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Exploring Chinese International Students' Critical Thinking Skills: A Systematic Literature Review

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Title: Exploring Chinese International Students' Critical Thinking Skills: A Systematic Literature Review
Language: English
Authors: Shuaipu Jiang, Qi Sun, Xi Lin
Source: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2024 (182-183):125-141.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 17
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Graduate Students, Foreign Students, Barriers, Social Differences, Cultural Differences, Ideology, Educational Practices, Critical Thinking, Thinking Skills, Stereotypes
Geographic Terms: China, United States
DOI: 10.1002/ace.20538
ISSN: 1052-2891
1536-0717
Abstract: Most graduate students in higher education are classified as adult learners, being 24 years old, and have responsibilities and commitments outside of higher education. This literature review presents how Chinese international graduate students face challenges in the US due to sociocultural, ideological, and educational differences. This systematic literature review explores these students' critical thinking skills, which are crucial factors for academic success but have been underexplored. Three themes were identified as follows: (1) critical thinking education in China, (2) stereotypes of perceived lack of critical thinking, and (3) comparative views of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students. Each theme presents a landscape of how critical thinking is interpreted. Themes suggest several trends, including cultural variations that may impede Chinese international students from showcasing their critical thinking abilities, notwithstanding their inherent capacity for critical thinking. Recommendations include ways to improve critical thinking among international students and call for more comparative studies between Chinese and American college students. The findings offer valuable insights into the internationalization of higher education curricula and the promotion of global learning.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1437887
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0179374520;nda01jun.24;2024Sep03.06:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0179374520-1">Exploring Chinese international students' critical thinking skills: A systematic literature review </title> <sbt id="AN0179374520-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>Most graduate students in higher education are classified as adult learners, being 24 years old, and have responsibilities and commitments outside of higher education. This literature review presents how Chinese international graduate students face challenges in the US due to sociocultural, ideological, and educational differences. This systematic literature review explores these students' critical thinking skills, which are crucial factors for academic success but have been underexplored. Three themes were identified as follows: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>) critical thinking education in China, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>) stereotypes of perceived lack of critical thinking, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>) comparative views of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students. Each theme presents a landscape of how critical thinking is interpreted. Themes suggest several trends, including cultural variations that may impede Chinese international students from showcasing their critical thinking abilities, notwithstanding their inherent capacity for critical thinking. Recommendations include ways to improve critical thinking among international students and call for more comparative studies between Chinese and American college students. The findings offer valuable insights into the internationalization of higher education curricula and the promotion of global learning.</p> <p>Higher education and adult education are not considered synonymous, yet these two fields have overlapped significantly in the past several decades. The adult and continuing education field is an extensive landscape in which adult learners in higher education make up a critical piece (Ross‐Gordon et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref4">32</reflink>]). Most graduate students in higher education are classified as adult learners, being 24 years old, and have responsibilities and commitments outside of higher education (Ross‐Gordon et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref5">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>The US higher education system places a greater emphasis on internationalization by strengthening and expanding cross‐cultural learning, transnational teaching, and global service, promoting cultural competency, global learning, and effectiveness (Hou, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref6">12</reflink>]). At the same time, the country has become the top host country for international graduate students, with China being the top sending country (Institute of International Education, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref7">13</reflink>]). However, there are significant differences between China and the United States in social and political systems, ideologies, cultures, and educational history that have shaped their teaching and learning (Sun, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]). For instance, education in China is often focused on exams, is teacher‐centered, and involves memorization. Education in the United States is quality‐oriented, student‐centered, and emphasizes critical thinking (Chen, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref9">4</reflink>]). While Chinese international graduate students bring unique perspectives, cultures, and educational backgrounds that help enrich the local host institutions' cultural diversity and global learning, these differences have presented challenges for Chinese international students studying in the United States (Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref10">18</reflink>]; Hou, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref11">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>One unique challenge for Chinese graduate international students is applying critical thinking skills while studying in US higher education institutions. Although different thinking patterns exist between Westerners and Easterners, this topic has yet to be debated much, which further contributes to different understandings of the critical thinking skills of Chinese international students (Chen, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref12">4</reflink>]; Durkin, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref13">8</reflink>]; Heng, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>]; Turner, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref15">43</reflink>]). Heng's ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref16">11</reflink>]) study indicates that critical thinking is not a priority and is unclear to Chinese international graduate students who focus more on memorization than analysis. This may be due to the curriculum being dense and requiring multiple exercises on coursework instead of interactive questioning and self‐interpretation.</p> <p>Similarly, Badger ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref17">2</reflink>]) believed Chinese international students need more critical thinking owing to China's teacher‐centered instruction and exam‐oriented educational goals. While other scholars (Heng, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref18">11</reflink>]; Li, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>]) believe there is a common misconception that Chinese international students lack critical thinking skills. However, they argue that this stereotype is primarily due to language barriers, differences in communication styles, cultural and thinking modes, as well as unfamiliarity with the social‐cultural and educational environments of the United States (Lu & Singh, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>]).</p> <p>Critical thinking is crucial for the academic success of Chinese international students in US higher education. However, the existing research is limited (e.g., Chen, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref21">4</reflink>]; Fakunle et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref22">10</reflink>]; Heng, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref23">11</reflink>]; Lucas, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref24">22</reflink>]; Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref25">41</reflink>]). Furthermore, a systematic literature overview is lacking, impeding a comprehensive understanding for future studies.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-3">CONTEXT</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0179374520-4">Chinese international students in the United States</hd> <p>Chinese international students are students from China who come to the United States to study at universities on F1 or J1 visas. Since the "Opening to the Outside World Policy" in the late 1970s, China has gradually introduced Chinese students to English, American culture, and foreign education, which differ from Chinese and social‐cultural norms and educational practices. For example, China is a centralized, collectivist country, whereas the United States is a decentralized society and values individualism (Tung, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref26">42</reflink>]). Chinese education presents different curriculum structures, teaching strategies, learning styles, assessments, and learning outcomes and expectations (Sharif & Osterling, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref27">35</reflink>]). Due to the difference, they face common challenges, including language incompetency, cultural intricacies, and academic unfamiliarity (Liu & Vogel, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref28">20</reflink>]; Tang et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref29">40</reflink>]; Tung, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref30">42</reflink>]; Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref31">51</reflink>]) while studying in the United States.</p> <p>Research indicates the biggest challenge that Chinese international students face is their inability to communicate effectively in the language of instruction (Ma & Luke, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>]; Moon et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref33">27</reflink>]). This challenge persists regardless of whether they are newly arrived in the United States or have been living there for some time. Studies reveal that Chinese international students score highly on language tests (e.g., TOEFL, GRE) (Ma & Luke, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref34">24</reflink>]), but they have difficulty expressing themselves in everyday English, some may have strong accents and need help understanding slang (Liu & Vogel, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref35">20</reflink>]; Tang et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref36">40</reflink>]; Tung, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref37">42</reflink>]; Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref38">51</reflink>]). The language issues and educational differences are also reflected in their academic writing. An example is plagiarism in academic writing. Chinese international students may lack proper training in using and citing references because of the different writing styles (Ma & Luke, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]). Moreover, while rote learning and conformity are emphasized in Chinese education, American education values and promotes critical thinking skills (Tung, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref40">42</reflink>]), which presents a significant challenge to Chinese international students studying in the United States.</p> <p>Lacking the cultural background and Western educational knowledge necessary for context‐dependent and value‐laden learning gives rise to varied perspectives on the critical thinking abilities of Chinese international students. Chinese international students are considered to lack critical thinking skills or are struggling with their studies due to the teacher‐centered, exam‐oriented, memorization‐emphasized, and dense curriculum in China (Badger, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref41">2</reflink>]). Or they may be misunderstood because of their different languages and communication styles, different ways of thinking, and unfamiliar with new environments (Heng, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref42">11</reflink>]; Lu & Singh, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref43">21</reflink>]). Earlier studies (Durkin, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref44">8</reflink>]; Turner, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref45">43</reflink>]) suggested that Chinese international students are perceived as lacking critical thinking skills, which are highly valued and necessary to excel in higher education in the United States.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-5">Critical thinking</hd> <p>Critical thinking has multiple interpretations (McPeck, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref46">25</reflink>]) and diverse definitions (Fakunle et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref47">10</reflink>]; Tang, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref48">39</reflink>]). We provide three common agreements on the definitions of critical thinking. First, it involves the use of reasoning to deepen and enhance thinking (Lucas, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref49">22</reflink>]); second, it involves judgment (Paul, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref50">30</reflink>]); and third, it includes a set of cognitive skills and dispositions (Facione, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref51">9</reflink>]; Paul & Elder, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref52">31</reflink>]). The Delphi Report (Facione, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref53">9</reflink>]) clarifies the concept of critical thinking as "purposeful, self‐regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as an explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based" (p. 2).</p> <p>In the Delphi Report, Facione ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref54">9</reflink>]) presents six core skills of critical thinking (see Figure 1): <emph>interpretation, explanation, analysis, inference, evaluation, and self‐regulation</emph> (pp. 6–11). (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>). Interpretation involves comprehending and expressing the meaning or significance of various experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref56">2</reflink>). Analysis refers to identifying the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation that express beliefs, judgments, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref57">3</reflink>). Evaluation involves assessing the credibility of statements or other representations that are accounts or descriptions of a person's perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion and evaluating the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation. (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref58">4</reflink>) Inference means identifying and securing elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions, forming conjectures and hypotheses, considering relevant information, and deducing the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, or judgment. (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref59">5</reflink>). Explanation involves stating the results of one's reasoning, justifying that reasoning in terms of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, soteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one's results were based, and presenting one's reasoning in the form of cogent arguments. (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref60">6</reflink>). Self‐examination involves monitoring one's cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results deduced, particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one's own inferential judgments, with a view toward questioning, confirming, validating, or correcting either one's reasoning or one's results.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NDA/01jun24/ace20538-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="ace20538-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Critical thinking core skills, adopted from Facione ([9], p. 6)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>While a systematic approach and expert consensus regarding critical thinking skills in educational assessment and instruction within host institutions exists (Facione, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]), there is a noticeable gap in research concerning the themes of critical thinking skills in the studies of Chinese international students. This gap extends to understanding how these skills manifest specifically in the context of Chinese international students. Consequently, this study aims to address this gap by identifying and analyzing major themes related to Chinese international students' critical thinking and exploring the critical thinking experiences of Chinese international students studying in US higher education institutions. The research question is: What factors influence the critical thinking skills of Chinese international students studying in the United States higher education settings?</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-7">METHOD</hd> <p>We chose the method based on our research purpose and question. A systematic review is a research method that involves identifying and evaluating relevant research, as well as collecting and analyzing data from it (Liberati et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref62">16</reflink>]). A systematic review aims to identify relevant available empirical evidence that meets pre‐specified inclusion criteria to answer a particular research question to draw conclusions to better understand the current research and future needs (Snyder, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref63">36</reflink>]). By using explicit and systematic methods to review articles and other available evidence, bias can be minimized, resulting in reliable findings (Moher et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref64">26</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-8">Literature search strategy</hd> <p>The systematic literature review was adopted following a rigorous and structured approach (Booth, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref65">3</reflink>]) to identify and analyze relevant studies on the critical thinking skills of Chinese international students in higher education in the United States (Safipour et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref66">34</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-9">Databases and keywords</hd> <p>A comprehensive search was conducted across five reputable academic databases to ensure a broad coverage of the existing literature. The following databases were included in the search:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> ERIC </bold> : The Education Resources Information Center, which is a widely recognized database for education‐related research.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Journal of International Students (JIS) </bold> : A specialized journal focused on international student experiences and issues.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> APA PsycINFO </bold> : A database specializing in psychology and related fields, often containing valuable insights on cognition and critical thinking.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Education Source </bold> : A comprehensive database covering various aspects of education.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Academic Search Complete </bold> : A multidisciplinary database providing access to a wide range of academic publications.</item> </ulist> <p>The keywords used for searching included Chinese international student* OR Chinese student* OR Hong Kong student* OR Taiwan student* AND critical thinking* OR critical skill* OR critical thinking skill* AND university* OR college* OR higher institution* OR higher education AND US OR America* OR USA.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-10">Inclusion and exclusion criteria</hd> <p>To maintain the integrity of the systematic review process, clear inclusion and exclusion criteria were established:</p> <p>Inclusion criteria</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Publication Date </bold> : Peer‐reviewed studies published between 1 January 2000, and 31 December 2022, were considered for inclusion to ensure the relevance and currency of the literature.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Focus on Chinese International Students </bold> : Articles had to concentrate specifically on Chinese international students pursuing higher education in the United States.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Relevance to Critical Thinking </bold> : Articles needed to address the concept of critical thinking or critical thinking skills within the context of Chinese international students' experiences in higher education.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Language </bold> : Articles published in English were included for language consistency.</item> </ulist> <p>Exclusion criteria</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Insufficient Focus on Critical Thinking </bold> : Articles that did not provide substantial discussion or relevant information regarding critical thinking were excluded despite mentioning "critical thinking" as a keyword.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> General International Students </bold> : Articles that discussed international students without specific emphasis on Chinese international students were excluded.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> K‐12 Education Context </bold> : Articles discussing critical thinking and Chinese students within the context of K‐12 education were excluded, as this review focused on higher education.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179374520-11">Search results</hd> <p>The results revealed 24 articles from ERIC and 13 from the Journal of International Students (JIS) database (<emph>N</emph> = 37). Upon review, 14 articles lacked sufficient information on critical thinking despite listing it as a keyword. Eight articles discussed international students and critical thinking but not specifically Chinese international students. Thus, 15 ERIC articles met the criteria. APA PsycINFO displayed 29 articles, but they focused on critical thinking and Chinese students in K‐12 education, leading to their exclusion. Education Source yielded 11 articles, with one duplicate from ERIC. Academic Search Complete yielded 10 research articles, two of which focused on critical thinking and Chinese students. In summary, our study included 17 articles meeting the specified criteria.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-12">FINDINGS</hd> <p>After conducting a systematic analysis of the articles (see Table 1), the existing literature has identified three themes regarding the critical thinking of Chinese international students:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Critical thinking cultivation in China,</item> <p></p> <item> Stereotype of Chinese international students‐lacking or having no critical thinking skills, and</item> <p></p> <item> Comparative study of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students.</item> </ulist> <p>1 TABLE Themes generated from the literature review.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th>Theme</th><th>Authors</th><th>Purpose</th><th>Type of study</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Critical thinking cultivation in China</p></list-item></list></td><td>Du et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr7">2013</xref>)</td><td>To explore the relationship of problem‐based learning and the development of critical thinking disposition and academic achievement in Chinese medical students using a cross‐sectional randomized design</td><td>Quantitative research design</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Li et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr15">2019</xref>)</td><td>To examine the effects of different service experiences on the social justice beliefs of 60 Chinese college students</td><td>Mixed methods research paper</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Tang (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr39">2016</xref>)</td><td>To foster college students' critical thinking skills by designing some classroom activities regarding college intensive reading course in English classroom</td><td>Research paper</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Wang et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr44">2017</xref>)</td><td>To examine the effects of an evidence‐based medicine course on Chinese medical student critical thinking</td><td>Research paper</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Zhang (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr50">2017</xref>)</td><td>To tackle the problems Chinese postgraduate students studying in English‐speaking universities face with regard to critical thinking from a new perspective</td><td>Opinion article</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Zhang and Lambert (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr47">2008</xref>)</td><td>To examine the critical thinking dispositions and learning styles of Chinese undergraduate nursing students</td><td>Research paper</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Zhang and Kim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr49">2018</xref>)</td><td>To provide an analysis of the present situation of critical thinking cultivation in Chinese college English classes and discuss how to cultivate students' critical thinking in Chinese college English class context</td><td>Review article</td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>2. Stereotype of Chinese international students lacking or having no critical thinking skills</p></list-item></list></td><td>Atkinson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr1">1997</xref>)</td><td>To argue that critical thinking is cultural thinking and TESOL educators should be careful when cultivating it in classes</td><td>Opinion article</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Cheng (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">2000</xref>)</td><td>To argue that it is dangerous and over‐generalized to say Asian student are passive and reticent learners</td><td>Opinion article</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Paton (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">2005</xref>)</td><td>To argue that critical thinking exists in Chinese history and it is language and training that caused difficulties for Chinese students</td><td>Opinion article</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Tian and Low (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr41">2011</xref>)</td><td>To explore whether the key factor affecting Chinese university student's critical thinking with respect to academic study in English is cultural background or previous training</td><td>Review article</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Xie (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">2008</xref>)</td><td>To examine teacher‐student interaction in teacher‐fronted English classrooms in a Chinese university</td><td>PhD thesis</td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>3. Contradicting stereotypes that Chinese students lack critical thinking</p></list-item></list></td><td>Heng (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">2018</xref>)</td><td>To examine how challenges Chinese undergraduates face in the USA are influenced by sociocultural contexts and change over time</td><td>Qualitative research paper</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Li (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr14">2013</xref>)</td><td>To report a case study of two high‐achieving Chinese students and present evidence that poses an anti‐thesis to the stereotypes of Chinese learners as lacking in critical thinking</td><td>Qualitative research paper</td></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>4. Comparative study of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students</p></list-item></list></td><td>Dennett (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr6">2014</xref>)</td><td>To compare the critical thinking dispositions between Chinese and American college students</td><td>Dissertation study</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Yan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr46">2018</xref>)</td><td>To understand the Chinese international and domestic STEM undergraduates' perspectives on critical thinking</td><td>Dissertation study</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Zhang (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr48">2009</xref>)</td><td>To explore college students' collaborative learning</td><td>Dissertation study</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0179374520-13">Critical thinking cultivation in China</hd> <p>Theme one focuses on the cultivation of critical thinking in China. It includes several commonalities and approaches applied to developing critical thinking, such as learning in Chinese college English classes (Tang, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref67">39</reflink>]; Zhang & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref68">49</reflink>]), service learning for critical thinking (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref69">15</reflink>]), critical thinking among medical and nursing students (Du et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref70">7</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref71">44</reflink>]; Zhang & Lambert, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref72">47</reflink>]), and an analysis of the higher education curriculum in China as a factor contributing to the challenges faced by Chinese postgraduates in English‐speaking universities (Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref73">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>First, traditional Chinese college English classes are lecture‐based and teacher‐centered, emphasizing linguistic ability rather than critical or creative thinking (Tang, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref74">39</reflink>]). To address this issue, curriculum reforms and teaching innovations have been implemented, such as adopting the "brainstorming" method before reading to encourage students to raise questions, explore different situations, evaluate options, and make rational decisions. Instructors also design activities to guide and inspire students to reflect, infer, critique, compare, contrast, argue, analyze, and integrate different situations. Additionally, students are required to complete reflective writing assignments to share their thoughts and critique their peers' writing after class (Tang, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref75">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>Other approaches to cultivating critical thinking in Chinese college English classes include using computer‐mediated technology for interactive learning through online discussions, integrating critical thinking into teaching materials, and utilizing classroom discussions, homework, activities, and exams. Students who work in groups to produce presentations, such as case studies, research projects, reports, and group plans, are encouraged to explore their own questions instead of following pre‐determined instructions (Zhang & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref76">49</reflink>]). Developing critical thinking has become an essential element in Chinese college English classes, and these approaches have contributed to the success of college English reform in China (Tang, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref77">39</reflink>]; Zhang & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref78">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>Secondly, service learning, a pedagogical approach merging community service with classroom instruction, serves as a catalyst for encouraging critical thinking among Chinese college students. This method motivates students to critically reflect on their behaviors and address the challenges they encounter, fostering a proactive approach. For example, students engaged in service learning may face problems necessitating swift resolution, prompting independent thinking rather than relying solely on instructions from the service‐site teacher (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref79">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>Thirdly, both problem‐based learning (PBL) and evidence‐based learning are used to cultivate critical thinking in Chinese medical students (Du et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref80">7</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref81">44</reflink>]; Zhang & Lambert, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref82">47</reflink>]). PBL, encouraging students to tackle real‐world problems, has a positive impact on critical thinking skills (Oja, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref83">28</reflink>], as cited in Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref84">15</reflink>]). A Chinese version of the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI) revealed that PBL enhances critical thinking among medical students, particularly in confidence and inquisitiveness (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref85">44</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref86">15</reflink>]). However, weaknesses in truth‐seeking skills persist among Chinese medical and nursing students, reflecting the enduring impact of factors like rote learning, entrance pressure, didactic teaching, and conformity to authority in China (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref87">44</reflink>]; Zhang & Lambert, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref88">47</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally, college courses with a political orientation in China may pose a potential obstacle to the cultivation of critical and independent thinking among students. Zhang ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref89">50</reflink>]) suggested that courses designed to endorse specific political perspectives could impact students' thought processes, potentially inhibiting the active formation of their individual political opinions. In essence, certain curricula may inadvertently impede the development of critical thinking skills among students.</p> <p>It is worth mentioning that in recent years, PBL and other new instructional methods have been introduced in China to promote critical thinking. These efforts have yielded positive results. However, the traditional didactic teaching and learning style, as well as the cultural emphasis on maintaining harmony and conforming to authority, have created challenges for Chinese students' critical thinking ability, resulting in a low disposition towards truth‐seeking and open‐mindedness. Therefore, more interventions are needed to address these issues. Furthermore, long‐term interventions are necessary to adjust the teaching and learning style due to the profound influence of traditional pedagogy and culture on Chinese students.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-14">Stereotype of Chinese international students' critical thinking skills</hd> <p>Theme two highlights the stereotype that Chinese international students lack or have no critical thinking skills. The literature on Chinese higher education students studying abroad and critical thinking indicates that Chinese international students often lack or fail to demonstrate critical thinking skills. Some reasons identified by previous studies for Chinese students' lack or absence of critical thinking skills include their tendency to remain quiet in Western university classes, difficulties with creative and innovative writing in Western universities, and typically lower critical thinking scores compared to their Western counterparts (Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref90">41</reflink>]). Atkinson ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref91">1</reflink>]) pointed out that critical thinking is a Western product and aligns with the Western individualistic culture. Therefore, it is incompatible with a collectivist culture (Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref92">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, Paton ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref93">29</reflink>]) disagreed with the cultural deficiency argument and claimed that traditional Chinese culture demonstrates critical thinking. He further asserted that Chinese international students are merely unfamiliar with the academic writing norms in Western culture and lack professional English writing skills, which results in their perceived low level of critical thinking. Some evidence from traditional Chinese culture demonstrates the existence of critical thinking, such as Confucius actively exemplifying and advocating critical thinking through inquiry, deep and reflective thinking, autonomous thinking, and fair and rigorous judgment (Sun, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref94">37</reflink>]; Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref95">41</reflink>]). Thus, Paton ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref96">29</reflink>]) believes training can develop Chinese international students' critical thinking.</p> <p>Nevertheless, Chinese students' critical thinking deficiency is due to their collectivist culture, as they are passive in classes, refuse to challenge authorities, and have failed in creative writing (Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref97">41</reflink>]). Moreover, Chinese university teachers tend not to teach critical thinking skills because such skills are not required for coursework and tests, and students are content with not learning additional skills if they are not mandatory (Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref98">41</reflink>]). Similarly, Xie ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref99">45</reflink>]) highlighted that teacher‐centered instruction limits the space for higher‐order thinking development in the Chinese university setting, leading to an increasing number of passive learners who view their teachers as absolute authorities.</p> <p>Cheng ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref100">5</reflink>]), on the contrary, stated that Chinese students usually remain quiet and passive in Western classes because of their English language incompetence rather than their unwillingness to participate. Chinese students, in fact, show strong adaptability to new learning environments and a high desire to acquire new knowledge (Tian & Low, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref101">41</reflink>]). Hence, a holistic approach that involves various factors, including language proficiency, content familiarity, personal background, and complex teaching and learning contexts, is needed to evaluate an individual's critical thinking accurately.</p> <p>However, some studies advocate for contradicting stereotypes about Chinese students and their supposed lack of critical thinking. Li ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref102">14</reflink>]) conducted a case study of two high‐achieving Chinese undergraduate students in an English‐language institution and disproved the stereotype that Chinese students lack critical thinking skills. Through their written assignments for a political science course, both students demonstrated high levels of critical thinking and emphasized the importance of critical thinking in university learning and writing. They exhibited authorship by proposing revised theories on their chosen topics and organizing their sources within a logical framework.</p> <p>Similarly, Heng ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref103">11</reflink>]) debunked the stereotype that Chinese students are passive and needy. Heng found that Chinese students perceive critical thinking as challenging ideas, questioning opinions, and considering alternative views. While they acknowledged that the learning environment in China did not prepare them well for critical thinking, they demonstrated significant progress and changes in critical thinking after studying at a US institution. They became more open‐minded, learned to question ideas, and developed stronger persuasive arguments. Their studies revealed that Chinese undergraduate students in the United States possess strong abilities to overcome challenges and adapt to new learning environments, proving that despite the influence of traditional Chinese education, Chinese students have strong learning and adapting abilities that allow them to become good critical thinkers.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-15">Comparative study of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students</hd> <p>Theme three is a comparative critical thinking analysis between Chinese and American college students. One study focused on engaging university learners in critical thinking to stimulate collaborative learning (Zhang, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref104">48</reflink>]). The study compared and contrasted perceptions of Chinese and American students on collaborative learning from one university in China and one university in America, indicating that collaborative learning could promote critical thinking.</p> <p>Another study (Yan, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref105">46</reflink>]) filled the existing literature gap by exploring how STEM undergraduates perceive and experience critical thinking using qualitative transcendental phenomenology. While some scholars believe that Chinese international students have a deficit in critical thinking as they receive lower scores on critical thinking tests than their Western counterparts (Yan, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref106">46</reflink>]). Others argue that these students are only unfamiliar with and unadjusted to the Western style of critical thinking (Durkin, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref107">8</reflink>]). Critical thinking is highly valued in American higher education, particularly in STEM fields (Yan, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref108">46</reflink>]), yet little research has explored students' qualitative perception and experience of critical thinking.</p> <p>Yan's ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref109">46</reflink>]) study explores Chinese international and domestic students' critical thinking as undergraduates to fill the gap. Yan's findings showed that, in most cases, Chinese international students displayed a similar understanding of critical thinking as their American peers. Most Chinese students demonstrated an understanding of the importance of critical thinking concepts when communicating in their native language, disproving the stereotype that Chinese students are deficient in critical thinking (Atkinson, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref110">1</reflink>]). Yan's findings align with Durkin's ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref111">8</reflink>]) study that Chinese students are able to learn to think critically as their Western counterparts but choose not to due to the cultural norm of maintaining harmony and not being offensive. Moreover, Chinese international and domestic students consider critical thinking important for their careers and education but less important for their personal lives (Yan, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref112">46</reflink>]). These students suggested more hands‐on and real‐life research projects, more interactions with professors, more encouragement to raise questions, and more meaningful small group discussions to facilitate critical thinking.</p> <p>Finally, Chinese culture differs significantly from American culture due to the significant influences of Confucianism (Dennett, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref113">6</reflink>]). As a result, educators are questioning whether Chinese culture may create barriers to an inquiring mind and, if so, how they can provide activities to help remove these barriers. Dennett ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref114">6</reflink>]) conducted a study to examine whether differences in critical thinking skills and dispositions exist between Chinese and American college students using the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI) Scale. The results of independent <emph>t</emph>‐tests showed that there were no differences between the group of Chinese students and American students in each of the seven scales on the CCTDI. The results of a factorial variance analysis showed significant differences in critical thinking dispositions between Chinese and American students when comparing open‐mindedness and gender.</p> <p>Specifically, American female students achieved higher scores than Chinese female students on the CCTDI subscale of open‐mindedness. In contrast, Chinese male students scored higher than American male students on the same subscale. One possible explanation proposed by the study was that Chinese male students in this study had already possessed open‐mindedness since they decided to leave China to study. In contrast, Chinese females may not have been raised in a culture of open‐mindedness as Chinese males due to Confucianism. The study indicates that further research is needed to explore these conclusions, particularly with a larger sample size, to gain a better understanding of the cultural differences that influence open‐mindedness. Additionally, significant differences were found in Dennett's study's scale of self‐confidence and discipline. Specifically, Chinese students who belong to the disciplines in science reached higher scores than American students in science on the CCTDI subscale of confidence in reasoning.</p> <p>However, Chinese students from other disciplines reached lower scores than American students in other disciplines. One possible reason brought up by the study was that the Chinese students who participated in science had been educated to solve problems, make decisions, and have confidence in their reasoning ability because topics such as math, chemistry, science, and nursing attract such students in the first place. Students in other disciplines, such as art, education, and non‐declared, might not have had many studies that encouraged or emphasized their critical thinking. Again, the study argued that more research needs to be conducted with additional disciplines and a larger population.</p> <p>Dennett's research also advocated using CCTDI as a helpful tool to determine students' critical thinking before training or learning activities. The comparative studies showed that Chinese and American students shared more similarities in understanding and dispositions of critical thinking. Chinese students are not lacking critical thinking skills. Instead, they choose not to argue publicly because they try to avoid conflicts and maintain harmony, aligning with their Chinese cultural heritage. In other words, Chinese students are capable of thinking critically to meet the Western academic standard of critical thinking. However, they fail to demonstrate it because of their cultural norms in a certain context.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-16">DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS</hd> <p>In the preceding systematic literature review focused on Chinese international students and critical thinking, four discernible themes emerged, revealing contrasting perspectives regarding the critical thinking capabilities of Chinese students. Although a prevailing notion asserts the deficiency of critical thinking skills among Chinese students, counterarguments exist, supported by empirical evidence suggesting their aptitude for critical thinking. Cultural distinctions emerge as a paramount factor impeding the demonstration of critical thinking skills in a manner aligned with Western educational standards. Nevertheless, through targeted training and adaptability, Chinese students can enhance their critical thinking abilities to parallel those of their Western counterparts.</p> <p>Our findings underscore a growing emphasis on critical thinking within Chinese higher education, particularly evident in English language classes, medical, and nursing education. Noteworthy pedagogical approaches, including computer‐mediated technology, PBL, evidence‐based learning, and service learning, have proven effective in cultivating critical thinking among Chinese students. Nevertheless, traditional didactic teaching methods and the cultural inclination towards harmony preservation and deference to authority pose challenges for Chinese students in developing proclivities toward truth‐seeking and open‐mindedness.</p> <p>The study's outcomes further challenge prevailing stereotypes surrounding the purported lack of critical thinking skills among Chinese international students. These stereotypes, we posit, may be inaccurate and influenced by cultural disparities, language impediments, and diverse teaching and learning contexts. A comprehensive evaluation of an individual's critical thinking abilities necessitates a holistic approach, considering factors such as content familiarity, personal background, and the intricate nature of teaching and learning environments.</p> <p>Moreover, the research demonstrates that Chinese students do possess critical thinking capabilities, as evidenced by the commendable critical thinking skills observed among high‐achieving Chinese undergraduate students in an English language institution. However, the manifestation and development of critical thinking skills among Chinese students are subject to cultural influences and learning contexts. The collectivist ethos and examination‐oriented nature of education in China may, at times, appear incongruent with critical thinking, often perceived as a Western construct. The results underscore the importance of comprehending the multifaceted factors contributing to cultivating critical thinking skills among Chinese students and caution against simplistic stereotypes that inadequately represent their cognitive abilities.</p> <p>Lastly, the study proposes practical strategies to foster critical thinking, including hands‐on research projects, small group discussions, and specific, constructive feedback on assignments. These strategies complement recommendations from previous authors, such as utilizing quizzes for self‐evaluation (Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref115">19</reflink>]), employing case studies to motivate PBL (Lin, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref116">17</reflink>]; Lyons & Bandura, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref117">23</reflink>]), and incorporating debates to stimulate critical thinking and profound learning. In conclusion, our study yields valuable insights into the intricate interplay of cultural elements, language proficiency, and teaching and learning contexts in shaping the critical thinking abilities of Chinese international students. It underscores the imperative for nuanced and culturally sensitive approaches to foster critical thinking among this demographic.</p> <p>The systematic review study yields multifaceted implications for the enhancement of critical thinking among Chinese international students, particularly those aspiring to enroll in Western higher education institutions, particularly in North America. It is imperative for higher education professionals in China to employ efficacious strategies within their instructional settings. Encouraging students to pose inquiries and seek elucidation when encountering conceptual challenges is one such strategy. This practice fosters profound contemplation of course content, facilitating the cultivation of individual perspectives. Additionally, the implementation of group projects, necessitating the analysis and evaluation of information, serves to enhance collaborative skills and problem‐solving acumen. The incorporation of real‐world examples into pedagogical approaches further augments students' ability to connect theoretical knowledge to practical situations, fostering critical thinking.</p> <p>Simultaneously, for optimal support in nurturing critical thinking skills among Chinese international students, host faculty in Western institutions must comprehend their students' distinctive learning styles and extend corresponding assistance to facilitate adaptation to novel learning environments. Encouraging active participation in class discussions and activities is instrumental in the development of critical thinking, as it provides avenues for engagement with diverse perspectives and ideas.</p> <p>Practically, instructors should have opportunities for individual meetings with Chinese international students to discern their learning needs, concerns, expectations, and perceptions stemming from prior educational experiences. This ensures clarity in conveying assignment guidelines. Supplementary support mechanisms, such as tutoring, mentoring programs, or office hours, further contribute to a conducive learning environment.</p> <p>Beyond faculty support, institutional resources, including writing centers, study partners, student success centers, and relevant offices, can be instrumental in providing additional services tailored to the needs of Chinese international students. Administrative measures can also be implemented to foster critical thinking skills. Cultural orientation programs, disseminating knowledge on academic conventions, classroom etiquette, and academic integrity through periodic workshops organized by campus, such as, international offices and student support groups, serve as essential components. Programs' group advisement and student pairing initiatives can offer platforms for sharing personal and cultural experiences to enhance students' comprehension of program and course requirements.</p> <p>In summary, as examples, the articulated approaches are integral to establishing a supportive learning environment that ensures the inclusion and well‐being of all students while developing and applying critical thinking skills. Host institutions should strive to cultivate a sense of community within campuses, programs, and classrooms by facilitating collaborative opportunities for students, thereby fostering an inclusive learning environment conducive to genuine internationalization of education.</p> <hd id="AN0179374520-17">CONCLUSIONS</hd> <p>This study underscores the imperative of comprehending the critical thinking skills of Chinese international students within the context of higher education internationalization in the United States. While cultural disparities may hinder the overt manifestation of critical thinking skills in alignment with Western standards, it is crucial to acknowledge the inherent capability of Chinese students to engage in critical thinking processes. The call for a nuanced assessment of critical thinking skills is paramount, necessitating consideration of language proficiency, content familiarity, and personal background, among other factors. This approach seeks to foster an appreciation for the diverse perspectives and insights that students from varying backgrounds contribute to the academic discourse.</p> <p>Acknowledging the limitations of this study, it is crucial to note that the literature reviewed predominantly comprises studies published in the English language, potentially constraining the breadth of findings. Recommendations for future research include explorations of comparative studies to delineate similarities and differences in critical thinking skills between Chinese students and their international counterparts. Additionally, empirical investigations may explore the impact of diverse teaching and learning strategies, such as PBL and evidence‐based learning, on promoting critical thinking among Chinese international students. An avenue for further exploration lies in scrutinizing faculty teaching strategies, including mentoring programs and assignments/research projects, for enhancing critical thinking skills among this demographic. Lastly, due to the limited number of relevant topics, we included articles investigating Chinese students at both undergraduate and graduate levels. However, reviewing research that investigates Chinese college students at all levels would help in understanding the context and situation of Chinese graduate students.</p> <p>In conclusion, the study posits that delving into the critical thinking skills of Chinese international students warrants ongoing scholarly attention, particularly in light of the continued internationalization of curricula on US campuses and the influx of international students. 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Critical thinking cultivation in Chinese college English classes. English Language Teaching, 11 (8), 1 – 6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, T. (2017). Why do Chinese postgraduates struggle with critical thinking? Some clues from the higher education curriculum in China. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41 (6), 857 – 871.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, Y. (2016). International students in transition: Voices of Chinese doctoral students in a U.S. research University. Journal of International Students, 6 (1), 175 – 194. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i1.487</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Shuaipu Jiang; Qi Sun and Xi Lin</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Dr. Shuaipu Jiang has recently completed her Ph.D. in Adult Learning Program from the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, which was previously housed in the Department of Psychology and Counseling Department at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Her research interests mainly revolve around international and comparative education, Confucian education, cognitive development, critical thinking, and Chinese international students.</p> <p>Qi Sun is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policies Studies at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, specializes in adult learning, transformative learning in cross‐cultural contexts, and international students' and faculty's academic success. Her research spans international and comparative education, Confucian and Eastern philosophies and cultural influences on education, lifelong learning and lifelong education policies, and online teaching and learning. Dr. Sun advocates for learning from the Rest to reduce Western‐centric limitations, encouraging the exploration of non‐Western Perspectives to benefit learning and teaching globally.</p> <p>Dr. Xi Lin is an associate professor in the Department of Interdisciplinary Professions at East Carolina University. Her research focuses on student engagement and interaction in online and distance learning and international students and faculty in US higher education. More information about her can be found at  <ulink href="http://whoisxilin.weebly.com/">http://whoisxilin.weebly.com/</ulink>.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref99"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref104"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref115"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref116"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref117"></nolink>
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Exploring Chinese International Students' Critical Thinking Skills: A Systematic Literature Review
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Shuaipu+Jiang%22">Shuaipu Jiang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Qi+Sun%22">Qi Sun</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Xi+Lin%22">Xi Lin</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22New+Directions+for+Adult+and+Continuing+Education%22"><i>New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 (182-183):125-141.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 17
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Graduate+Students%22">Graduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Students%22">Foreign Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Differences%22">Social Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Differences%22">Cultural Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ideology%22">Ideology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Practices%22">Educational Practices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Critical+Thinking%22">Critical Thinking</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Thinking+Skills%22">Thinking Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stereotypes%22">Stereotypes</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22United+States%22">United States</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/ace.20538
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1052-2891<br />1536-0717
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Most graduate students in higher education are classified as adult learners, being 24 years old, and have responsibilities and commitments outside of higher education. This literature review presents how Chinese international graduate students face challenges in the US due to sociocultural, ideological, and educational differences. This systematic literature review explores these students' critical thinking skills, which are crucial factors for academic success but have been underexplored. Three themes were identified as follows: (1) critical thinking education in China, (2) stereotypes of perceived lack of critical thinking, and (3) comparative views of critical thinking between Chinese and American college students. Each theme presents a landscape of how critical thinking is interpreted. Themes suggest several trends, including cultural variations that may impede Chinese international students from showcasing their critical thinking abilities, notwithstanding their inherent capacity for critical thinking. Recommendations include ways to improve critical thinking among international students and call for more comparative studies between Chinese and American college students. The findings offer valuable insights into the internationalization of higher education curricula and the promotion of global learning.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1437887
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1437887
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  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/ace.20538
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 17
        StartPage: 125
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Graduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ideology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Practices
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Critical Thinking
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Thinking Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stereotypes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: United States
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Exploring Chinese International Students' Critical Thinking Skills: A Systematic Literature Review
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Shuaipu Jiang
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            NameFull: Qi Sun
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            NameFull: Xi Lin
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1052-2891
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              Value: 1536-0717
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              Value: 182-183
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
              Type: main
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