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Chinese Women Faculty in US Universities: Transnational Experiences and Challenges

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Title: Chinese Women Faculty in US Universities: Transnational Experiences and Challenges
Language: English
Authors: Xiangju Liu, Xi Lin, Guili Zhang, Yue Liu
Source: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2024 (182-183):95-109.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Asians, Females, College Faculty, Immigrants, Teaching Experience, Barriers, Cultural Differences, Intersectionality, English (Second Language), Family Work Relationship, Faculty Development
DOI: 10.1002/ace.20536
ISSN: 1052-2891
1536-0717
Abstract: Due to the distinct language, cultural values, and social structures, dedicated qualitative research is needed to explore the challenges and supports faced by Chinese women faculty (CWF) members in US academia. Adopting a transnational feminist perspective, this study aims to explore how five CWF members navigate various disadvantages arising from the intersections of race, gender, and cultural values in one US institution. The findings indicate that CWF members encounter language barriers, academic authority challenges, and the struggles of balancing work and life. However, findings also show that they strategically navigate language barriers and challenges to their professional authority by establishing their own voices. Additionally, they benefit from mentoring, fostering their academic development, and contributing to their professional growth. Through this study, we aim to shed new lights on the experiences of CWF members in overcoming obstacles and pursuing professional development within US academia.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1438099
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0179374518;nda01jun.24;2024Sep03.06:14;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0179374518-1">Chinese women faculty in US universities: Transnational experiences and challenges </title> <sbt id="AN0179374518-2">INTRODUCTION</sbt> <p>Due to the distinct language, cultural values, and social structures, dedicated qualitative research is needed to explore the challenges and supports faced by Chinese women faculty (CWF) members in US academia. Adopting a transnational feminist perspective, this study aims to explore how five CWF members navigate various disadvantages arising from the intersections of race, gender, and cultural values in one US institution. The findings indicate that CWF members encounter language barriers, academic authority challenges, and the struggles of balancing work and life. However, findings also show that they strategically navigate language barriers and challenges to their professional authority by establishing their own voices. Additionally, they benefit from mentoring, fostering their academic development, and contributing to their professional growth. Through this study, we aim to shed new lights on the experiences of CWF members in overcoming obstacles and pursuing professional development within US academia.</p> <p>Previous studies (Ong, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref1">32</reflink>]) noted that faculty's different characteristics rooted in their own cultures play a crucial role in shaping their identities and experiences. Therefore, the unique characteristics of Chinese women faculty (CWF) may influence their experiences while working in US academia. While some studies including CWF as participants (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref2">19</reflink>]; Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref3">24</reflink>]), the qualitative study focused on their experiences in US academia remain scarce. The extensive use of the "Asian American" label in existing research obscures the intricate interplay of individual, interethnic, intracultural, linguistic, and social structure differences in discussions about race (Hsieh & Nguyen, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref4">14</reflink>]). This generalized label leads to CWF being overlooked in these discussions. In the present study, we deliberately focus on CWF because of their backgrounds rooted in different political, socioeconomic, and historic context compared to their native counterparts within US academia.</p> <p>Historically, the United States has held a hegemonic and dominant position, considered superior in the global context, and often viewed as superior economically, politically, and socially (Ang, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref5">2</reflink>]). However, globalization further disadvantages certain knowledge systems, as "the subjugated knowledges become more subjugated as different knowledges are hierarchized in the web of power, based on race, gender, ethnicity, class, sexuality, dis/ability, and citizenship" (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref6">25</reflink>], p. 15). This hierarchical structure is particularly evident in the US academic landscape, where CWF often face a "dual disadvantage" due to intersecting forces of gender and race (Hsieh & Nguyen, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]). Furthermore, CWF, especially those who were born and received bachelor's and/or master's degrees in China, experienced a partial identity transformation upon entering the US academy to pursue PhDs. While, as He ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref8">13</reflink>]) stated, they "partially remained who they were" (p. 516), the specific factors driving this transformation and the processes by which their identities are reshaped remain under‐examined.</p> <p>Additionally, traditional Chinese patriarchal practices have shaped gender roles and influenced CWF's sense of familial responsibilities, leading them to bear heavier family burdens (Leung, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref9">19</reflink>]). Goldin ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref10">11</reflink>]) demonstrated that even with the same education and profession, motherhood significantly impacts income discrepancies, particularly explaining why career progression and earning increases are more challenging for American women compared to men. It is assumed that this phenomenon may also apply to CWF, especially those who are mothers, thus potentially hindering their career development. Furthermore, the interplay of CWF's gender roles with their race, ethnicity, and other background factors may also affect their experiences in US academia.</p> <p>Given the complex interplay of these factors, this qualitative inquiry, guided by a transnational feminist perspective, explores the experiences of five CWF at US university. Through in‐depth interviews, the study focuses on their motivations, challenges, struggles, coping strategies, and support systems within the context of their bicultural backgrounds – encompassing both Chinese and American cultures. By positioning CWF as the central subjects and employing a feminist lens that considers the intersection of gender, race, and nationality for analysis, the study aims to contribute valuable insights to the broader literature on diversity and minority faculty experiences, potentially offering specific knowledge for CWF navigating the US academic context.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-3">THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK</hd> <p>The selection of a transnational feminist perspective is crucial for understanding the experiences of CWF in US academia, especially for those with bachelor's and/or master's degrees from China and were raised. This perspective acknowledges the power differentials shaped by historical, political, and social factors that transcend boundaries. Grewal and Kaplan ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref11">12</reflink>]) argued that in the global context, immigration entails the movement of bodies, materials, and ideas across national boundaries, which makes "the strict distinctions among nations" become recognized, "altered and more flexible" (p. 180). This aligns with the observation that CWF's experiences are influenced by racial, ethnic, and cultural factors that interweave and transcend national boundaries.</p> <p>The transnational feminist approach is rooted in postcolonial studies. "At its core, transnational feminist cultural studies highlight the asymmetries and inequalities that are inevitably produced by the flows of global capital and geo‐politics, and in return, help sustain them" (Kim‐Puri, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref12">23</reflink>], p. 142). As Ong ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref13">32</reflink>]) noted, the specific "in‐between" space where the local and the global intersect becomes the key site of analysis. Therefore, our research focuses on higher education institutions and their faculty while simultaneously maintaining a global perspective. This allows us to examine how CWF's micro‐level experiences are shaped and reshaped by broader historical, economic, political, and social power dynamics.</p> <p>This transnational feminist framework, by rupturing the West‐centric lens, acknowledges the diverse experiences of women of color, the poor, and the immigrants (Kim‐Puri, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref14">23</reflink>]). It challenges the assumption of universality in nations, knowledge, and social positions, instead illuminating how power dynamics among "women" intersect across race, ethnicity, nationality, and sexuality. Furthermore, it questions the existing ethnic and cultural borders within a nation‐state, as Ng ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref15">30</reflink>]) stated, "it is through the process of colonization and nation building that we see how racism and sexism became crystallized as systems of domination and subordination" (p. 133).</p> <p>The key point in the transnational feminist framework is the site of analysis in the linkage across cultural contexts, which can be conceptual, bureaucratic, geopolitical, geographical, economic, cultural, and disciplinary (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>]). The statement "We were not born women of color but became women of color here [in the U.S.]" (Alexander & Mohanty, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref17">1</reflink>], p. xiv) exemplifies how cross‐cultural factors shape minority identities. Similarly, CWF in US academia, experience their daily life, work, and identity as constantly shape by various cross‐cultural factors, including language, norms, gender, professional networks, and the institutional structures they work within. Therefore, analyzing the academic institutions where CWF has worked, particularly those with linkages across China and the United States, is crucial for understanding their experiences within the transnational feminist framework.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-4">LITERATURE REVIEW</hd> <p>While a growing body of literature has emerged to investigate issues and challenges faced by Asian women faculty (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref18">24</reflink>]), faculty of color or minority scholars (Hu & Chen, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref19">17</reflink>]), as well as their marginalized experiences related to race, ethnicity, and gender, there is a lack of research specifically focused on CWF. In this study, CWFs refer to woman who were born and educated in China, received their bachelors' and /or masters' degrees there, and subsequently pursued doctoral degrees at US institutions before obtaining faculty positions at US universities. Glass et al. ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref20">10</reflink>]) emphasizes the influence of home cultures on CWF's conceptions, behaviors, and norms, leading to unique challenges compared to native colleagues due to cultural and linguistic differences. Prior research involving Asian women faculty, minority women faculty, and women faculty of color (Glass et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref21">10</reflink>]) are reviewed for two reasons: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref22">1</reflink>) to provide broader context for CWF's experiences in US academia and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>) to identify strategies for addressing their challenges. Henceforth, "Asian women faculty" will encompass CWF, faculty of color, and minority scholars for brevity.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-5">The accent hierarchy in US academia</hd> <p>For Asian women faculty who are English as a second language learners, the accent when speaking English becomes a significant challenge. The hegemony of English‐speaking countries in global higher education and academia has, according to Mayuzumi ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref24">26</reflink>]), created a hierarchical system of accent, privileging European/American accents over those of immigrant speakers, including Asian women (Creese & Kambere, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref25">5</reflink>]). Research suggests a bias in student reactions, favoring European immigrant faculty over Asian women faculty due to accent and skin color. Lawless and Chen ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref26">18</reflink>]) consider these instances to be milder forms of microaggressions, symbolizing the social distance, relational disconnection, and knowledge gap that immigrant women need to "bridge between themselves and the students" (p. 43). They further argue that underlying the rejection of their accent are larger, systemic, and structural forces which "subjugates and limits immigrant women faculty's potentials as teachers and educators" (p. 43). Creese and Kambere ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref27">5</reflink>]) emphasize that the accent is deeply intertwined with "power and exclusion, marginalization and 'othering', racism and discrimination" (p. 571). Li ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref28">21</reflink>]) argues that fluency in English can be a positive factor for upward mobility in certain contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-6">Asian women faculties' identity in the United States</hd> <p>The identity of Asian women faculty, especially those who grew up and were educated in China, was inevitably shaped by across cultural values of Chinese and American. According to Mayuzumi ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref29">24</reflink>]), discourses that portray Asian women, including Chinese Americans, as "other women" within power dynamics, combined with stereotypes based on their skin color and appearance, significantly shape the identity of Asians in Western nations like the United States (pp. 280–282). Meanwhile, even though few Chinese identify themselves as followers of Confucianism, Confucian ethics, and behavioral norms infiltrate their minds (Zhai, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref30">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>Stereotypes of Asians, including Chinese Americans, have undergone a significant shift from portraying them as "illiterate, unskilled," and "submissive coolies," or "unassimilable sojourners" (Tam, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref31">42</reflink>], p. 3) to portraying them as the "model minority" or "problem‐free minority group" (Suzuki, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref32">41</reflink>], pp. 41–69) across different eras. As Hsieh and Nguyen ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>]) argue, these changing narratives shape perceptions of Asian Americans. Previous studies have noted that students and colleagues often treat Asian women faculty according to stereotyped images of the Asian female as "apolitical/docile" and "non‐threatening" (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref34">26</reflink>], pp. 171–174). Therefore, Asian female faculty consistently face marginalization and otherness on campus. During the COVID‐19 pandemic, media reports have often used terms like "China virus" to perpetuate racism and stereotypes (Su et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>], p. 1).</p> <p>Meanwhile, Chinese cultural values, particularly the Confucian ideology of work ethics, social norms, filial piety, harmony (<emph>he</emph>,和), and gender roles, significantly impact the behaviors, self‐perceptions, and interpersonal relationships of Chinese individuals in family and professional settings. For instance, work ethics including hard work and diligence (Redding, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref36">34</reflink>]), adhere to pursuit of goals they select for themselves (Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref37">53</reflink>]). Filial piety in the Chinese context encompasses responsibilities such as parents raising and educating young children, and adult children demonstrating respect, obedience, loyalty, and provide care to their elder parents (Hsu, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref38">16</reflink>]). Research suggests that with the modernization and democratization of society, patterns of parental care have adapted to social changes (Sun, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>]). Notably, there has been a growing trend of women (i.e., daughters) taking on the role of primary caregivers, surpassing that of sons (Zhan & Montgomery, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref40">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>The principle of respecting superiors extends filial piety to social interactions, guiding people's interaction manners and norms in all aspects of Chinese social engagement. Interpersonal harmony is paramount, leading to the avoidance of conflict or activities threatening harmony and indirect expression of negative feelings or contrary opinions (Wei & Li, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref41">46</reflink>]). Additionally, individuals should display modesty and show great generosity to others, especially toward superiors or those of higher rank. Traditional Chinese patriarchal family structures associate harmony with highly gendered roles. Women are expected to obey fathers, husbands, and eventually sons (Deutsch, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref42">8</reflink>]). This led to a clear division of labor, with men as breadwinners and women responsible for domestic duties.</p> <p>Moreover, Hsieh and Nguyen ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]) argue that acculturation and assimilation are other areas that impact Asian American self‐perceptions and relationships. In an autoethnographic study, He ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref44">13</reflink>]) acknowledged that acculturation and enculturation occur interchangeably during their cross‐cultural lives between Canada and China, and that individuals transform partially while also partially remaining who they were.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-7">Intersection of gender and race/ethnicity</hd> <p>The intersection of gender and race/ethnicity impedes the career advancement of Asian women faculty. Misra et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref45">28</reflink>]) highlight the gendered nature of academia, while the expectation of domestic duties and the existing gender gap among Asian faculty further disadvantage them. These women grapple with the intersection of gender and race, facing infantilization, racial stereotyping, and credibility undermining. These lead to the perception of Asian women faculty as "less competent" and negative evaluations of their teaching and course content (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref46">27</reflink>], p. 174). Stanley ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref47">38</reflink>]) noted that faculty of color often experience pressure to work twice as hard for equal treatment and report higher job‐related stress. Rong ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref48">35</reflink>]) argues that passive and permissive images of Asian educators invite intimidation and aggression from students, colleagues, and administration, creating a challenging classroom environment for many Asian American faculty.</p> <p>Previous studies reveal that having strong mentors can significantly minimize new faculty members' sentiments of social isolation and promote greater career sustainability. However, women faculty of color face greater professional isolation, experience slower rate of promotion, and have fewer mentors (Davis et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref49">7</reflink>]). In short, gender, race/ethnicity, and academic ranking have shaped women faculty's mentoring experiences (Long et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref50">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>Interestingly, unlike other minority faculty, Asian women faculty, particularly Chinese and Taiwanese women scholars, often adopt a more proactive approach to building mentoring networks and report fewer negative experiences (Li, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref51">21</reflink>]). However, they are tenured and promoted at a slower rate than their male counterparts (Winslow & Davis, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref52">47</reflink>]). Furthermore, they often receive pressure to work twice as hard to be treated as equals (Stanley, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref53">38</reflink>]). Meanwhile, patriarchal practices, biased legal systems, and ethical codes in China contribute to the reinforcement of political, physical, and psychological power imbalances, making work‐life balance especially difficult for women with children (Yoon & Hong, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref54">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>Married Asian women faculty are often expected to prioritize their spouses' or partners' career development (Yoon & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref55">49</reflink>]) and bear the primary responsibility for childcare (Moon, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref56">29</reflink>]). They are also actively involved in their children's education. To achieve work‐life balance, many Asian women faculty proactively choose occupations that demand less human capital requirements, leading to lower salaries and compensation (Li & Xie, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref57">20</reflink>]). Some even opt for part‐time positions to manage these competing demands.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-8">Strategies for Asian women faculty in US academia</hd> <p>Faced with systemic disadvantages, how can Asian female faculty navigate and pursue career development? Adopting assimilation and acculturation in the workplace may be the simplest choice for Asian women faculty (Yoon & Hong, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref58">50</reflink>]). Simultaneously, Asian women faculty strive to find their own unique voice within higher education institutions, "unmasking" to shed the layers of "others" stereotypical expectations (Shrake, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref59">36</reflink>], p. 190–192), and leveraging linguistic disadvantage and experiences as teaching assets. This requires the creation of a defense mechanism, whereby they constantly negotiate to achieve success within academia (Mayuzumi, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref60">26</reflink>]). Etzkowitz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]) argued that female faculty, instinctively or consciously, tend to work harder to accumulate greater human capital to compensate for the lack of social capital resulted from being a minority and experiencing isolation.</p> <p>Given the previous studies, our research examines CWF experiences within the US university, focusing on the institution with linkages across China and the United States in the global context. Challenging traditional narratives of Western‐centric views, we acknowledge the value of their diverse experiences. Through a transnational feminist lens, we aimed to illuminate the multi‐faceted experiences of CWF within specific cross‐cultural contexts, such as navigating diverse cultural expectations, confronting biases of stereotypes and language barriers, balancing career and family, and building support networks. We focused on the following three questions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What specific challenges do CWF face as they navigate the "in‐between space" between their Chinese heritage and their lived realities in US academia?</item> <p></p> <item> How do CWF manage work‐life balance while confronting potentially biased gender roles within both the academic workplace and family structures?</item> <p></p> <item> What supports and resources do CWF receive from their institutions to navigate these challenges?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0179374518-9">METHODS</hd> <p>In this study, we initially recruited seven participants at one American university, as recommended by previous researchers (e.g., Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref62">6</reflink>]; Thomas & Pollio, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref63">44</reflink>]), who suggested that an appropriate sample size for qualitative research ranges from 5 to 12 participants. Our study focused on their shared experience within a specific geographical context. During the first round of invitations, we sent surveys to 12 individuals, receiving consent and participation from seven. However, after obtaining informed consent, we excluded two participants. One participant, born and raised in the United States, did not fully meet the study's aim of understanding individuals navigating both Chinese and American cultures within US academia. Another participant currently holds a non‐tenure‐track lecturer position, differing from the targeted tenure‐track focus of the study. Excluding these participants allowed us to maintain a homogenous group with shared characteristics, enabling an in‐depth exploration of their specific experiences within the defined criteria.</p> <p>All (see Table 1, pseudonyms are used) participants were born and raised in China. They were aged between their 30s to early 50s during the interviews and held tenured/tenure‐track position. They had completed their bachelor's and/or master's degrees. One participant previously held an academic role at another public university in the southern United States, the remaining four participants have been with the current university since completing their doctoral studies or postdoctoral research. Three participants are married with children and have spouses living in the same city. One participant is married with children, and her spouse works in a different northwestern city. Another participant is single.</p> <p>1 TABLE Background information on the five research participants.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th>Interviewee</th><th>Tenure status</th><th>Duration in the United States (years)</th><th>Duration at the University (years)</th><th>Academic major</th><th>Undergraduate major</th><th>Under‐graduate education</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Zora</td><td>Tenured</td><td>22</td><td>2.5</td><td>Dentistry</td><td>Dentistry</td><td>China</td></tr><tr><td>Xena</td><td>Tenured</td><td>13</td><td>9</td><td>Public health</td><td>English Literature</td><td>China</td></tr><tr><td>Hayley</td><td>Tenured</td><td>20</td><td>14</td><td>English Literature</td><td>English Literature</td><td>China</td></tr><tr><td>Daisy</td><td>Tenure track</td><td>12</td><td>5</td><td>Social work</td><td>English Literature</td><td>China</td></tr><tr><td>Tyler</td><td>Tenure track</td><td>7</td><td>1.5</td><td>Construction management</td><td>Engineering</td><td>China</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph>: The participants' undergraduate academic majors were recorded based on their self‐reported areas of study, which may not correspond to specific major titles.</p> <p>Prior to the interviews, we informed participants about our research purpose and backgrounds. We then conducted semi‐structured interviews, and all interviews were conducted in English within the United States. With participants' permission, we audio‐recorded and transcribed all interviews for thematic analysis. The study also collected information on participants' tenure status, duration of stay in the United States and at the university, as well as their major and location of undergraduate education.</p> <p>Using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref64">4</reflink>]), we first transcribed all interview responses from both semi‐structured and follow‐up interviews. To ensure participant confidentiality, we then removed any identifying information to protect the participants' confidentiality. The coding process utilized this anonymized data. The first phase of coding involved a close analysis of each participant's responses from the interviews and supplementary written texts. This analysis led to the development of a codebook, a comprehensive list of codes capturing the key themes emerging from the data. In the second round, we employed inductive open coding analysis while reading and re‐reading the codes to identify major themes. Lastly, the authors finalized emerged themes for the final write‐up (Thornberg & Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref65">45</reflink>]) to ensure the study's robust and compelling results (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref66">48</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-10">FINDINGS</hd> <p>Drawing upon the cross‐cultural experiences of five CWF members at US public university, we identify three main challenges and supports they faced associated with the intersection of race, gender, and cultural values.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-11">Chinese women faculty's navigation of language barriers and authority challenges</hd> <p>Five CWF members faced diverse obstacles, including language barriers and challenges to their professional authority from students. These challenges took various forms, such as students questioning their teaching content, encountering student resistance, and receiving impolite emails. Notably, three of them with an English‐related academic background (i.e., those with an undergraduate degree in English from China or an English‐related doctoral degree from the United States) do not report direct challenges to their accent, or teaching content from students, unlike the other two.</p> <p>However, all five members encountered challenges in gaining authoritative recognition during teaching and interactions, as evidenced by their coping strategies. Hayley, a tenured professor of English Literature, states that, "As a nonnative English speaker, it is indeed difficult to know when to be more affirmative and stricter and when to be more lenient." This uncertainty leads to frustration, as reflected in her comments about students' emails, "Sometime, the students' emails,... were really rude or something... and reading their email really makes you mad." Despite her previous experience with foreign instructors in China and adopting a teaching style rich in body language, being an atypicality of instructor, she emphasized that,</p> <p>I always make it very clear at the beginning that I don't speak beautiful English because I am a foreigner. Em... That is what I do to all my students. ...I still know I'm very knowledgeable about teaching. ...I never feel like English is an issue for me.</p> <p>Xena, another CWF member with an English‐related academic background, infuses Chinese culture into her teaching of the Global Health Course. She states,</p> <p>During traditional Chinese festivals, like the Mid‐Autumn Festival, I wear cheongsams. Although it stands out, I choose to wear them and do not mind what others think... I hope to present the image of modern Chinese women,... (my) students love it and even discuss what I will wear next.</p> <p>She also mentioned, "I told students that public media can be biased, so they shouldn't argue with me solely based on using the views of the media." However, she encourages students to express their own opinions during discussions on Chinese‐related issues. Her commitment to excellence is further demonstrated by her focus on high‐quality education, fostering open communication, and proactively seeking student feedback each semester. This is evident in her statement, "I conduct personal evaluations and reflections on my courses every semester. If I identify areas for improvement, I readily adjust my syllabus to enhance the learning experience."</p> <p>When faced with challenges to their authority, most CWF refuse to compromise or back down. Instead, they strategically leverage their non‐native or Chinese identities, incorporating China‐related approaches to strengthen their academic credibility. For example, when students voiced their concerns about the perceived irrelevance of the taught material, Daisy invoked Confucius's timeless wisdom, "Learning without reflection leads to bewilderment." She posited that their perception of insignificance might arise from a lack of profound contemplation of the subject matter. Through this opportunity, she urged students to embark on a journey of active reflection alongside their learning, emphasizing the transformative potential of earnest introspection to illuminate a deeper understanding. As a result, three of the five participants generally receive positive evaluations from students, with occasional complaints about specific issues. However, Zora and Tyler, the other two participants, faced more challenges in establishing classroom authority and credibility during their early years. Occasionally, they resorted to "citing textbook to illustrate my points" or relied on syllabi for support; Tyler, as the youngest one, specifically struggles to maintain control over the classroom when confronted with student resistance. This finding aligns with Skachkova ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref67">37</reflink>]), who suggests that the questioning of credibility seems further highlighted due to an accent.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-12">Dual challenges of Chinese women faculty: Work and life</hd> <p>The participants acknowledge the difficulty of balancing hard work with a healthy work‐life balance, emphasizing the need for a supportive work environment, to manage both effectively. Nearly everyone acknowledges the importance of working very hard, at least during their early career, as evidenced by quotes like, "I work as hard as my colleagues to reach my professional goals and gain peer recognitions" (Zora), and "It is simply to pursue my academic goals" (Tyler). Daisy further highlights the importance of hard work for tenure, acknowledging that networking is also crucial in the US academic landscape ("work hard to get tenured. Obviously, in America, even in [U.S.] academia, network is also important").</p> <p>Xena emphasizes the significant effort required for tenure, stating, "Only by exerting three times the effort of others can we get tenure... publishing 30 papers within 5 years help me most with my promotions and other endeavors." She also believes hard work is instrumental in securing funding and fostering academic development. Hayley, having gained tenure, feels less pressure to work as hard due to her commitment to raising her children and being the only parent here. She reflects, "Maybe ten years ago, I worked pretty hard," and "I don't compare with others... My colleagues all work hard... but since getting tenure, actually, I feel like I am not working that hard anymore. Because I really give most of my time and energy to my family." The desire for professional advancement, like promotion or tenure, achieving academic goals, and earning recognition from peers are common motivations for hard work among the participants.</p> <p>All four married CWF members express the dual ambition of striving for professional success while balancing demanding family commitments. Juggling multiple roles as mothers, daughters, full‐time academics, and professionals places them in a challenging position of the equilibrium between work and family life. For example, Daisy, with parents living in China, acknowledges, "I have caregiving responsibilities for my parents. Once, I took a year off to take care of my mom. Now I'm back to normal working life." Similarly, Xena, a tenured professor with three children, emphasizes that, "Balancing work and life is always a priority for me." Likewise, Zora echoes the challenge, stating, "Balancing work and family responsibilities is a struggle. I take time off as needed to address family needs." Hayley, a single mother, prioritizes her family and children, explaining,</p> <p>When there is a conflict, I don't feel like I need to determine anything, any meeting.... I have to do this (prioritizing family). I don't have extra help. Thankfully, my colleagues in our department are incredibly understanding... I particularly enjoy working here. This's one of the reasons why I find my job here so enjoyable.</p> <p>These narratives demonstrate that CWF often prioritizes family when work‐family conflicts arise. As highlighted by Berheide et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref68">3</reflink>]), workplace flexibility plays a crucial role in achieving this balance. It allows them to effectively manage their personal and professional time, minimizing work‐life conflicts. However, none of the five CWF members holds official leadership positions, such as the department chair. One of them lowered her career expectations to better manage family responsibilities. Another one attempted but was unsuccessful in applying for a leadership role, while the remaining members believe they do not yet possess the necessary qualifications.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-13">Mentoring: A valuable resource for Chinese women faculty</hd> <p>Mentoring from senior colleagues or department chairs is a particularly important resource for CWF members, especially when they were new to this university. Mentoring provides guidance, support, collaborative research opportunities, and resources that help them achieve their professional goals and overcome challenges. CWF members report that mentoring has benefited them in a variety of ways.</p> <p>Mentoring provides valuable guidance and support to CWF members. For instance, Zora and Tyler's chair outlined specific goals, and offers access to essential resources to achieve them. Additionally, the assistance of mentors helps them achieve "saving time, reducing confusion," and alleviating the overall burden of stress. Hayley reports very positive mentoring experiences. She states that her mentor has helped her in many ways, especially as a new faculty member.</p> <p>As a new faculty,... you must have questions in every aspect.... You do not know understanding the structure of your department... the more specific about student backgrounds, and how to reply email‐like sometimes (when) they were really rude or something, and reading their email really makes your mad.... And, of course, a lot of other things like evaluation, collaboration, service...what kind of service to do....</p> <p>Mentoring also contributes to professional growth by fostering collaborative research. Xena highlights this benefit, stating, "Working with a mentor greatly improves the quality and quantity of papers.... It is difficult to do research independently after earning a PhD Having a mentor to provide guidance at this stage is very important." Similarly, Daisy emphasizes the supportive network, noting, "All my colleagues are welcoming and helpful. Whenever I have questions, I can ask any of them." Mentors and colleagues, like those described by these CWF, play a crucial role in fostering a supportive environment. In this environment, they feel comfortable seeking guidance, support, and assistance. It also breaks down isolation and encourages them to participate in their professional development.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-14">DISCUSSIONS</hd> <p>This study, guided by a transnational feminist perspective, investigates the experiences of five CWF members at a US university. We explore their challenges and supports focusing on the "in‐between" space they navigated within the US academia. Drawing on their narratives, we examine how cross‐cultural factors, including language barriers, challenges to academic authority, work‐life balance, and access to meaningful mentoring, influence their identity formation. In the following sections, we will discuss these key issues in detail.</p> <p>Firstly, the identity of CWF members is influenced by the dynamic power of national states historically, economically, and politically within the global context, aligning with the previous research by Mayuzumi ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref69">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref70">25</reflink>]). Horsman ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref71">15</reflink>]) argued that the historical development of the Anglo‐Saxon race concept was central to the nation's emergence. He further argued that national myths of American exceptionalism – progress, prosperity, and freedom – are inextricably linked to racial exclusions and marginalization, especially for people of color. As Mayuzumi ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref72">24</reflink>]) pointed out, the term "Oriental" used to refer to Asians derived from the notion constructed by Europeans of "otherness" (pp. 278–280). Similarly, different knowledges are also hierarchized in the web of power based on race, gender, ethnicity, class, and citizenship (Olssen & Peters, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref73">31</reflink>]). Notably, English has become a language of inequality, supporting and perpetuating capitalist relations of oppression (Park & Wee, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref74">33</reflink>]). In response to these challenges, CWF members employ various strategies, including transforming obstacles into resources and unmasking the model minority stereotype. As Shrake ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref75">36</reflink>]) stated, "I use my bicultural and bilingual identity as a vehicle to empower myself" (p. 191).</p> <p>Secondly, the experiences of CWF members at US universities are shaped by a dynamic interplay of both Chinese and American cultural values. The study reveals that nearly all of CWF members' identity formation is influenced by Confucian moral values and norms, emphasizing hard work, balancing work and life, and building mentoring relationships. Meanwhile, American cultural values also significantly influence CWF members' work experience. They strive to adopt standard English and integrate values of openness, equality, and inclusivity into their teaching practices, student interactions, and other professional activities. This aligns with He's ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref76">13</reflink>]) observation that their acculturation process often begins with involvement in an "English corner" in China, not after arriving in the United States.</p> <p>Thirdly, CWF members also reported positive mentoring experiences. This aligns with previous suggestion that Asian values can be well‐suited for hierarchical mentoring relationships. Furthermore, research linking the Protestant work ethic (PWE) with Confucian Dynamism, highlights the shared emphasis on work ethics, may offer another explanation for these positive experiences. Based on their accounts, mentoring clearly plays a crucial role in helping them overcome isolation and achieve professional success.</p> <p>In addition to positive mentoring experiences, a supportive work environment, particularly from their department, plays a crucial role in their work‐life balance. Interestingly, while influenced by Confucian gender norms that emphasize being the primary caregiver for children and elders when needed, CWF members also value career achievements, at least in certain career stages. This may reflect a possible new gender identity shaped by their high level of education and cross‐cultural career experiences.</p> <p>In conclusion, examining CWF members within the American university through a transnational feminist lens reveals the complex interplay between national power structures and institutional power dynamics shaped by race, gender, and nationality. These forces are mutually constitutive, creating a dynamic landscape where CWF members navigate challenges and find their voices. This journey of identity formation, from outsiders to insiders, reflects their pursuit of legitimacy.</p> <hd id="AN0179374518-15">CONCLUSIONS</hd> <p>Examining CWF in the US university through a transnational feminist lens reveals that their challenges extend beyond simple linguistic or knowledge‐based hurdles. Instead, they stem from the hierarchicalization of knowledge, language, race, gender, and ethnicity within the context of capitalist globalization (Olssen & Peters, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref77">31</reflink>]). These challenges reflect the unequal power dynamics between nations, impacting individuals who cross borders.</p> <p>Our findings highlight the significant influence of both Chinese and American cultural values on CWF members' identity formation. Notably, CWF members demonstrate a strong work ethic and prioritize career achievement while also fulfilling their responsibilities as primary caregivers when needed. Additionally, effective mentoring and a flexible work environment are seen as crucial for success within the Asian female faculty community.</p> <p>To promote a more inclusive environment, US universities should cultivate opportunities for CWF members to share their diverse cultural perspectives. This would enhance positive perceptions among students, faculty, and staff, solidifying the recognition of Asian female faculty as a valuable and diverse group within the university community.</p> <p>Several recommendations of Tierney and Bensimon ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref78">43</reflink>]) can be implemented to support CWF members' success in US academia:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Establish ongoing forums for new faculty to seek advice and discuss their needs.</item> <p></p> <item> Assign a dedicated faculty development mentor to each tenure‐track faculty member.</item> <p></p> <item> Create collaborative environments that go beyond individualism.</item> <p></p> <item> Establish an office on campus to orient and support the professional development of faculty of color. (pp. 133–135)</item> </ulist> <p>Beyond these important recommendations, several additional strategies deserve consideration by higher institutions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Offering more flexible work arrangements and scheduling options would facilitate work‐life balance.</item> <p></p> <item> Provide more opportunities to demonstrate the various values of different cultures to promote cross‐cultural understanding.</item> <p></p> <item> Critically evaluate curriculum materials to identify and eliminate biases and stereotypes that perpetuate negative perceptions of CWF and other minority groups.</item> </ulist> <p>This study does have potential limitations, including cultural, educational, and assumption biases. The researchers' background and upbringing may influence their perception of CWF experiences. Differences in educational systems between China and the United States might lead to biases in understanding the CWF members' academic achievements, qualifications, and career trajectories. Finally, the selection of participants may influence the interpretations of the findings, as CWF members without tenure‐track positions were not included. They may face greater challenges and have fewer career development opportunities. However, acknowledging these limitations does not diminish the importance of recognizing the challenges and supports faced by CWF members in US academia. Future studies should strive to mitigate these biases by using diverse research teams conducting cross‐cultural sensitivity training and implementing methodologies to ensure unbiased data collection and analysis.</p> <ref id="AN0179374518-16"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref17" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Alexander, M. J., & Mohanty, C. T. (1997). 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Investigating the relationship between Protestant work ethic and Confucian dynamism: An empirical test in mainland China. Journal of Business Ethics, 106, 243 – 252.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Xiangju Liu; Xi Lin; Guili Zhang and Yue Liu</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Xiangju Liu is an associate professor in the Teacher Development Center at Wuhan Textile University. Her research focuses on university faculty development and evaluation, and academic leadership.</p> <p>Xi Lin is an associate professor in the Department of Interdisciplinary Professions at East Carolina University. Her research focuses on student engagement and interaction in online and distance learning and international students and faculty in the US higher education. More information about her can be found at <ulink href="http://whoisxilin.weebly.com/">http://whoisxilin.weebly.com/</ulink></p> <p>Guili Zhang is a professor of Research and Evaluation Methodology in the Department of Special Education, Foundations and Research at the College of Education, East Carolina University. Her research focuses on program evaluation, statistical/quantitative and qualitative research methods, educational assessment, higher education, international comparative education, and family education. More information about her is available at https://people.ecu.edu/zhangg/</p> <p>Yue Liu is an associate professor in the English Language Department at Shanghai Lida University.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref78"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
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An: EJ1438099
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PubType: Academic Journal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Chinese Women Faculty in US Universities: Transnational Experiences and Challenges
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Xiangju+Liu%22">Xiangju Liu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Xi+Lin%22">Xi Lin</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Guili+Zhang%22">Guili Zhang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yue+Liu%22">Yue Liu</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22New+Directions+for+Adult+and+Continuing+Education%22"><i>New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 (182-183):95-109.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Asians%22">Asians</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Females%22">Females</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Faculty%22">College Faculty</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Immigrants%22">Immigrants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Experience%22">Teaching Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Differences%22">Cultural Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intersectionality%22">Intersectionality</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Work+Relationship%22">Family Work Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Faculty+Development%22">Faculty Development</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/ace.20536
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1052-2891<br />1536-0717
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Due to the distinct language, cultural values, and social structures, dedicated qualitative research is needed to explore the challenges and supports faced by Chinese women faculty (CWF) members in US academia. Adopting a transnational feminist perspective, this study aims to explore how five CWF members navigate various disadvantages arising from the intersections of race, gender, and cultural values in one US institution. The findings indicate that CWF members encounter language barriers, academic authority challenges, and the struggles of balancing work and life. However, findings also show that they strategically navigate language barriers and challenges to their professional authority by establishing their own voices. Additionally, they benefit from mentoring, fostering their academic development, and contributing to their professional growth. Through this study, we aim to shed new lights on the experiences of CWF members in overcoming obstacles and pursuing professional development within US academia.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1438099
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1438099
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/ace.20536
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 95
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Asians
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Females
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Faculty
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Immigrants
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intersectionality
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: English (Second Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Work Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Chinese Women Faculty in US Universities: Transnational Experiences and Challenges
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Xiangju Liu
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Xi Lin
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Guili Zhang
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Yue Liu
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1052-2891
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1536-0717
          Numbering:
            – Type: issue
              Value: 182-183
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education
              Type: main
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