions appropriate for working with infants and toddlers. Although our sample is made up of a convenience sample of universities, any skew in the extent to which the programs involved include experiences and coursework for infants and toddlers should be a skew toward more than other programs, given that the data collection is completed by a group of faculty who are particularly interested in infants and toddlers. Even within this sample, only 7 of 12 programs require an infant/toddler field experience and 3 do not even offer undergraduates an infant/toddler field experience. In general, infants and toddlers receive less attention in university early childhood curriculum (Maxwell & Lim, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref116">45</reflink>]). While this is problematic for practitioners who go on to work with infants and toddlers, our findings demonstrate the importance of repeated practical opportunities for undergraduates throughout their program. Given the importance of these field experience, we further argue for the necessity that at least some of these experiences are with infants and toddlers. This may be particularly important as undergraduates are less likely to have had formal work experience with infants and toddlers, as compared to older children (Lippard et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref117">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-47">Limitations</hd> <p>Certainly, a study of this type comes with limitations as there is variability in the experiences of undergraduates in different courses and at different universities. One limitation, with important implications for future research, is this sample does not include any two-year institutions of higher education. Lack of inclusion of two-year institutions leaves an incomplete picture in the variety of preparation experiences infant/toddler practitioners have (Austin, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref118">3</reflink>]). Another limitation is the aspects of practicum experiences that were not assessed such as the quality of the placement classroom, the extent to which each student was exposed to different age groups, how many different classrooms undergraduates were exposed to, and how the practica in various programs are spread over time in a program. Given these limitations, this work should be considered an initial assessment of how practica are related to dispositions and a starting point for more nuanced work. Including placements with children of all ages is a limitation to our focus on infants and toddlers; however, given the challenges faced by universities in placing students with infants and toddlers, we are also encouraged to find that benefits of practicum experiences may not be age specific.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-48">Implications and conclusion</hd> <p>Unlike professions with clearly defined and accepted competencies, such as nursing (Accreditation Commission for Education in Nursing, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref119">1</reflink>]; Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref120">18</reflink>]) and licensed social work (Council on Social Work Education Commission on Accreditation, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref121">21</reflink>]), programs designed to prepare practitioners to work with infants and toddlers have a great deal of flexibility and variability. This can be a strength as institutes of higher education are free to respond to local needs and regulations, such as preparing teachers to enter urban early childhood settings or preparing future leaders and program directors. However, it also presents a challenge in unifying the profession on a national level. Recent efforts by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) have attempted to address this through the Power to the Profession statement (NAEYC, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref122">47</reflink>]); however, there has been some criticism that while the education and training parameters articulated in the statement enhance expectations in some states, they are lower than existing expectations in others. Although there is great variation, classroom-based field experiences such as practicum and/or student teaching are a nearly universal component of practitioner preparation programs. Our findings support field experiences, and particularly multiple field experiences over time, as critical experience around which programs could coalesce.</p> <p>A competency-based approach to preparation also provides a shared set of goals for institutions of higher education and creates more consistency and alignment between institutions. In CUPID, we have seen these benefit our work of defining and measuring competencies. However, it is important to note that CUPID is, by its nature, a convenience sample. Institutions represented are those that employ at least one faculty member with interest in and time allotted to pedagogy of infant/toddler development. Yet, even within this group, there is great variability. For example, five programs were housed in departments of human development and family studies, a discipline rooted in a holistic, systems approach to individual and family development (Bronfnbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref123">10</reflink>]). This is a different perspective from departments of education and departments of psychology, who are traditionally more likely to emphasize pedagogy and individual development, respectively. Programs also have very different resources available for preparing practitioners. Ten of the twelve programs represented here have lab schools, which are traditionally of high quality, have education of undergraduates as part of their mission, and offer training and support to their staff regarding undergraduate education. Programs without lab schools may have to rely on existing community centers and schools which, as a strength, provide relevant experience for jobs students are likely to seek; however, those existing centers and schools may not explicitly support a mission that emphasizes preparing pre-service educators. Taken together, competency-based undergraduate programs may look very different from one another. In crafting a program it is important to keep in mind the specific goals of the program as well as some of the universals associated with a competency-based preparation program, such as assessing competencies, having sufficient experience with families, and as studied and supported in this study, the opportunity for supported practicum experiences working with children.</p> <p>Despite limitations, the very clear and consistent finding is that practicum experiences influence dispositions and that dispositions change the most when undergraduates have had a previous practicum experience and are currently enrolled in another one. This has implications for programs as they lay out their coursework. Practicum and other field experiences are extremely labor intensive for universities, including undergraduates and cooperating teachers, making it tempting to minimize them or to focus all total hours into one placement. However, our findings demonstrate the importance of ensuring undergraduates have multiple experiences over time in order to apply their learning and build upon it as they move through the program.</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-49">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>Data collection and preparation for this paper was a collaborative effort of the members of the Collaborative for Understanding the Pedagogy of Infant/toddler Development (CUPID).</p> <hd id="AN0179069503-50">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0179069503-51"> <title> Note </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref76" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Of the 1302 respondents, 38 participated in the survey during both Fall and Spring semester and reported practicum data each time. For these cases, data were used for one semester, with a priority placed on the semester in which a student was currently enrolled in a practicum course. 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  Data: Practice Matters: How Practicum Experiences Change Student Beliefs
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Christine+N%2E+Lippard%22">Christine N. Lippard</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5828-9260">0000-0002-5828-9260</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Claire+D%2E+Vallotton%22">Claire D. Vallotton</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maria+Fusaro%22">Maria Fusaro</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rachel+Chazan-Cohen%22">Rachel Chazan-Cohen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Carla+A%2E+Peterson%22">Carla A. Peterson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Loria+Kim%22">Loria Kim</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gina+A%2E+Cook%22">Gina A. Cook</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Early+Childhood+Teacher+Education%22"><i>Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 45(3):371-395.
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  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 10.1080/10901027.2024.2351471
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  Data: 1090-1027<br />1745-5642
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  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Development of professional competencies is a key outcome of undergraduate programs preparing practitioners to work with infants and toddlers. Competencies for working with young children were examined among 1300 undergraduate students at 12 universities. Students completed a series of online questionnaires indicating their knowledge, beliefs, and hypothetical practices with young children; end-of-semester scores were analyzed using linear regression. Having had a practicum course is associated with more positive dispositions for supporting the development of teacher-child relationships, building partnerships with diverse families, guiding children's behavior, and fostering development and learning. Further, we examined development of dispositions over the course of a semester based on undergraduates' current and past practicum experiences. Implications for programs who prepare infant and toddler practitioners are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1436026
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1436026
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/10901027.2024.2351471
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 25
        StartPage: 371
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Infant Care
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Toddlers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Caregiver Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teacher Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Practicums
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Teaching
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Practice Matters: How Practicum Experiences Change Student Beliefs
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Christine N. Lippard
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Claire D. Vallotton
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maria Fusaro
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rachel Chazan-Cohen
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Carla A. Peterson
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Loria Kim
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Gina A. Cook
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1090-1027
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1745-5642
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 45
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1