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Cohort Scheduling of Freshman Exercise Physiology Majors Improves Social Integration and Perceptions of Faculty but Not Academic Performance

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Title: Cohort Scheduling of Freshman Exercise Physiology Majors Improves Social Integration and Perceptions of Faculty but Not Academic Performance
Language: English
Authors: Miriam Leary (ORCID 0000-0001-6219-9383), Wei Fang, Andrew Layne, Beth Nardella, Lori Sherlock, Emily Ryan (ORCID 0009-0004-7077-9125), Jim Thomas, Brian Leary, Lena Maynor
Source: Advances in Physiology Education. 2024 48(3):603-608.
Availability: American Physiological Society. 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3991. Tel: 301-634-7164; Fax: 301-634-7241; e-mail: webmaster@the-aps.org; Web site: https://www.physiology.org/journal/advances
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 6
Publication Date: 2024
Sponsoring Agency: National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) (DHHS/NIH)
Contract Number: 5U54GM10494208
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: College Freshmen, Scheduling, Homogeneous Grouping, Class Organization, Exercise Physiology, Social Integration, Teacher Student Relationship, School Holding Power, Academic Achievement
Geographic Terms: West Virginia
DOI: 10.1152/advan.00070.2024
ISSN: 1043-4046
1522-1229
Abstract: Cohort scheduling intentionally places students in the same sections of several classes (e.g., biology, algebra, and writing) with a consistent peer group and is typically done for small groups (<30 students) to enable better interaction among students. The goal of this study was to compare cohort scheduling to traditional scheduling methods among freshmen in a physiology-related program. Outcomes included retention to the university and major, semester grades, and institutional integration and perceived group cohesion. Incoming freshmen (n = 209) were randomized into control (n = 43; scheduled with traditional methods) and intervention (n = 166; coenrolled in first-year seminar course, biology, and medical terminology) groups. Outcomes were collected via surveys or requested from the university registrar. There was no significant difference in the likelihood of retention to the university or major and no differences between groups in pass/fail rates for the first-year seminar or biology courses. At the end of the semester, there were no differences between groups in Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (P = 0.102) or the Institutional Integration Scale (P = 0.357). However, the intervention group scored higher on the Institutional Integration Scale's subscales related to social integration and faculty. Cohort scheduling did not impact retention to the university or major but improved secondary outcomes related to retention, specifically social integration and student perceptions of faculty.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1439517
Database: ERIC
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  Value: &lt;anid&gt;AN0179943482;apu01sep.24;2024Oct01.04:31;v2.2.500&lt;/anid&gt; &lt;title id=&quot;AN0179943482-1&quot;&gt;Cohort scheduling of freshman exercise physiology majors improves social integration and perceptions of faculty but not academic performance&#160;&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Cohort scheduling intentionally places students in the same sections of several classes (e.g., biology, algebra, and writing) with a consistent peer group and is typically done for small groups (&amp;lt;30 students) to enable better interaction among students. The goal of this study was to compare cohort scheduling to traditional scheduling methods among freshmen in a physiology-related program. Outcomes included retention to the university and major, semester grades, and institutional integration and perceived group cohesion. Incoming freshmen (n = 209) were randomized into control (n = 43; scheduled with traditional methods) and intervention (n = 166; coenrolled in first-year seminar course, biology, and medical terminology) groups. Outcomes were collected via surveys or requested from the university registrar. There was no significant difference in the likelihood of retention to the university or major and no differences between groups in pass/fail rates for the first-year seminar or biology courses. At the end of the semester, there were no differences between groups in Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (P = 0.102) or the Institutional Integration Scale (P = 0.357). However, the intervention group scored higher on the Institutional Integration Scale&#39;s subscales related to social integration and faculty. Cohort scheduling did not impact retention to the university or major but improved secondary outcomes related to retention, specifically social integration and student perceptions of faculty. NEW &amp;amp; NOTEWORTHY: Compared with traditional scheduling methods, cohort scheduling freshman in physiology programs does not improve retention but improves students&#39; social integration and perceptions of faculty.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Keywords: cohort scheduling; freshman; retention&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-2&quot;&gt;INTRODUCTION&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Because of the rigorous scientific coursework that begins the first semester of freshman year, undergraduate physiology programs are especially vulnerable to retention-related issues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Student retention, defined as first-time, full-time college students who return to the institution for their second year, is associated with greater student persistence to graduation. Retention rates of first-year, full-time students at public 4-year institutions of higher education have ranged from 79.2% to 81.2% over the past decade (2012–2022) ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The present study was conducted at West Virginia University (WVU), a land grant university in Appalachia, where the retention rate was between 75.9% and 82% in the past 5 years (2018–2023).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Strong predictors of first-year retention vary but include increased levels of social integration/support, peer involvement, and first semester grade point average (GPA) ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;]–[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Current research suggests that the first-year experience is influenced by student scheduling methods that foster peer involvement. One such means of course scheduling is cohort scheduling, which intentionally places students in the same sections of several classes (e.g., biology, algebra, and writing) with a consistent peer group. This method facilitates freshman transition to college and integration to campus life and has positive effects on college student outcomes, including academic performance ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Cohort scheduling is typically done for small groups (&amp;lt;30 students) to enable better interaction among students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Attending classes with a specific cohort fosters interrelated academic, professional, and casual relationships ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref7&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]). One study also found that homophily (tendency for people to seek out similar individuals) and propinquity (refers to close physical proximity) were major predictors of peer relationship formation within the cohorts ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref9&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]). As a result, students involved in cohorts found safety and comfort along with a sense of belonging that was reported to be difficult to leave once it came time for these students to move on to a new semester or graduate ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref10&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib5&quot; id=&quot;ref11&quot;&gt;5&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The nature and amount of support that students give and receive in the cohort environment may even increase favorable academic outcomes, as peers often lean on one another to understand course expectations, learn new material, and cope with the various stresses and pressures of college life.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Notably, the increased communication and close involvement between peers in a cohort setting may improve academic motivation, as students subconsciously observe the academic expectancy and achievements of other students ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;]). A critical course in the first year of college is a first-year orientation course, which improves retention and graduation rates as well as academic self-efficacy and self-regulated learning of first-year students ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Since first-year courses aid students in navigating their first year of college, including developing life skills, academic strategies, and increasing a sense of belonging ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref15&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;]–[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;]), cohort scheduling that includes an orientation course (e.g., biology, algebra, and orientation) could foster many benefits for freshmen physiology students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Despite the benefits of cohort scheduling with an orientation course, to our knowledge no study has yet empirically compared the impact of cohort scheduling with more traditional course scheduling in first-year students in a physiology-related major. Therefore, the goal of this study was to compare the impact of a cohort scheduling model against traditional scheduling. The primary aim of this study was to determine retention to the university and major by comparing cohort scheduling with a control group at longitudinal follow-up (the start of the following fall semester). The secondary aim was to evaluate the impact of cohort scheduling on outcomes related to retention, including course grades, semester and cumulative GPA, credit hours attempted and completed, and institutional integration and perceived group cohesion collected via validated surveys.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-3&quot;&gt;METHODS&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;This study received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval (no. 2106352817) from West Virginia University (WVU), Morgantown, WV and was conducted in Fall 2021 with first-time, full-time freshmen enrolled in the Division of Exercise Physiology at WVU. This STEM-based physiology-related program is housed in the School of Medicine in the Health Sciences Center at WVU, a land grant R1 research institution in Appalachia.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;All students enrolling in the exercise physiology major take medical terminology, first-year seminar, and a biology course in their first semester. One section of medical terminology, an asynchronous online course, was taught in the major. One of two biology courses is recommended for incoming freshmen. Students interested in pursuing medical or dental school after graduation enroll in a higher-level biology course (Principles of Biology with laboratory) than students not pursuing these professional programs (General Biology 1 with laboratory). Finally, the first-year seminar course meets once a week, orchestrated by an exercise physiology faculty member. It is offered in person, and students sit in small groups (6–8) to facilitate discussions; there were no differences in teaching or assessments between groups in the first-year seminar course.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Incoming freshmen were randomized into control and intervention groups by the Assistant Director of Advising for the department during the block scheduling process in Summer 2021. College math placement, whether based on standardized test scores or taking higher-level math courses in high school, is predictive of academic success in math and science courses ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;]), better outcomes in STEM majors, and university retention ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In our physiology-based program, students who place into college algebra (math ACT ≥ 22, math SAT ≥ 570) have higher retention to the major and university than students who do not place into college algebra ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref19&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Therefore, math placement was controlled for in the random allocation of students to groups.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Students in the control group were scheduled for classes by traditional methods. Specifically, students were enrolled in one of two large sections (76 and 94 students) of the first-year seminar course (the orientation course), medical terminology, and biology with laboratory, along with other classes, totaling ∼15 (range: 12–18) credit hours for the semester. However, they were not intentionally placed into medical terminology and biology along with other exercise physiology students; any common classes were random during course registration. For the intervention group, students were enrolled in one of two small sections (22 and 21 students) of the first-year seminar course depending on which biology course they were taking (i.e., higher-division biology or general biology). Students who were in the intervention group were informed on the first day of the first-year seminar course that they had been cohort scheduled into medical terminology and biology sections with the other students in the class.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd1 id=&quot;AN0179943482-4&quot;&gt;Outcomes&lt;/hd1&gt; &lt;p&gt;Retention to the university and major were the primary outcomes of this intervention, with secondary outcomes including credit hours attempted and earned as well as GPA in Fall 2021; credit hours attempted and earned and cumulative GPA in Fall 2022; course grades for biology, medical terminology, and first-year seminar; and Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (PCSG) ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and Institutional Integration Scale (IIS) ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]), by validated surveys.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Perceived cohesion, theoretically defined as an individual&#39;s perception of their own cohesion to a group that influences sense of belonging and feelings of morale ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]), was assessed through the six-item Perceived Cohesion Scale for Small Groups (PCSG). Respondents indicated the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Individual responses were summed and averaged to provide scores on the overall measure of perceived cohesion.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The IIS is divided into three scales with four subscales: Peer-Group Interactions, Interactions with Faculty, Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching, and Academic and Intellectual Development. The structure of the IIS is compatible for research involving college students because it is relatively short and simple to administer ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]). All items in this survey were scored on a Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). The three scales of the IIS are&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ulist&gt; &lt;item&gt; The Social Integration Scale was measured by combining the mean of the scores from the subscales Peer-Group Interactions and Interactions with Faculty. The Peer-Group Interactions subscale was designed to measure the extent to which a student has enhanced their interpersonal skills, interaction with their peers, and extracurricular involvement at their institution. The Interactions with Faculty subscale measures the quality and impact of students&#39; nonclassroom contact with faculty.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; The Academic Integration Scale combined the subscales Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching and Academic and Intellectual Development. The Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching subscale measures a student&#39;s perception of faculty concern for his or her development inside and outside the classroom. The Academic and Intellectual Development Subscale measures a student&#39;s perceived level of academic and intellectual development and satisfaction with the quality of learning they received while attending their institution.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; The Institutional and Goal Commitment Scale measures a student&#39;s personal commitment to the institution and to goals associated with graduation and future career plans.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;/ulist&gt; &lt;p&gt;On the first day of the first-year seminar, all students completed an anonymous online survey (Qualtrics, Inc.) that asked them to identify their gender and whether they were a student veteran, honors student, or student athlete, self-identified as a minoritized student, and completed high school in West Virginia. This survey also included the IIS and PCSG surveys. At the end of the semester, students completed the two validated surveys as well as a few nonvalidated questions related to social integration (i.e., Did this course help you make friends in college? Did you spend time with other students in this course outside of class? Did working in small groups help you make friends in your major?). All other data were collected from the university&#39;s registrar after the last day to add a course in Fall 2022.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd1 id=&quot;AN0179943482-5&quot;&gt;Statistical Analysis&lt;/hd1&gt; &lt;p&gt;Student demographics, credit hours, and GPA and survey responses are reported. Continuous variables are reported as either mean and standard deviation (SD) or 25th percentile, median, and 75th percentile, depending on whether they were normally distributed. Group comparisons for continuous variables were conducted by either independent &lt;emph&gt;t&lt;/emph&gt; test or Wilcoxon rank-sum test. Comparisons of continuous variables between pre and post surveys were conducted by paired &lt;emph&gt;t&lt;/emph&gt; test. Categorical variables are reported as frequency and percentage. Group comparisons for categorical variables were conducted by chi-square test or Fisher&#39;s exact test, as needed.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;To investigate and quantify group difference in the likelihood of retention to either university or major while accounting for the potential confounding effect from the status of college math placement, multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted. All statistical analyses were performed with R 4.3.3 (R Core Team, Vienna, Austria) and the &quot;rms&quot; (version 6.8-0) package.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-6&quot;&gt;RESULTS&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The initial survey was completed by 209 students, including 166 in the control sections and 43 in the intervention sections. There were no differences between groups in the proportion of student subgroups, as displayed in Table 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 1. Student demographics&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;left&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Control (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 166)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Intervention (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 43)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;P&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; Value&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Male&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;58 (35%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;14 (33%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.89&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Student veterans&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;1 (1%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0 (0%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.999&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Honors students&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;53 (32%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7 (16%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.067&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Student athletes&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;14 (8%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;1 (2%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.293&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Self-identified as minoritized student&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;16 (10%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7 (16%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.334&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Completed high school in WV&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;116 (70%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;28 (65%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.677&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;First-generation college student&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;37 (23%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;13 (30%)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.434&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;1 Values are frequency (percentage).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The results from the regression analyses, as displayed in Table 2, revealed that after accounting for college math placement, there was no significant difference in the likelihood of either retention to the university or retention to the major, though college math placement was either significantly or marginally significantly associated with the outcome variable (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.045, 0.083, respectively).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 2. Output from the regression analyses&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;left&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;P&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; Value&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;95% Confidence Interval (CI)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;Model 1&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Group = intervention&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.7531&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.5423&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.30259, 1.87460&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;College math placement = good&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.9247&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.0045&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;1.52700, 10.08600&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;Model 2&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Group = intervention&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;1.2131&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.6143&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.57228, 2.5716&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;College math placement = good&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;1.7151&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.0828&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.93231, 3.1554&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;2 In &lt;emph&gt;model 1&lt;/emph&gt;, the outcome variable was binary retention to the university status. In &lt;emph&gt;model 2&lt;/emph&gt;, the outcome variable was binary retention to the major status.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In particular, the odds of retention to the university for the intervention group were 0.7531 times the odds of retention to the university for the control group [&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.5423, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.30259, 1.87460]. The odds of retention to the major for the intervention group were 1.2131 times the odds of retention to the major for the control group (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.6143, 95% CI: 0.57228, 2.5716). However, both findings were not statistically significant.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;There were no differences between groups in pass/fail rates for the first-year seminar or biology courses, nor was math performance a significant predictor for these. However, math placement was a significant predictor of final grade in the medical terminology course (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt; 0.05).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;There was no difference between groups for credit hours attempted or semester GPA in Fall 2021, but credit hours earned trended toward significance (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.078); see Table 3. By longitudinal follow-up in Fall 2022, there were no differences in credit hours attempted or earned, but cumulative GPA was trending toward significance (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.067); see Table 3.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 3. Credit hours and GPA at end of Fall 2021 and start of Fall 2022&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;left&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Control (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 166)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Intervention (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 43)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;P&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; Value&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2021 credits attempted&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;16.00 [15.00, 16.00]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;16.00 [15.00, 16.00]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.1934&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2021 credits earned&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;15.00 [14.00, 16.00]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;15.00 [13.50, 16.00]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.07834&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2021 semester GPA&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.40 [2.75, 3.77]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.19 [2.79, 3.59]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.1159&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2022 credits attempted&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;char&quot; char=&quot;(&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;42.04 (13.35)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;char&quot; char=&quot;(&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;41.16 (11.63)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.6697&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2022 credits earned&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;char&quot; char=&quot;(&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;38.78 (15.01)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;char&quot; char=&quot;(&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;36.65 (13.55)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.3717&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Fall 2022 cumulative GPA&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.33 [2.81, 3.77]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.19 [2.58, 3.58]&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.0673&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;3 Values are median [interquartile range], except for Fall 2022 credits attempted and earned [mean (SD)]. GPA, grade point average.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;For survey results, 167 (80%) students completed the post survey, including 135 (80%) from the control sections and 35 (81%) from the intervention sections. For nonvalidated questions, there were no differences between groups: the course helped them make friends (control 15%, intervention 15%), they spent time with other students in the course outside of class (control 25%, intervention 23%), and working in small groups helped them make friends in their major (control 17%, intervention 15%).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;For all students, there were no differences over time (from the start to the end of the semester) in Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.53). In the Institutional Integration Scale, there were improvements in Social Integration (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt; 0.0001), including both subscales: Peer-Group Interactions (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt; 0.0001) and Interactions with Faculty (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt; 0.002). There were no differences over time for the other scales: the Academic Integration Scale (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.76), including subscales for Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.08) and Academic and Intellectual Development (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.24), and the Institutional Goals and Commitment Scale (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.98) (data not shown).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;At the end of the semester, there were no differences between groups in Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.102) or the Institutional Integration Scale (&lt;emph&gt;P&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.357). However, the intervention group scored higher on the Institutional Integration Scale&#39;s subscales related to social integration and faculty, including Interactions with Faculty and Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching; see Table 4.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 4. Between-groups end-of-semester survey responses&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;left&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;col align=&quot;char&quot; span=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Control (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 135)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Intervention (&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 35)&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;P&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; Value&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Perceived Cohesion Scale&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;5.53 (1.28)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;5.90 (1.14)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.102&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Institutional Integration Scale&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;17.13 (2.06)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;17.27 (2.40)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.357&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Social Integration&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7.04 (0.96)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7.39 (0.99)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.044&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt; Peer-Group Interactions&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.58 (0.48)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.62 (0.57)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.644&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt; Interactions with Faculty&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.47 (0.68)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.77 (0.73)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.015&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Academic Integration Scale&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7.13 (1.01)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;7.38 (1.15)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.166&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt; Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.40 (0.66)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.65 (0.78)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.039&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt; Academic and Intellectual Development&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.72 (0.60)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.73 (0.58)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.919&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;Institutional Goals and Commitment Scale&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.21 (0.47)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;3.19 (0.45)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td rowspan=&quot;1&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot;&amp;gt;0.827&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;4 Values are means (SD).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-7&quot;&gt;DISCUSSION&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Cohort scheduling intentionally places small groups of students in the same sections of several classes with a consistent peer group to facilitate freshmen&#39;s transition to college, integration to campus life, and even academic performance ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The present study compared cohort scheduling to traditional scheduling methods among freshmen in a physiology-related program. There were no differences between groups on the primary outcome, retention to the university and major, which agrees with previous findings that cohort scheduling does not increase retention among students in a business major ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, cohort scheduling improved secondary outcomes related to retention, specifically student perceptions of faculty.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Although retention is influenced by a myriad of factors, some are determined before a student matriculates to college [i.e., student demographics (first-generation college student, minoritized student, etc.) and academic preparation] while others (i.e., academic and social integration) can be influenced once students are on campus ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;]). College cohort scheduling can foster casual friendship relationships ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref28&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]), which was the framework for the present study: improve retention by promoting social integration with cohort scheduling. Interestingly, there was a positive improvement in IIS peer-group interactions among all students, but neither group improved on the Perceived Cohesion Scale and both groups answered nonvalidated questions related to social integration with low perceptions [the course helped them make friends (control 15%, intervention 15%), they spent time with other students in the course outside of class (control 25%, intervention 23%), and working in small groups helped them make friends in their major (control 17%, intervention 15%). Although contradictory to each other and previous work ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref30&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]), these findings suggest that intentionally placing students in the same sections of several classes was not a sufficient stimulus to impact peer social integration. This failure may have limited the likelihood of cohort scheduling to positively impact retention among students in a physiology-related program.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Both groups improved perceptions of Interactions with Faculty over the course of the semester, which could be the normal change in perceptions from a new instructor at the start of the semester to the end of the semester. Additionally, the fact that faculty were administering surveys about their perceptions could (correctly) bias students&#39; impressions that faculty care about seeking positive change for their overall success. Importantly, the cohort scheduling group had higher scores (better perceptions) for subscales related to faculty including Interactions with Faculty and Faculty Concern for Student Development and Teaching compared with the traditional scheduling group. This agrees with previous work that linked freshman English and biology classes together with the same group of classmates, which was associated with increased interaction between the students and faculty members ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref31&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In the present study, cohort scheduling sections had significantly smaller class sizes in the first-year seminar compared with traditional scheduling sections. Although it was not assessed as an outcome, the smaller class sizes in the cohort group might have fostered more direct interactions between students and faculty, facilitated faculty learning student names, etc. However, even if there were no differences in student-faculty interaction between groups, student perceptions of being one in a crowd of 70–100 could negatively impact their perceptions of Interactions with Faculty compared with a student in a smaller class. Regardless, the present study confirmed that cohort scheduling physiology students in a small (∼25) first-year seminar class can positively impact perceptions of Interactions with Faculty. Although perhaps unsurprising, this is an important finding for the present study and may benefit other physiology programs seeking to improve perceptions of faculty.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;It is important to note that different types of social support (e.g., emotional, informational, and motivational) exist that impact freshman college student retention ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;]) and can be impacted by cohort scheduling. Communication and close involvement between peers in a cohort setting may increase academic motivation, as students subconsciously observe the academic expectancy and achievements of other students ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref33&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Peer observation of others&#39; academic expectancy and success (i.e., the tendency of individuals to compare themselves to one another) may influence students&#39; self-efficacy. For some students with a more prosocial and determined psychological orientation, placing them in a consistent peer group may further motivate them to succeed academically ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref34&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;]), but the same experience has the potential to decrease motivation in others by lowering perceived self-efficacy. This factor may depend on the environment and level of competition within a given program, which might be present in STEM-based physiology programs. In our study, cumulative GPA was lower at longitudinal follow-up (both trending toward significance). Perhaps more students in the control group were negatively affected by peer observation of others&#39; academic expectancy and success. These types of social support, as well as personality traits such as introvert/extrovert and perfectionism, could impact not only social integration but overall academic success and retention. Therefore, future research could further investigate these factors among freshmen in a physiology program and their relationship to retention.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In the present study, among the cohort group the credit hours earned in the first semester were lower compared with the control group. Compared with full-time peers who take fewer credits, students who average 15+ credits in the first semester are more likely to end their first year with a higher GPA and higher retention rates. Importantly, these benefits are seen among low-income students and those at all levels of academic achievement. This previous work points to the importance of physiology programs establishing policies that encourage students to take 15 or more credits per semester. This &quot;15 to Finish&quot; public relations campaign promotes the academic and financial benefits of taking 15 credits per semester to finish in 4 years and has seen positive outcomes related to academic achievement, retention, and graduation rates ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In the present study, math placement was predictive of retention as well as grade in a physiology-based medical terminology course. This agrees with our previous work showing that students with low scores on the mathematics section of standardized tests are less likely to be retained to the major and institution. Indeed, across the nation, low preparation in math is predictive of academic achievement and retention, particularly in STEM-based programs ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Math placement often determines progression through math, chemistry, and physics courses, often required courses in physiology programs. A freshman underprepared in math may be more likely to struggle in STEM courses, including physiology-based courses such as medical terminology in the present study. Although this may not be a significant finding related to cohort scheduling, it highlights the importance of physiology programs recognizing the relationship of math preparation with academic achievement and retention. We encourage physiology programs to consider developing policies and programming targeted to low-math prepared students, which could improve student success, including academic achievement, retention, and graduation rates for these physiology students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;This study successfully evaluated the impact of cohort scheduling compared against traditional scheduling methods among students in a physiology program. However, it is not without its limitations. First, this project was conducted in Fall 2021, when students on campus were required to wear masks. Although not assessed, this may have negatively impacted peer-group interactions if students were unable to read facial cues of their classmates. Additionally, this comparison study was conducted on a single cohort of students at a large land grant institution in West Virginia, and results may not be generalizable beyond similar programs within the region. Furthermore, some questions came from a nonvalidated survey, but their inclusion was necessary to capture information specific to what the authors deemed relevant to this population. Among the cohort-scheduled group, some, but not all, of their first semester courses were cohort scheduled; perhaps had all classes been cohort scheduled, there might have been additional findings. And finally, the faculty teaching first-year seminar was aware that the cohort-scheduled group was an experimental group, which may have impacted faculty-student interactions. We recommend future research aims to control these influences, increase the sample size and extend beyond a single physiology-based program, and extend data collection to examine 4- and 6-year graduation rates.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The present study was the first to compare cohort scheduling to traditional scheduling methods among freshmen in a physiology-related program by intentionally placing small groups of students in the same sections of several classes with a consistent peer group. Although there were no differences between groups on the primary outcome, retention to the university and major, cohort scheduling improved secondary outcomes related to retention, specifically student perceptions of faculty. The results of the present study and proposed policies and recommendations offer important avenues for physiology and physiology-related programs to consider.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-8&quot;&gt;DATA AVAILABILITY&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Data will be made available upon reasonable request.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-9&quot;&gt;GRANTS&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award No. 5U54GM104942-08.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-10&quot;&gt;DISCLAIMERS&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-11&quot;&gt;DISCLOSURES&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the authors.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0179943482-12&quot;&gt;AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;M.L. and L.M. conceived and designed research; M.L. performed experiments; M.L. and W.F. analyzed data; M.L., W.F., A.L., B.N., L.S., E.R., J.T., B.L., and L.M. interpreted results of experiments; M.L. drafted manuscript; M.L., W.F., A.L., B.N., L.S., E.R., J.T., B.L., and L.M. edited and revised manuscript; M.L., W.F., A.L., B.N., L.S., E.R., J.T., B.L., and L.M. approved final version of manuscript.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0179943482-13&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt; REFERENCES &lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib1&quot; idref=&quot;ref1&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;1&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Leary M, Morewood A, Bryner R. 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J Math Educ 12: 107–122, 2019.Google Scholar&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;aug&gt; &lt;p&gt;By Miriam Leary; Wei Fang; Andrew Layne; Beth Nardella; Lori Sherlock; Emily Ryan; Jim Thomas; Brian Leary and Lena Maynor&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/aug&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl1&quot; bibid=&quot;bib10&quot; firstref=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl2&quot; bibid=&quot;bib12&quot; firstref=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl3&quot; bibid=&quot;bib13&quot; firstref=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl4&quot; bibid=&quot;bib14&quot; firstref=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl5&quot; bibid=&quot;bib15&quot; firstref=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl6&quot; bibid=&quot;bib16&quot; firstref=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl7&quot; bibid=&quot;bib17&quot; firstref=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl8&quot; bibid=&quot;bib18&quot; firstref=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl9&quot; bibid=&quot;bib19&quot; firstref=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl10&quot; bibid=&quot;bib20&quot; firstref=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl11&quot; bibid=&quot;bib21&quot; firstref=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl12&quot; bibid=&quot;bib22&quot; firstref=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl13&quot; bibid=&quot;bib23&quot; firstref=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt;
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  Data: Cohort Scheduling of Freshman Exercise Physiology Majors Improves Social Integration and Perceptions of Faculty but Not Academic Performance
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Miriam+Leary%22&quot;&gt;Miriam Leary&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6219-9383&quot;&gt;0000-0001-6219-9383&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Wei+Fang%22&quot;&gt;Wei Fang&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Andrew+Layne%22&quot;&gt;Andrew Layne&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Beth+Nardella%22&quot;&gt;Beth Nardella&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Lori+Sherlock%22&quot;&gt;Lori Sherlock&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Emily+Ryan%22&quot;&gt;Emily Ryan&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7077-9125&quot;&gt;0009-0004-7077-9125&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Jim+Thomas%22&quot;&gt;Jim Thomas&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Brian+Leary%22&quot;&gt;Brian Leary&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Lena+Maynor%22&quot;&gt;Lena Maynor&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: American Physiological Society. 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814-3991. Tel: 301-634-7164; Fax: 301-634-7241; e-mail: webmaster@the-aps.org; Web site: https://www.physiology.org/journal/advances
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
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  Data: 6
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
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  Label: Sponsoring Agency
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  Data: National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) (DHHS/NIH)
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  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: 5U54GM10494208
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles&lt;br /&gt;Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Higher+Education%22&quot;&gt;Higher Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Postsecondary+Education%22&quot;&gt;Postsecondary Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22College+Freshmen%22&quot;&gt;College Freshmen&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Scheduling%22&quot;&gt;Scheduling&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Homogeneous+Grouping%22&quot;&gt;Homogeneous Grouping&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Class+Organization%22&quot;&gt;Class Organization&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Exercise+Physiology%22&quot;&gt;Exercise Physiology&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Social+Integration%22&quot;&gt;Social Integration&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22&quot;&gt;Teacher Student Relationship&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22School+Holding+Power%22&quot;&gt;School Holding Power&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Academic+Achievement%22&quot;&gt;Academic Achievement&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: Subject
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22West+Virginia%22&quot;&gt;West Virginia&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1152/advan.00070.2024
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1043-4046&lt;br /&gt;1522-1229
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Cohort scheduling intentionally places students in the same sections of several classes (e.g., biology, algebra, and writing) with a consistent peer group and is typically done for small groups (&lt;30 students) to enable better interaction among students. The goal of this study was to compare cohort scheduling to traditional scheduling methods among freshmen in a physiology-related program. Outcomes included retention to the university and major, semester grades, and institutional integration and perceived group cohesion. Incoming freshmen (n = 209) were randomized into control (n = 43; scheduled with traditional methods) and intervention (n = 166; coenrolled in first-year seminar course, biology, and medical terminology) groups. Outcomes were collected via surveys or requested from the university registrar. There was no significant difference in the likelihood of retention to the university or major and no differences between groups in pass/fail rates for the first-year seminar or biology courses. At the end of the semester, there were no differences between groups in Perceived Cohesion for Small Groups (P = 0.102) or the Institutional Integration Scale (P = 0.357). However, the intervention group scored higher on the Institutional Integration Scale&#39;s subscales related to social integration and faculty. Cohort scheduling did not impact retention to the university or major but improved secondary outcomes related to retention, specifically social integration and student perceptions of faculty.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1439517
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1439517
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  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1152/advan.00070.2024
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 6
        StartPage: 603
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: College Freshmen
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Scheduling
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Homogeneous Grouping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Class Organization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Exercise Physiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Integration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Holding Power
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: West Virginia
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Cohort Scheduling of Freshman Exercise Physiology Majors Improves Social Integration and Perceptions of Faculty but Not Academic Performance
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Wei Fang
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 09
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1043-4046
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1522-1229
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            – TitleFull: Advances in Physiology Education
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