Do Types of Information in an Animated Video Intervention Affect University Students' Autism Knowledge and Openness towards Peers on the Autism Spectrum?
Saved in:
| Title: | Do Types of Information in an Animated Video Intervention Affect University Students' Autism Knowledge and Openness towards Peers on the Autism Spectrum? |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Yong-Hwee Nah (ORCID |
| Source: | Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2024 54(11):4167-4178. |
| Availability: | Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 12 |
| Publication Date: | 2024 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Education Level: | Higher Education Postsecondary Education |
| Descriptors: | Information Utilization, Animation, Video Technology, Intervention, Program Effectiveness, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Knowledge Level, Attitudes toward Disabilities, Peer Relationship, Peer Acceptance, Students with Disabilities, Undergraduate Students, Foreign Countries, Empathy, Educational Technology |
| Geographic Terms: | Singapore |
| DOI: | 10.1007/s10803-023-06119-y |
| ISSN: | 0162-3257 1573-3432 |
| Abstract: | This pre-test post-test control group design sought to compare the effectiveness of delivering different types of information ([1] factual information vs. [2] factual information + descriptive and explanatory information vs. [3] factual information + descriptive, explanatory + directive information) in an animated video intervention in increasing university students' autism knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. The sample consisted of 92 undergraduates (27 males, 65 females; age range = 18-36) from various universities in Singapore. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions/videos, where they completed a measure of their autism knowledge and openness scale, before viewing a 5-minute long animated video containing different types of information about autism. After which, participants completed the measure of autism knowledge and openness scale again, followed by a measure of their empathy level. Results indicated that participants' autism knowledge improved following the viewing of the animated video. However, the three different videos containing different types of information did not differ in influencing participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. Nevertheless, qualitative responses proposed that the video containing factual information, with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information was useful in helping participants to know how to interact with their peers on the autism spectrum. The findings of this study provide preliminary support for the most effective method to educate and raise awareness about autism, among the general student population in order to foster a supportive and inclusive environment. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2024 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1442824 |
| Database: | ERIC |
|
Full text is not displayed to guests.
Login for full access.
|
|
| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwEKO9kBpew7IpSqeCUVZLOyAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDGo0KkXOIt8oaR5vWAIBEICBmgq0y10SSz7pChI3oWL9oDanr4u16MnJ52dIcIESMOsqsQA5hANPThFuIkUzg0FPocB_nXXeleD0Tsd9bz9lNW0bYVvJUyrkrJARTiqq_i4imOm-lElPd1YXIpgrqCjT2utXuav2EY5ns4Ns9XSCBnQtU2LdLnq1CT7loZVT9Lquv_c6Gm0WuoNBGSNbMYU1nkHIAqboaV56cko= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0180153906;aut01nov.24;2024Oct10.05:57;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180153906-1">Do Types of Information in an Animated Video Intervention Affect University Students' Autism Knowledge and Openness Towards Peers on the Autism Spectrum? </title> <p>This pre-test post-test control group design sought to compare the effectiveness of delivering different types of information ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] factual information vs. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] factual information + descriptive and explanatory information vs. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] factual information + descriptive, explanatory + directive information) in an animated video intervention in increasing university students' autism knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. The sample consisted of 92 undergraduates (27 males, 65 females; age range = 18–36) from various universities in Singapore. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions/videos, where they completed a measure of their autism knowledge and openness scale, before viewing a 5-minute long animated video containing different types of information about autism. After which, participants completed the measure of autism knowledge and openness scale again, followed by a measure of their empathy level. Results indicated that participants' autism knowledge improved following the viewing of the animated video. However, the three different videos containing different types of information did not differ in influencing participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. Nevertheless, qualitative responses proposed that the video containing factual information, with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information was useful in helping participants to know how to interact with their peers on the autism spectrum. The findings of this study provide preliminary support for the most effective method to educate and raise awareness about autism, among the general student population in order to foster a supportive and inclusive environment.</p> <p>Keywords: Autism spectrum; University students; Autism knowledge; Openness; Animated video intervention</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>The number of students on the autism spectrum enrolling into universities and completing a higher education qualification is increasing (e.g., Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref4">3</reflink>]). However, post-secondary experiences can be especially difficult and alienating for young adults on the autism spectrum due to the introduction of new social landscapes and the withdrawal of structured social supports that were present during elementary school (Elias &amp; White, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref5">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>Feeling connected and socially integrated with the university community are increasingly identified as crucial success factors for university students on the autism spectrum (White et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref6">29</reflink>]). However, a lack of understanding about autism among university instructors, staff, and specifically, peers, may limit integration and acceptance (Gillespie-Lynch et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref7">14</reflink>]). The majority of the existing data on university students on the autism spectrum implies that misconceptions about autism may have contributed to their stigmatisation and exclusion (e.g., White et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref8">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>This study sought to compare the effectiveness of providing different types of information used in an animated video intervention in increasing Singaporean university students' knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. This study adopted a pre-test post-test control group design, and involved three experimental conditions (i.e., 'factual information only', 'factual information with descriptive and explanatory information', and 'factual information with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information').</p> <p>Prior studies have suggested that an increase in autism knowledge among general population students has been associated with favourable outcomes, such as a decrease in explicit bias against students on the autism spectrum (Ha et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref9">16</reflink>]). A study consisting of 121 Singaporean undergraduates (mean age of 21.6 year, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.89) found that the autism knowledge accounted for a small but significant variance (3.3%) in university students' openness toward their peers with special needs, such as those on the autism spectrum (Nah et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref10">21</reflink>]). Therefore, with greater knowledge and awareness of autism, it may be possible to diminish the stigma associated with it and promote autism-friendly attitudes among the general public (Staniland &amp; Byrne, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref11">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>One key approach to increasing autism knowledge among the general population is peer education. Peer education entails providing information about autism to increase peers' knowledge, promote peers' understanding of behaviours, and eventually improve attitudes and behaviour toward individuals on the autism spectrum (Campbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>]). For instance, Brain and Mirenda ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref13">6</reflink>]) sought to provide general population middle-schoolers aged 11 to 13 years old (<emph>N</emph> = 9) strategies to interact and engage students on the autism spectrum effectively which helped to promote social interactions and academic engagement between students on the autism spectrum and their peers.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-2">Type of Information in Peer Education Intervention</hd> <p>The types of content can be generally categorised into either descriptive information, explanatory information, or directive information. Firstly, descriptive information may be used to foster likability by highlighting the degree of similarity between general population students and students on the autism spectrum. Based on the cognitive consistency theory by Heider ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref14">18</reflink>]), which states that individuals prefer consistent cognitions and are driven to perceive and respond actively to their environment, descriptive information is expected to improve the attitudes toward students on the autism spectrum. It is believed that perceiving similarities and shared interests with another person is a positive experience that increases interpersonal attraction and acceptance (Dachez &amp; Ndobo, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref15">11</reflink>]). For instance, a young adult may feel more open toward a peer on the autism spectrum if they learn that they both enjoy the same television programme.</p> <p>Secondly, explanatory information may be used to facilitate the explanation of autism as a neurodevelopmental condition and reinforces the lack of control students on the autism spectrum have over their autism characteristics. This is based on the attribution theory by Weiner ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>]), where the perception of a lack of control over the difficulties faced by students on the autism spectrum is expected to elicit more positive affective responses and, in turn, more accommodating and supportive behavioural responses from peers (Dachez &amp; Ndobo, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]). For example, understanding that echolalia is a feature of autism enables individuals to comprehend that a person on the autism spectrum is not making fun of them when he or she repeats what was just said.</p> <p>Thirdly, directive information provides general population students with concrete instructions and guidance to facilitate interactions and strengthen relationships with students on the autism spectrum. Based on the self-efficacy theory by Bandura ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]), which states that increased confidence in one's ability to carry out the behavioural intentions motivates one to engage in these actions, directive information is expected to boost the perceived ability of peers to successfully interact with students on the autism spectrum (Dachez &amp; Ndobo, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref19">11</reflink>]). An example of directive information includes explaining to general population students that unexpected events may cause students on the autism spectrum to feel particularly threatened. What they can do is remind their peers on the autism spectrum if a class is cancelled or moved to a new location to help them adjust to the change.</p> <p>Research seeking to reduce the stigma associated with different disabilities has suggested that descriptive information may be more effective than explanatory information in improving one's attitudes and behavioural intentions toward peers with disabilities (Campbell, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref20">7</reflink>]). According to Swaim and Morgan ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref21">25</reflink>]), the presentation of explanatory information alone in the form of a video failed to reduce third- and sixth-grade children's (<emph>N</emph> = 233) inclination to report negative sentiments toward the child on the autism spectrum relative to the child without autism. Instead, a combination of descriptive and explanatory information may be required to reduce the stigma associated with individuals on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>In comparison to descriptive information alone, Staniland and Byrne ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>]) reported that a six-session autism anti-stigma programme which included a combination of descriptive and explanatory information, boosted seventh to ninth-grade students' (<emph>N</emph> = 395) autism knowledge. The combination of information also indirectly enhanced the attitudes of participants who had previously heard of autism, as well as the social behavioural intents of all participants, by increasing their perceptions of similarity. The benefits of incorporating both descriptive and explanatory messages in an intervention were also identified by Campbell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref23">9</reflink>]), where increasingly positive attitudes and behavioural intentions towards a child on the autism spectrum portrayed in a videotape were observed in general population peers after the intervention.</p> <p>In addition, there have been attempts to provide directive information to peers to guide interactions and facilitate the inclusion of students on the autism spectrum in regular classrooms (Staniland &amp; Byrne, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref24">23</reflink>]). However, only a few empirically tested studies utilising directive information have been conducted to date (Campbell &amp; Barger, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref25">8</reflink>]). Campbell ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref26">7</reflink>]) advocated that an intervention which incorporates descriptive, explanatory, and directive information may be the most effective in positively influencing children's attitudes toward their peers on the autism spectrum. Hence, further research is required to determine the efficacy of the use of directive information in addition to descriptive information and explanatory information in interventions, and to determine whether altered attitudes and intents generalise to everyday situations, especially in this study's context of university students on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>The use of videos as a platform to deliver information about autism is particularly popular due to the numerous benefits it has. According to Ha et al. ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref27">16</reflink>]), the results of video interventions are promising as videos may be readily and extensively disseminated without requiring the use of a physical space, or trained personnel, to constantly run the programme. Furthermore, videos can not only be created with minimal resources, but can also be brief, making them accessible and digestible to a large proportion of the general population (Amsalem &amp; Martin, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>]). In addition, videos can contribute to empathy development by providing opportunities for perspective-taking and emotional engagement. By depicting realistic scenarios and characters, these videos can foster a deeper understanding and empathy towards individuals on the autism spectrum (e.g., Anthony et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref29">2</reflink>]). Hence, in this study, the authors used a brief video, specifically an animated video, as the platform to deliver the peer education intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-3">Significance of Research</hd> <p>There have been extensive studies conducted on anti-stigma programmes catered for students in high schools and universities in numerous countries. However, only a few studies in Singapore have looked into this, with none focusing on reducing stigma toward individuals on the autism spectrum. One prominent study in Singapore focusing on a single-arm intervention among university students aimed at eliminating mental health stigma observed a reduction in university students' social distancing and personal stigma towards individuals with mental health conditions, as well as improved depression knowledge after the intervention (Subramaniam et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given the limited literature on the incremental usefulness of directive information in addition to descriptive and explanatory information, especially when used in an animated video intervention, and its effects in increasing knowledge and reducing stigma particularly towards individuals on the autism spectrum in Singapore, this study aims to address these gaps. With a clearer understanding of the mechanisms of an intervention, universities may consider the incorporation of similar interventions into university students' curriculum to advocate for their students on the autism spectrum, and to empower general population students with the knowledge to better interact and include peers on the autism spectrum.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-4">Research Questions and Hypotheses</hd> <p>The following research questions were crafted along with their hypotheses. Firstly, does providing information (which includes, factual, descriptive, explanatory, and directive information) to university students regarding autism affect their knowledge of autism as compared to before they watch the animated video about autism? We hypothesised that providing information (which includes, factual, descriptive, explanatory, and directive information) to university students regarding autism will increase their knowledge of autism as compared to before they watch the animated video about autism.</p> <p>Secondly, does providing information (which includes, factual, descriptive, and explanatory information) to university students regarding autism affect their openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information, after controlling for participants' level of empathy? We hypothesised that providing descriptive and explanatory information, in addition to factual information, will increase participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information, after controlling for participants' level of empathy.</p> <p>Lastly, does providing information (which includes factual, descriptive, explanatory, and directive information) to university students regarding autism affect their openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information and participants who received factual information, descriptive and explanatory information, after controlling for participants' level of empathy? We hypothesised that providing descriptive, explanatory, and directive information, in addition to factual information, will increase participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information and participants who received factual information, descriptive and explanatory information, after controlling for participants' level of empathy.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-5">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180153906-6">Participants</hd> <p>Participants were recruited through social media platforms and the university's psychology programme research participation system (<emph>N</emph> = 34) where they received research credits for participation. Participants included undergraduate students currently enrolled in a university in Singapore, and have no current or history of any neurological and psychiatric disorders, or learning disabilities. Informed consent was obtained from the participants and appropriate ethics approvals were obtained prior to conducting this study.</p> <p>The initial sample for the main study consisted of 128 participants, of which 36 participants' data were deemed invalid, based on two criteria. Firstly, incomplete responses (<emph>n</emph> = 24) were removed. Secondly, responses indicating that participants did not view the entire assigned video (<emph>n</emph> = 10), or stayed on the video page for a significantly longer time (<emph>n</emph> = 2), were eliminated.</p> <p>Hence, for the main study, data of 92 participants (27 males and 65 females) were used in the data analysis. The mean age of these participants was 22.13 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 2.19, range = 18–36). In terms of ethnicity, the group comprised 78.3% Chinese (<emph>n</emph> = 72), 10.9% Malay (<emph>n</emph> = 10), 5.4% Indian (<emph>n</emph> = 5), and 5.4% Others (<emph>n</emph> = 5). In terms of academic major, 15.2% were from Psychology, 17.4% Business, 14.1% Engineering, 21.7% Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (e.g., Economics, Sociology, History), 18.5% Science, and 13.1% Others (e.g., Computing, Public Policy and Global Affairs, Supply Chain Management).</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-7">Materials</hd> <p>An online survey format (Qualtrics) was created, which comprised the following segments in this sequence: measure of autism knowledge (pre-test), vignettes (pre-test), measure of openness scale (pre-test), animated video intervention, measure of autism knowledge (post-test), vignettes (post-test), measure of openness scale (post-test), and measure of empathy. This was then followed by a demographic section, qualitative questions, and lastly, debrief.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-8">Autism Knowledge (Pre-test and Post-test)</hd> <p>The Autism Survey (Gillespie-Lynch et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref31">14</reflink>]) is a 13-item questionnaire designed to assess respondents' autism knowledge. Respondents were asked to rate statements on a sliding scale ranging from 0 ('strongly disagree') to 100 ('strongly agree') to allow for greater response variability. We first used this instrument in a local study and found that with the removal of three items (item 1, 6 and 10), the Cronbach's alpha improved to 0.60 (Author, 2022). In this study, the original 13-item version (Online Supplementary Information 1) was initially used as both the pre and post-test versions, though the item presentation in both pre and post-test versions were randomised to reduce the familiarity effect.</p> <p>In this study, we found that with the removal of two items (item 1 and 6), the Cronbach's alpha on our pre-test Autism Survey scale improved to 0.80. while the Cronbach's alpha on our post-test Autism Survey scale improved to 0.79. Hence we would be using the scale comprising of 11 items for data analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-9">Vignettes</hd> <p>There were a total of four vignettes created (2 males, 2 females) (Online Supplementary Information 2). A sequence of a pair of vignettes (which consisted of 1 male and 1 female student) was shown to the participants during the pre-test, and a sequence of another pair of vignettes (which consisted of another male and another female student) was shown to the participants during the post-test. The order of the pair of students in the vignettes presented to the participants was counterbalanced where half of the participants were allocated the first pair of vignettes for the pre-test and the second pair of vignettes for the post-test while the other half of participants were allocated the second pair of vignettes for the pre-test and the first pair of vignettes for the post-test.</p> <p>Each vignette provided a brief account of a student's behaviour and social interaction with peers in various university settings, such as collaborating with another student on a group assignment, joining a campus club, living in a shared residence, and the experience of sensory overload in daily activities. The students in the vignette were fictitious characters, but their behaviours were representative of students on the autism spectrum. The vignettes were first used in the study by Author (2022) and were already designed in consultation with university students on the autism spectrum. However, another female university student on the autism spectrum was asked to provide further inputs to the revision and creation of two vignettes involving a female student on the autism spectrum used in this study.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-10">Openness Scale (Pre-test and Post-test)</hd> <p>An adapted version of the Openness Scale (Harnum et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref32">17</reflink>]) (Online Supplementary Information 1) was used to measure participants' attitudes toward the students described in the vignettes based on their degree of agreement with statements about the scenarios. The degree of agreement was measured on a sliding scale ranging from 0 ('strongly disagree') to 100 ('strongly agree') where higher scores imply greater openness. The internal consistency of the original Openness Scale was <emph>α</emph> = 0.71. This adapted instrument was used locally by Author (2022), and the internal consistency of the adapted Openness Scale was reported to be 0.86. In this study, Cronbach's alpha for pre-test and post-test Openness Scale was reported to be 0.92 and 0.89 respectively, and the exclusion of any of the items did not result in a substantial increase in Cronbach's alpha for the scale.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-11">Animated Video Intervention</hd> <p>The intervention was presented in the form of an animated video (created using Adobe Animate and iMovie software) which is approximately 5-minute long, narrated in a first-person point of view from the perspective of two students (one male and one female) on the autism spectrum. The animated video contained different contents of information, depending on the experimental condition the participant has been allocated to. The content of the intervention was created and vetted alongside two students (one male and one female) on the autism spectrum in the researcher's university. For the 'factual information only' condition, the only information participants received was the factual information about autism. The transcript of the video and the YouTube link are presented as Online Supplementary Information 3.</p> <p>For the 'factual information with descriptive and explanatory information' condition, participants received factual information about autism, in addition to two descriptive and two explanatory information about autism. The transcript of the video and the YouTube link are presented as Online Supplementary Information 3.</p> <p>For the 'factual information with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information' condition, participants received factual information about autism, as well as two descriptive, two explanatory, and three directive information regarding autism. Directive information includes suggestions of what participants may do in various settings when interacting with peers on the autism spectrum. The directive information created for this study was based on the real struggles and difficulties faced by students on the autism spectrum in the researcher's school. The transcript of the video and the YouTube link are presented as Online Supplementary Information 3.</p> <p>It was noted that the video with the descriptive, explanatory, and directive information' condition may be longer in duration as compared to the other two videos. Hence in order to reduce any potential confounds, the authors included background music filler in the other two videos so that the duration of all videos were comparable. University students on the autism spectrum were consulted, and the animated video was reviewed and vetted by these students.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-12">Empathy</hd> <p>The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref33">12</reflink>]) (Online Supplementary Information 1) was used to measure participants' level of empathy. The IRI comprises of four subscales (perspective-taking, empathic concern and personal anguish, and fantasy) with a total of 28 items. The fourth subscale, fantasy, was excluded in this study as it was irrelevant to the aims of the study. Respondents were asked to rate statements on a sliding scale ranging from 0 ('does not describe me well') to 100 ('describes me very well'). The IRI is a well-validated instrument that has been used in previous studies investigating attitudes toward people with disabilities (Barr, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref34">5</reflink>]; Miller, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref35">20</reflink>]). In this study, Cronbach's alpha for the IRI was reported to be 0.84 and the exclusion of any of the items did not result in a substantial increase in Cronbach's alpha for this scale.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-13">Demographics</hd> <p>The demographic questions required participants to account for their age, gender, ethnicity, school, year of study and course.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-14">Qualitative Information</hd> <p>There was a qualitative section where participants were asked to respond to these two questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>) Do you think the information provided in the video helps you to be more knowledgeable about Autism Spectrum Disorder? If yes, which aspect of the information do you find helpful? If no, why not?, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>) Do you think the information provided in the video helps you to be more open towards peers with Autism Spectrum Disorder? If yes, which aspect of the information do you find helpful? If no, why not?</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-15">Procedure</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180153906-16">Pilot Study</hd> <p>There were a total of 19 (10 male, 9 female; mean age of 21.2, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.58) participants recruited for the pilot study. The goal of the pilot study was to solicit feedback on the vignettes, and the animated video, and whether any component of the vignettes and the video were unclear or misleading. Participants were asked this question "Was there anything unclear or misleading in the language or words used in the vignette/video? If so, please elaborate more on it." Participants were also asked whether they have any concerns about the video, e.g., volume too loud or soft, pacing of information too fast or slow, etc. After gathering participants' feedback, slight changes were made to two vignettes and the duration of videos. Hence, instead of having all three videos to be 293 s, a 10% allowance was provided where the duration of video 1 was shortened to 263 s (10.2% shorter than video 3), video 2 was shortened to 283 s (3.4% shorter than video 3), and video 3 remained its duration at 293 s.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-17">Main Study</hd> <p>Each participant was required to complete an Autism knowledge survey, which was followed by reading of the two vignettes and completing the Openness scale. All participants were then randomly assigned via the Qualtrics system to one of three conditions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>) where participants watched the animated video containing factual information regarding autism; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref39">2</reflink>) where participants watched the animated video containing factual information regarding autism, and descriptive and explanatory information; or (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref40">3</reflink>) where participants watched the animated video containing factual information regarding autism, and descriptive, explanatory, and directive information. After watching the video, participants completed the Autism knowledge survey once more to measure any change in their autism knowledge. They also read and rated another two vignettes to measure any change in their openness towards individuals on the autism spectrum. Next, they completed the IRI scale to measure their empathy levels. Lastly, participants filled in demographic information and responded to the two qualitative questions. After the completion of the survey, participants were debriefed on the study's objectives.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180153906-19">Research Question 1</hd> <p>The ANOVA was statistically significant, indicating that participants' autism knowledge improved following the viewing of the animated video, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>, 89) = 79.06, <emph>p</emph> =.000, <emph>η</emph><sups><emph>2</emph></sups> = 0.47. In general, across all three videos, participants' post-test autism knowledge (<emph>M</emph> = 84.74, <emph>SD</emph> = 11.18) significantly increased from their pre-test autism knowledge (<emph>M</emph> = 70.78, <emph>SD</emph> = 13.72). Hence hypothesis 1 (i.e., providing information which includes, factual, descriptive, explanatory, and directive information to university students regarding autism will increase their autism knowledge as compared to before they watch the animated video about autism) was supported.</p> <p>Further secondary analysis was done to examine whether the increase in their autism knowledge differed across the different video conditions and the result indicated no significant difference, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>, 89) = 1.23, <emph>p</emph> =.30. This indicated that providing any information (e.g., factual information with descriptive, explanatory, or directive information) would increase participants' autism knowledge.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-20">Research Question 2 and 3</hd> <p>Before the ANCOVA analysis was done, it was noted that there were a total of 36 participants who reported a negative value in gain in mean Openness score (post-test minus pre-test), with the largest negative difference being negative 24.08. Hence, all data in this variable was transformed by adding a constant value of 25, to ensure a positive number for the analysis. Interestingly, it was noted that even though these 36 participants reported a negative value in gain in mean Openness score, through our qualitative data, 34 of them actually responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>Using an ANCOVA with the empathy score as the covariate, there were no significant differences in the gain in mean Openness score between the three groups (participants in the factual information group vs. participants in the factual information + descriptive and explanatory information group vs. participants in the factual information + descriptive, explanatory, and directive information group), <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>, 88) = 0.73, <emph>p</emph> =.49. This indicated that providing descriptive and explanatory information, in addition to factual information (mean = 29.90, <emph>SD</emph> = 13.90), did not further increase participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information (mean = 26.88, <emph>SD</emph> = 9.46), after controlling for participants' level of empathy. Hence hypothesis 2 was not supported.</p> <p>Similarly, providing descriptive, explanatory, and directive information, in addition to factual information (mean = 30.64, <emph>SD</emph> = 12.26), did not further increase participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum as compared to participants who only received factual information (mean = 26.88, <emph>SD</emph> = 9.46) and participants who received factual information, descriptive and explanatory information (mean = 29.90, <emph>SD</emph> = 13.90), after controlling for participants' level of empathy. Hence hypothesis 3 was not supported.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-21">Qualitative Self-Reports</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180153906-22">Video 1 (Factual Information)</hd> <p>Based on responses to the first qualitative question, out of all the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 33) assigned to Video 1, 100.0% responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more knowledgeable about autism. The theme that became apparent was the video's attempt to debunk myths regarding autism, where 27.3% of the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 9) had the word 'myth' in their responses. This was reflected in comments such as <emph>"the clarification about myths about ASD allowed me to understand ASD better"</emph>.</p> <p>Based on responses to the second qualitative question, 84.8% (<emph>n</emph> = 28) responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum. The emerging theme was participants' perceived intentions of the behaviours of their peers on the autism spectrum, where 25.0% of the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 7) displayed the understanding that certain actions or behaviours by persons on the autism spectrum might be unintentional or uncontrollable. This was shown in comments such as <emph>"I get to know that sometimes the way they behave is not intentional, so I will not get offended or affected if they ignore me or do something that doesn't seem nice because it might not be their true intention"</emph>.</p> <p>For the 15.2% (<emph>n</emph> = 5) of participants who responded that they thought the information provided in the video did not help them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum, some cited the lack of knowledge and experience in the interaction with persons on the autism spectrum. This was reflected in the comments as <emph>"I do not have prior experience with people with ASD. I am open to the experience but am not sure how to go about it as it might be awkward"</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-23">Video 2 (Factual Information + Descriptive and Explanatory Information)</hd> <p>Based on responses to the first qualitative question, out of all the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 29) assigned to Video 2, 100.0% responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more knowledgeable about autism. In addition to debunking myths, a main theme which emerged from the responses was participants' greater understanding of the behaviour of persons with autism. This was where 24.1% (<emph>n</emph> = 7) of the participants had the word 'understand' or 'explain' in their responses. Generally, participants recognised that the information in Video 2 allowed them to associate the behaviours of persons with autism with a logical reasoning, instead of misunderstanding the intentions of the behaviours displayed. This was reflected in comments such as <emph>"information on certain reactions/behaviours that a person with ASD displays that might not be common to everyone else helps us to better understand why they are acting a certain way"</emph>. The responses also reflected some similarities observed between the participant and a person on the autism spectrum. For example, <emph>"People (with) ASD can feel the same as me, but their way to express feeling(s) are different"</emph>.</p> <p>Based on responses to the second qualitative question, 93.1% (<emph>n</emph> = 27) responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum. The main theme was participants' increased empathy levels for persons on the autism spectrum, where 40.7% (<emph>n</emph> = 11) of the participants mentioned a better general understanding of the perspective of a person on the autism spectrum. This was evident in the comments as <emph>"given that people with ASD are fundamentally different from me, I was never able to understand them. This video helped me to gain an understanding of how they think, and I can now better put myself in their shoes"</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-24">Video 3 (Factual Information + Descriptive and Explanatory Information + Directive Informatio...</hd> <p>Based on responses to the first qualitative question, out of all the participants (<emph>n</emph> = 30) assigned to Video 3, 90.0% (<emph>n</emph> = 27) responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more knowledgeable about autism. Similar to the responses by participants in Video 1, a major theme in Video 3 was the addressing of myths regarding autism, which led to the increase in participants' autism knowledge. This was where 25.9% (<emph>n</emph> = 7) of the participants had the word 'myth' in their responses. Particularly, a participant mentioned that <emph>"the information (debunking of myth) provided helped to re-establish perceptions of them (persons with ASD)"</emph>.</p> <p>The second theme in Video 3 was participants' increased knowledge in the interactions with persons on the autism spectrum, where 18.5% (<emph>n</emph> = 5) of the participants mentioned that the do's and don'ts of interacting with people on the autism spectrum provided in the video was helpful in increasing their knowledge of autism. This was evident in the comments such as <emph>"I found information on how to react to people with ASD useful as many would usually be unsure of what to do if they encounter someone with ASD"</emph>.</p> <p>Based on responses to the second qualitative question, 96.7% (<emph>n</emph> = 29) responded that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum. The main theme was participants' relatability to persons on the autism spectrum, where 24.1% (<emph>n</emph> = 7) of the participants mentioned that they see similarities between themselves and a person on the autism spectrum, and that people on the autism spectrum are not entirely different from them. This can be seen in the comments such as <emph>"when he used examples that are very relatable (e.g. Netflix) and you realised that you are not so different after all"</emph>.</p> <p>The second theme was participants' knowledge to interact with peers on the autism spectrum. A few responses highlighted that suggestions on ways to interact with persons on the autism spectrum in various situations were useful in increasing the tendency to approach a peer on the autism spectrum. This was evident from <emph>"I find the information provided on how to interact and approach ASD individuals helpful as it educated me on how to interact with these individuals and I understand that sometimes the actions that they do are not meant like in a bad way"</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-25">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study compared the effectiveness of delivering different types of information in an animated video intervention in increasing university students' autism knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. The results indicated that participants' autism knowledge improved following the viewing of the animated video. This finding was consistent with findings of Staniland and Byrne ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref44">23</reflink>]), where they reported that a six-session ASD anti-stigma programme that included both descriptive and explanatory information increased teenagers' autism knowledge. Furthermore, this finding parallels the findings of Gillespie-Lynch et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref45">14</reflink>]), where they reported an increase in college students' autism knowledge after undergoing an online autism training consisting of descriptive and explanatory information. However, it was noted that further secondary analysis indicated no significant difference in participants' increase in autism knowledge between the three different video conditions. Hence it was encouraging to know that providing any information (i.e., factual information with descriptive, explanatory, or directive information) would increase participants' autism knowledge.</p> <p>Next, we were interested to examine whether the different types of information affect participants' openness towards their peers on the autism spectrum, after controlling for participants' empathy level. Firstly, we found no statistical significant difference in the gain in mean Openness score between the three groups (participants in the factual information group [mean = 26.88, <emph>SD</emph> = 9.46] vs. participants in the factual information + descriptive and explanatory information group [mean = 29.90, <emph>SD</emph> = 13.90] vs. participants in the factual information + descriptive, explanatory, and directive information group [mean = 30.64, <emph>SD</emph> = 12.26] though we could see that the mean for the factual information + descriptive, explanatory, and directive information group was the highest when compared to the other two groups.</p> <p>This finding differed from the findings of Campbell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref46">9</reflink>]) study, where they found that the provision of a combination of descriptive and explanatory information, as compared to providing only descriptive information, was effective to reduce the stigma associated with autism among elementary school students. Similarly, our findings were in contrast with previous findings from Campbell and Barger ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref47">8</reflink>]) study, where they suggested that an intervention that combined descriptive, explanatory, and directive information as compared to descriptive and explanatory information only may be the most effective way to positively influence children's attitudes towards their peers on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>Some possible reasons for the differences in findings could be due to the different sample and target audience (elementary school students vs. university students and children on the autism spectrum vs. university students on the autism spectrum) used in the studies. In addition, as only two explanatory and three directive information were provided in the videos, this may not have been adequate to significantly increase the openness of participants toward their peers on the autism spectrum. Lastly, it was noted that some participants (<emph>N</emph> = 5) reported that they already had prior contact with individuals on the autism spectrum or/and had learnt about autism before and hence they did not feel that the videos helped them to be 'more' open. Nevertheless, even though there was no statistical difference in the gain of openness between the three videos with different types of information, we would like to propose using the video containing factual information + descriptive, explanatory, and directive information to promote knowledge and awareness of autism since the duration of the video was only about 5 min. In addition, qualitative feedback from participants highlighted that the directive information was useful to help them to interact with individuals on the autism spectrum. It would appear that having more directive information was helpful though we were mindful that if we added more directive statements in the video, it would appear unbalanced in terms of the types of information (i.e., two descriptive vs. two explanatory vs. three directive) used in this study.</p> <p>Lastly, we examined qualitative feedback from participants whether they found the information provided in the video helped them to be more knowledgeable about autism. In general, the results indicated that across all three videos, 96.7% of the participants reported that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more knowledgeable about autism. The overarching theme identified was the debunking of myths in the videos, where participants corrected misunderstandings they have had about autism as a condition, and gained new factual knowledge about autism. Depending on the video participants were assigned to, a portion of them also felt that they were provided with suggestions and tips on how to better interact with individuals on the autism spectrum. The provision of concrete examples and situations, alongside pointers to take note of in the interaction with peers on the autism spectrum allow participants to enhance their confidence and hone their perceived abilities to interact effectively with peers on the autism spectrum (Dachez &amp; Ndobo, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref48">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>We also examined participants' responses on whether they found the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum. Overall, across all three videos, 91.3% of the participants indicated that they thought the information provided in the video helped them to be more open towards peers on the autism spectrum. The underlying theme was the explanation of the intent of behaviours by persons on the autism spectrum, which created empathy and understanding in participants as they became more open towards individuals on the autism spectrum. Hence, as misinterpretations of the intent or behaviour of individuals on the autism spectrum reduce, the general population tends to be more open in interacting with individuals on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>Depending on the video participants were assigned to, a portion of them noted similarities they have with individuals on the autism spectrum, which allowed participants to realise that individuals on the autism spectrum are not entirely different from them. According to the social identity theory by Turner et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref49">27</reflink>]), such a mere categorisation of establishing similarities with another individual is sufficient for participants to categorise the individual as an ingroup, and generate in-group bias. This reduces prejudice and discrimination toward the individual. Furthermore, some were also guided on possible things to do and take note in their future interactions with persons on the autism spectrum, which gave participants confidence in opening up to persons on the autism spectrum.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-26">Implications</hd> <p>The findings from the present study can be useful in encouraging university administrators and leaders to promote awareness of the various special needs such as autism among students, and to create and maintain a beneficial and encouraging learning environment for all students, regardless of their learning needs. Such holistic education could take place in the form of a general compulsory module where all students are required to complete an informative course on understanding the various special needs other students might have, for example, at the start of their undergraduate year. Similarly, an online module on the various special needs can be implemented with all first-year students prior to their official university enrolment. When the students possess the knowledge, and are familiar with the special needs, they may be more open to socialise and interact with individuals from the special needs community.</p> <p>At the national level, government agencies can seek to disseminate public awareness tools such as a variety of educational videos pertaining to the various special needs, to be widely distributed via advertisements or online platforms. From the findings of this study, it was suggested that providing factual information alone was sufficient to improve the participants' autism knowledge. Other types of information such as descriptive and explanatory information, as well as directive information, could be included to further enhance the public's understanding of the special need.</p> <p>Additionally, in the present study, the animated video was narrated from a first-person perspective of a student on the autism spectrum, which participants mentioned that it allowed them to better immerse themselves in the thoughts and emotions of the struggles that individuals on the autism spectrum face. This was also observed in other studies where Gillespie-Lynch et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref50">15</reflink>]) collaborated with four university students on the autism spectrum and four neurotypical high school students to adapt a PowerPoint-based autism training, which included videos highlighting the perspectives of students on the autism spectrum. It was reported that participatory training, which refers to training developed in partnership with neurotypical students and students on the autism spectrum, was more effective than non-participatory training (training developed by neurotypical students only) at improving participants' autism knowledge, explicit stigma, and attitudes toward inclusion. This is because input from individuals on the autism spectrum is useful in providing the participants an opportunity to empathise and connect, fostering a sense of understanding towards their peers on the autism spectrum.</p> <p>The benefits and importance of including individuals on the autism spectrum in the development of autism training programmes to educate general population were also observed by Jones et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref51">19</reflink>]) where they noted significant improvements in the explicit stigma and knowledge of autism in general population. Hence, for future purposes, it is imperative that the relevant personnel involve individuals with the particular special need in their community in the development of the intended public awareness tools.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-27">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>Several limitations must be considered when interpreting the results of this study. For instance, the behaviours depicted in the four vignettes may not have encompassed the entire spectrum of autistic traits experienced by university students on the autism spectrum. Similarly, the content covered in the animated video may not have featured all the various facts and types of information observed in individuals on the autism spectrum. In order to mitigate this limitation, we solicited qualitative contributions from our university's male and female students on the autism spectrum in the design of vignettes and our script for the animated video, which increased the validity by ensuring the resources were socially valid, realistic, and representative of their behaviours and difficulties. To investigate effects that would be more representative of autism as a whole, future research may incorporate additional autistic characteristics and behaviours that require the various levels of support.</p> <p>Another potential limitation was that the current study measured only the participants' cognitive knowledge of autism, and not the amount of exposure they have had with individuals on the autism spectrum. In addition to autism knowledge, autism familiarity was also associated with a higher level of openness among general population (Gillespie-Lynch et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref52">14</reflink>]). Furthermore, in a study by Nevill and White ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref53">22</reflink>]), contact quantity and quality were found to be significant predictors of openness towards individuals on the autism spectrum. Therefore, future research may examine the actual quality and quantity of contact between the participants and individuals on the autism spectrum to determine if it impacts the degree of openness experienced by individuals on the autism spectrum. We noted that a local unpublished study looking at whether social contact with individuals with special needs and openness were related in a sample of local university students (Syed Abd Jalil, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref54">26</reflink>]). Results indicated that social contact and openness towards peers on the autism spectrum were not associated but there were significant associations between empathy and openness. Hence we decided to use the empathy measure instead in this study.</p> <p>Furthermore, as this present study is a cross-sectional study where participants' autism knowledge and openness toward individuals on the autism spectrum were only measured once after the video intervention, it is uncertain if participants' increase in autism knowledge and openness toward individuals on the autism spectrum (if any) will be maintained in the long term. Hence, future research may consider a longitudinal study where a follow up of the participants' autism knowledge and openness toward individuals on the autism spectrum occur several weeks/months after watching the animated video intervention.</p> <p>Lastly, it was noted that out of the 92 participants, significantly more females (<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref55">65</reflink>) than males (<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref56">27</reflink>) participated and hence males and females might tend to respond differently (e.g., to empathy measures). Indeed, we found a significant difference on empathy measure based on gender (<emph>p</emph> =.01). However, when we compared the empathy score based on experimental grouping, there was no significant difference (<emph>p</emph> =.42). We also found no significant difference in the gain in mean Openness score based on gender (<emph>p</emph> =.34). Nevertheless, future research might be useful to help understand potential gender differences in university students' ratings.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-28">Conclusion</hd> <p>The present study aims to compare the effectiveness of delivering different types of information in an animated video intervention in increasing university students' autism knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. Findings supported that providing any type (e.g., factual, descriptive, explanatory or directive) of information was sufficient to increase participants' autism knowledge. Even though, the three different videos containing different types of information did not differ in influencing participants' openness toward individuals on the autism spectrum, qualitative responses suggested that factual information, alongside with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information was useful in helping participants to know how to interact with individuals on the autism spectrum. Hence, we propose using factual information in conjunction with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information for maximal effectiveness in increasing the general public's autism knowledge and openness toward individuals on the autism spectrum.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-29">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors would like to express our heartfelt appreciation to the students on the autism spectrum who have significantly contributed to the development of the resources of this project.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-30">Funding</hd> <p>No funds, grants, or other support was received.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-31">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180153906-32">Ethical Approval</hd> <p>This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University (PCHD/ER/2022/01) for student projects (Date of approval: 11 Oct 2022).</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-33">Informed Consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-34">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0180153906-35">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0180153906-36"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Amsalem D, Martin A. Reducing depression-related stigma and increasing treatment seeking among adolescents: Randomized controlled trial of a brief video intervention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2021; 63; 2: 210-217. 10.1111/jcpp.13427. 33821507</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Anthony BJ, Robertson HA, Verbalis A, Myrick Y, Troxel M, Seese S, Anthony LG. Increasing autism acceptance: The impact of the Sesame Street see amazing in all children initiative. Autism. 2020; 24; 1: 95-108. 10.1177/1362361319847927. 31113212</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bakker T, Krabbendam L, Bhulai S, Begeer S. Background and enrollment characteristics of students with autism in higher education. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2019; 67: 101424. 10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101424</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref18" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bandura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review. 1977; 84; 2: 191-215. 10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191. 847061</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref34" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Barr JJ. Student-teachers' attitudes toward students with disabilities: Associations with contact and empathy. International Journal of Education and Practice. 2013; 1; 8: 87-100. 10.18488/journal.61/2013.1.8/61.8.87.100</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref13" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Brain T, Mirenda P. Effectiveness of a low-intensity peer-mediated intervention for middle school students with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2019; 62: 26-38. 10.1016/j.rasd.2019.02.003</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref20" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Campbell JM. Changing children's attitudes toward autism: A process of persuasive communication. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities. 2006; 18; 3: 251-272. 10.1007/s10882-006-9015-7</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref25" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Campbell, J. M, &amp; Barger, B. D. (2014). Peers' knowledge about and attitudes towards students with autism spectrum disorders. Comprehensive Guide to Autism, 247–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_7</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref23" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Campbell JM, Ferguson JE, Herzinger CV, Jackson JN, Marino CA. Combined descriptive and explanatory information improves peers' perceptions of autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2004; 25; 4: 321-339. 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.01.005. 15193668</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Campbell JM, Caldwell EA, Railey KS, Lochner O, Jacob R, Kerwin S. Educating students about autism spectrum disorder using the kit for kids curriculum: Effects on knowledge and attitudes. School Psychology Review. 2019; 48; 2: 145-156. 10.17105/spr-2017-0091.v48-2</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dachez J, Ndobo A. The effects of descriptive, explanatory, and directive information associated with personalised interaction on the attitudes toward an adult with high-functioning autism. Journal of Intellectual &amp; Developmental Disability. 2016; 43; 1: 49-60. 10.3109/13668250.2016.1262535</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Davis MH. Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1983; 44; 1: 113-126. 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Elias R, White SW. Autism goes to college: Understanding the needs of a student population on the rise. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2017; 48; 3: 732-746. 10.1007/s10803-017-3075-7</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gillespie-Lynch K, Brooks PJ, Someki F, Obeid R, Shane-Simpson C, Kapp SK, Daou N, Smith DS. Changing college students' conceptions of autism: An online training to increase knowledge and decrease stigma. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2015; 45; 8: 2553-2566. 10.1007/s10803-015-2422-9. 25796194</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gillespie-Lynch K, Bisson JB, Saade S, Obeid R, Kofner B, Harrison AJ, Daou N, Tricarico N, Santos D, Pinkava J, Jordan A. If you want to develop an effective autism training, ask autistic students to help you. Autism. 2022; 26; 5: 1082-1094. 10.1177/13623613211041006. 34472359</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ha J, McClain MB, Covington B, Golson ME. Brief report: A brief video intervention for increasing autism knowledge in a general population sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2022; 52: 5058-5063. 10.1007/s10803-021-05341-w. 34748133</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Harnum M, Duffy J, Ferguson DA. Adults' versus children's perceptions of a child with autism or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder. 2007; 37: 1337-1343. 10.1007/s10803-006-0273-0</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. John Wiley &amp; Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1037/10628-000</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jones, D. R, DeBrabander, K. M, &amp; Sasson, N. J. (2021). Effects of autism acceptance training on explicit and implicit biases toward autism. Autism, 136236132098489. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320984896</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miller SR. A curriculum focused on informed empathy improves attitudes toward persons with disabilities. Perspectives on Medical Education. 2013; 2; 3: 114-125. 10.1007/s40037-013-0046-3. 23670683. 3722372</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nah, Y. H, Neo, Y. F. &amp; Chen, A. S. H. (2022). Do labels matter? The effect of specific and generic labels on university students' openness towards autistic peers. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 97, 102020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102020</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nevill RE, White SW. College students' openness toward autism spectrum disorders: Improving peer acceptance. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2011; 41; 12: 1619-1628. 10.1007/s10803-011-1189-x. 21318642</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Staniland JJ, Byrne MK. The effects of a multi-component higher-functioning autism anti-stigma program on adolescent boys. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2013; 43; 12: 2816-2829. 10.1007/s10803-013-1829-4. 23619951</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Subramaniam, M, Shahwan, S, Abdin, E, Goh, C. M, Ong, W. J, Tan, G. T, Baig, N, Samari, E, Kwok, K. W, &amp; Chong, S. A. (2020). Advancing research to eliminate mental illness stigma: The design and evaluation of a single-arm intervention among university students in Singapore. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01151</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Swaim KF, Morgan SB. Children's attitudes and behavioural intentions toward a peer with autistic behaviours: Does a brief Educational intervention have an Effect?. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2001; 31: 195-205. 10.1023/A:1010703316365. 11450818</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Syed Abd Jalil, S. M. (2022). Social Contact and Attitudes towards University Peers with Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Roles of Empathy and Competitive Attitudes (dissertation). Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10356/159195</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Turner JC, Brown RJ, Tajfel H. Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism. European Journal of Social Psychology. 1979; 9; 2: 187-204. 10.1002/ejsp.2420090207</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Weiner B. A cognitive (attribution)-emotion-action model of motivated behavior: An analysis of judgments of help-giving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1980; 39; 2: 186-200. 10.1037/0022-3514.39.2.186</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> White D, Hillier A, Frye A, Makrez E. College students' knowledge and attitudes towards students on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2016; 49; 7: 2699-2705. 10.1007/s10803-016-2818-1</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Yong-Hwee Nah; Raelene Shu-Xuan Lee and Annabel Shen-Hsing Chen</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref55"></nolink> |
|---|---|
| Header | DbId: eric DbLabel: ERIC An: EJ1442824 AccessLevel: 3 PubType: Academic Journal PubTypeId: academicJournal PreciseRelevancyScore: 0 |
| IllustrationInfo | |
| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Do Types of Information in an Animated Video Intervention Affect University Students' Autism Knowledge and Openness towards Peers on the Autism Spectrum? – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yong-Hwee+Nah%22">Yong-Hwee Nah</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3748-5710">0000-0003-3748-5710</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Raelene+Shu-Xuan+Lee%22">Raelene Shu-Xuan Lee</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Annabel+Shen-Hsing+Chen%22">Annabel Shen-Hsing Chen</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Autism+and+Developmental+Disorders%22"><i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i></searchLink>. 2024 54(11):4167-4178. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 12 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Audience Label: Education Level Group: Audnce Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Information+Utilization%22">Information Utilization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Animation%22">Animation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Video+Technology%22">Video Technology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Knowledge+Level%22">Knowledge Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attitudes+toward+Disabilities%22">Attitudes toward Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Acceptance%22">Peer Acceptance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Empathy%22">Empathy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Technology%22">Educational Technology</searchLink> – Name: Subject Label: Geographic Terms Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Singapore%22">Singapore</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1007/s10803-023-06119-y – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0162-3257<br />1573-3432 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: This pre-test post-test control group design sought to compare the effectiveness of delivering different types of information ([1] factual information vs. [2] factual information + descriptive and explanatory information vs. [3] factual information + descriptive, explanatory + directive information) in an animated video intervention in increasing university students' autism knowledge and openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. The sample consisted of 92 undergraduates (27 males, 65 females; age range = 18-36) from various universities in Singapore. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions/videos, where they completed a measure of their autism knowledge and openness scale, before viewing a 5-minute long animated video containing different types of information about autism. After which, participants completed the measure of autism knowledge and openness scale again, followed by a measure of their empathy level. Results indicated that participants' autism knowledge improved following the viewing of the animated video. However, the three different videos containing different types of information did not differ in influencing participants' openness toward peers on the autism spectrum. Nevertheless, qualitative responses proposed that the video containing factual information, with descriptive, explanatory, and directive information was useful in helping participants to know how to interact with their peers on the autism spectrum. The findings of this study provide preliminary support for the most effective method to educate and raise awareness about autism, among the general student population in order to foster a supportive and inclusive environment. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2024 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1442824 |
| PLink | https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1442824 |
| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1007/s10803-023-06119-y Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 12 StartPage: 4167 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Information Utilization Type: general – SubjectFull: Animation Type: general – SubjectFull: Video Technology Type: general – SubjectFull: Intervention Type: general – SubjectFull: Program Effectiveness Type: general – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders Type: general – SubjectFull: Knowledge Level Type: general – SubjectFull: Attitudes toward Disabilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Peer Acceptance Type: general – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities Type: general – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students Type: general – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries Type: general – SubjectFull: Empathy Type: general – SubjectFull: Educational Technology Type: general – SubjectFull: Singapore Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Do Types of Information in an Animated Video Intervention Affect University Students' Autism Knowledge and Openness towards Peers on the Autism Spectrum? Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Yong-Hwee Nah – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Raelene Shu-Xuan Lee – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Annabel Shen-Hsing Chen IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 11 Type: published Y: 2024 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0162-3257 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1573-3432 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 54 – Type: issue Value: 11 Titles: – TitleFull: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Type: main |
| ResultId | 1 |
