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Organisation, Attendance, and Gained Knowledge: A Case-Study of Local Variations in Parish Schools and Ironworks Schools in Northern Sweden

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Title: Organisation, Attendance, and Gained Knowledge: A Case-Study of Local Variations in Parish Schools and Ironworks Schools in Northern Sweden
Language: English
Authors: Lina Spjut (ORCID 0000-0002-0517-5374), Fredrik Olsson Spjut (ORCID 0000-0002-7446-0873)
Source: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education. 2024 60(5):905-926.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 22
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Religious Schools, Educational History, Elementary Schools, School Organization, Attendance, Elementary School Students, Foreign Countries, Educational Legislation, Metal Working, School Activities, Institutional Characteristics, Churches, Municipalities, Employers, Employees
Geographic Terms: Sweden
DOI: 10.1080/00309230.2023.2230910
ISSN: 0030-9230
1477-674X
Abstract: Sweden's first Elementary School Act of 1842 stated that every parish was obliged to organise and fund schools to be offered to all children in the parish. Many parishes were poor and had a difficult time funding schools. In some parishes, local industries, such as ironworks, organised, funded, and managed schools for their workers. Even though state regulations might have striven for more comprehensive schooling, parishes faced different local conditions that could have affected school organisation and results. This study examines four elementary schools in northern Sweden to analyse differences and similarities caused by local conditions and local actors. Two of the schools were ironworks schools and two were parish schools, and they are studied from the 1840s through the 1860s. This case study of the Robertsfors and Gideåbruk ironworks schools and the Bygdeå and Gideå parish schools focuses on the school organisation, school subjects, children's attendance, and reported gained knowledge. The research questions are: how were the four schools organised in their local communities? Which subjects were taught in the schools? How were the children's reported attendance and gained knowledge? What similarities and differences can be seen among the four local school cases? The results indicate both similarities and differences. One school, Gideåbruk ironworks school, reported higher attendance and higher results, traceable to variations in local actors and local conditions in Gideåbruk. The Gideåbruk ironworks and its role in the community seem to be crucial for the ironworks school organisation.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1444771
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180359578;j5401oct.24;2024Oct22.03:09;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180359578-1">Organisation, attendance, and gained knowledge: a case-study of local variations in parish schools and ironworks schools in northern Sweden </title> <p>Sweden's first Elementary School Act of 1842 stated that every parish was obliged to organise and fund schools to be offered to all children in the parish. Many parishes were poor and had a difficult time funding schools. In some parishes, local industries, such as ironworks, organised, funded, and managed schools for their workers. Even though state regulations might have striven for more comprehensive schooling, parishes faced different local conditions that could have affected school organisation and results. This study examines four elementary schools in northern Sweden to analyse differences and similarities caused by local conditions and local actors. Two of the schools were ironworks schools and two were parish schools, and they are studied from the 1840s through the 1860s. This case study of the Robertsfors and Gideåbruk ironworks schools and the Bygdeå and Gideå parish schools focuses on the school organisation, school subjects, children's attendance, and reported gained knowledge. The research questions are: how were the four schools organised in their local communities? Which subjects were taught in the schools? How were the children's reported attendance and gained knowledge? What similarities and differences can be seen among the four local school cases? The results indicate both similarities and differences. One school, Gideåbruk ironworks school, reported higher attendance and higher results, traceable to variations in local actors and local conditions in Gideåbruk. The Gideåbruk ironworks and its role in the community seem to be crucial for the ironworks school organisation.</p> <p>Keywords: Sweden; nineteenth century; schooling; local variations; ironworks schools</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Elementary schools for workers' children existed in Sweden as early as the 1600s and 1700s, but the widespread establishment of elementary schools occurred in the 1800s.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] The number of schools varied from place to place, they were not evenly spread across Sweden, and children's distance to school varied, so schools were attended sporadically in some places.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] In 1842, the Elementary School Act regulated elementary schools in an attempt to achieve more comprehensive schooling throughout the country, ordering all parishes to ensure that elementary schools were offered within their boundaries or nearby.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] Although the School Act attempted to achieve more comprehensive schooling throughout the country, the decision to give over 2000 parishes the responsibility did not have the desired effect, being the formal decentralisation of the elementary-school system.</p> <p>Local and regional variations in schooling have been discussed in several studies, both nationally in Sweden and internationally. Earlier research agrees that different local actors and conditions affected elementary schooling in the nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] For example, a study of one parish in northern Sweden shows that the local conditions in northern Sweden's ironworks schools differed from those in ironworks schools in central Sweden, indicating the importance of further studies of local and regional variations.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] Based on the knowledge that varied actors and conditions influenced the elementary-school system, a case study of school organisation and content makes an important contribution to the further analysis of local variations and similarities.</p> <p>This article is a case study of local variations and similarities among four elementary schools in two parishes in northern Sweden from the 1840s to the 1860s. It focuses on how the studied schools were organised, which school subjects were taught, children's attendance, and how children's gained knowledge was described. We focus on northern Sweden for several reasons. First, northern Sweden is a peripheral region in Europe, and was even peripheral in Sweden in the nineteenth century, and its local level is geographically very far from the centre of power in Sweden. Second, earlier research pinpoints northern Sweden as an exception to the Central European–Scandinavian successful mass-schooling cluster of the late nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] This makes the region interesting, and some local variations or similarities there can perhaps help explain its exceptional status. Third, northern Sweden is an interesting and under-studied region when it comes to industry and education in the nineteenth century, even though some parts of northern Sweden became vital to Sweden's industrial "take-off" in the late nineteenth century.</p> <p>This case study has another dimension, as it includes two kinds of elementary schools, schools funded and organised by the local parish as well as schools funded and organised by local ironworks. Private actors contributed to mass schooling in Sweden, but they also made the country's decentralised elementary school system particularly complex. Swedish ironworks' involvement in elementary schooling is also quite under-studied within the Swedish mass schooling field.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-3">Aim and research questions</hd> <p>The larger purpose of this case study is to contribute to research into local variations in schooling due to the decentralised elementary-school systems of the nineteenth century, nationally and internationally; its more specific aim is to analyse whether and how local actors such as pre-industrial ironworks contributed to schooling in the studied parishes. This case study is a comparative historical study of a total of four elementary schools in two areas, Gideå and Bygdeå. Two of the schools were funded and organised by the two local parishes, and two were funded and organised by two private ironworks, in Gideå and Bygdeå. The specific research questions are: how were the four schools organised in their local communities? Which subjects were taught in the schools? How was the children's reported attendance and gained knowledge? What similarities and differences can be seen among the four local school cases?</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-4">Materials, methods, and selection</hd> <p>For this article, we used various archival documents from Sweden's National Archives (Riksarkivet). We focused on archival material from the Diocese of Härnösand (HLA) concerning elementary schools in northern Sweden (GIII). This material consists partly of reports from vicars in the pastorates in question and partly of unpublished notes and internal reports from state-appointed school inspectors.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] The empirical material also includes parish protocols and the official reports of the school inspectors, which were printed in a book series.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] The analytic comparison is structured according to a comparative historical method and is used to identify differences and similarities among the four school contexts.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] To conduct adequate analyses and avoid misunderstandings, it is important to understand and pay attention to contextual differences.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] The historical context of the studied schools is therefore encompassed by the research questions and is further described in the article's results.</p> <p>The ironworks schools have been paired with comparable parish schools in the same parishes, i.e. Gideåbruk ironworks school with Gideå parish school and Robertsfors ironworks school with Bygdeå parish school, but the comparison concerns all four schools equally. The compared schools were chosen based on their geographical locations and the fact that there is sufficient equivalent empirical material to enable a comparison. There were some differences in geographic and socioeconomic conditions among them, but the fact that all the schools were in a "main village" in either the parishes or ironworks communities means that their social structures were similar based on socioeconomic and geographical conditions. The four schools were situated in two parishes (Bygdeå and Gideå) in two regions (Västerbotten and Västernorrland), as the maps in Figures 1–4 illustrate.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Bygdeå parish within Västerbotten region. Source: <ulink href="http://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10438164#/media/File:AC1952%5fBygde%C3%A5.png">www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10438164#/media/File:AC1952%5fBygde%C3%A5.png</ulink> (downloaded 16 February 2023).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Sweden showing Västerbotten Region. Source: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4sterbottens%5fl%C3%A4n#/media/Fil:SverigesL%C3%A4n2007V%C3%A4sterbotten.svg (downloaded 22 February 2023).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Gideå parish within Västernorrland region. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=Gide%C3%A5+Sweden%2C+map&title=Special:MediaSearch&fulltext=S%C3%B6k+&type=image (downloaded 16 February 2023).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. Sweden showing Västernorrland region. Source: https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4sternorrlands%5fl%C3%A4n#/media/Fil:SverigesL%C3%A4n2007V%C3%A4sternorrland.svg (downloaded 16 February 2023).</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-5">Theoretical approach and case-study design</hd> <p>Some concepts used frequently in this article need to be defined and elaborated on. For example, the concepts <emph>local conditions, local actors, the organisation of schools</emph>, and <emph>local variations and similarities</emph> are frequently used. These concepts are theoretical tools used to pinpoint different parts of the analysis. <emph>Local conditions</emph> should be understood as local frame factors, such as access to teachers, school buildings, and educational material as well as children's distance to school.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]<emph>Local actors</emph> are defined as agents who in some way had an influence on schooling, for example, the vicar, school board members, teachers, funders, and organisers.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>]<emph>The organisation of schools</emph> should be understood as a comprehensive description of the schools' organisational context, covering, for example, relevant local conditions and actors, community history, population composition, and school location.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] Other concepts used in the study are <emph>attendance, school subjects</emph>, and <emph>gained knowledge level</emph>, three concepts based on source material notes on how many of the enrolled children actually attended the school (attendance), which school subjects were studied (<emph>school subjects</emph>), and the knowledge level the children left school with (<emph>gained knowledge level</emph>).[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]</p> <p>The article is structured as follows. First, we examine earlier research discussing the Swedish elementary-school context and connecting it with the international context. Second, in presenting the results, the four schools are described and analysed according to the research questions about the <emph>organisation of schools</emph> and <emph>school subjects</emph> in the two parishes, and about reported <emph>attendance</emph> and <emph>gained knowledge levels</emph> in the four schools. Third, the four schools are compared and analysed in the section "Discussion and conclusions".</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-6">Swedish elementary schooling</hd> <p>In the early 1800s, Sweden experienced population growth followed by increasing social change that called for new structures, new knowledge, and new types of emerging employment for the large cohorts of children growing up. Before 1800, schooling for the "commons" was mainly based on home schooling and some formal schooling in towns and parishes, but after 1800 more elementary schools were established.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] These more formal schools were established by parishes, townships, and local actors such as ironworks. Ironworks funded and organised their own schools, mainly for their own ironworkers' children, but also for other children.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] In 1842, Sweden got its first school act, the Elementary School Act, which contained directives on elementary schools, for example, instructing all parishes to ensure that elementary schools were offered within their boundaries or nearby.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>] This formal decentralisation of the growing elementary-school system did not make elementary schooling compulsory, but instead made parishes responsible for organising schooling for common children.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] There were also sections of the Elementary School Act of 1842 stating that all parishes should keep records and report on, among other things, attendance and the gained knowledge level in their districts' schools. These reports often also included remarks explaining and justifying the figures in more detail.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>] Regional and local differences can be seen in these figures and, for example, low attendance and poor gained knowledge in elementary schools in Sweden were frequent issues in the 1800s. Attendance was cited as a problem by school boards, in school inspectors' reports, and in parish reports.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>] This was explained due to several factors, such as insufficient financial resources, parents' low confidence in education, and long distances to schools. The low knowledge level has been addressed by earlier research, which pointed out that many schoolchildren achieved less than the schools' minimum level.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>]</p> <p>Because of local variations in schools, state school inspectors were appointed in 1861; they visited and inspected all elementary schools in their district, reporting their findings to the diocese and the Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>] Three of their review points concerned "the parents' relationship with the school", school "attendance", and the "number of students with minimum knowledge".[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] The fact that these were separate points shows the challenge many parishes faced in getting children to attend organised elementary schools, gaining parents' trust in the elementary-school system, and imparting the teaching content.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-7">Ironworks as local actors in elementary schooling</hd> <p>In the Swedish context, ironworks' school activities are generally an under-studied chapter in the history of education. There have been three major studies of ironworks schools in recent decades: Michaëlsson's thesis on the financing of ironworks schools after 1842,[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>] Klose's licentiate study of financing before 1842,[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] and Bergström's study of schoolmasters and reading masters before 1842,[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] in which ironworks schools are covered in the source material. Other recent studies include ironworks schools as a small part of a larger study.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]</p> <p>Studies of ironworks show that ironworks societies of the 1800s were relatively closed societies with the ironworks employer serving as patron and landlord.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] The ironworks society had its own church and priest, and the ironworks store served as a bank under the ironworks patron's influence, as parts of the workers' salaries were accommodation and grain.[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] Ironworks often owned the surrounding land, where, for example, charcoal burning and agriculture was conducted for the ironworks' needs.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] Many traditional ironworks shouldered social responsibilities and their workers had access to what we today would call a welfare system,[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>] and social services, such as medical care and sometimes even pensions, were a fact.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] The social benefits of being an iron worker also included work and tasks for the whole family from about the age of seven,[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>] so the benefits of working at the ironworks were extensive. However, the fact that the whole family was expected to work hard for the ironworks put workers in a position of dependence on and forced gratitude to the ironworks owner. For example, at the Robertsfors ironworks in 1800, half of all workers were indebted to the local store whereas the other half had savings in it.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] In other words, one did not simply move or change jobs: if a worker misbehaved so that he was laid off, his family would be without accommodation, which was illegal per the law of vagrancy.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] The workers were very exposed if they were fired, so it was all family members' responsibility to fulfil their commitments to the ironworks.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]</p> <p>Some ironworks established and paid for schools and teachers for their workers, even before the Elementary School Act of 1842, and continued to do so after 1842, even though it was now formally a parish responsibility. Because the ironworks' owners paid for the schools, the workers could have been obliged to send their children to them. The ironworks patrons were undoubtedly "the most important source of norms in the old ironworks society",[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>] because they set standards and distributed functions. It was therefore important to know and follow the ironworks owner's standards and norms.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>]</p> <p>Bergström, who studied teachers before 1842, quoted the vicar at the Forsmark ironworks, who told the diocese how they had solved the problem of low school attendance: "By then, the ironworks patron had decided – on the pastor's advice – that no one could be admitted to work at the ironworks, not even as a gatekeeper, if he or she did not know their catechism".[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] This decision forced parents to send their children to school, as no one wanted to risk the exclusion that unemployment represented. The quotation indicates that the employer could order attendance at school if he wished.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>] In another study, a sawmill employer is quoted from a letter to His Royal Majesty in June 1887: "The ability of the school board to allow these [sawmill workers] to properly send their children to the parish schools has proved inescapable, whereupon we have been able, in our relationship with the workers, to oblige them to let their children attend the schools maintained by us".[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>] Both these quotations show that an employer could affect children's attendance at school due to the hierarchical order and employment dependence in industrial society.</p> <p>The hierarchical relationship and the employer's identity may of course have created pressure to follow the ironworks' edicts regarding school attendance and uphold the motives underlying schooling, which can be linked to attendance and the gained knowledge. If the ironworks had special motives for the schooling, they only made sense if the children went to school and participated in the lessons. For example, Bergström wrote: "In order to maintain and develop industrial competence, not least in iron handling, it was required that more people should receive an elementary education".[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] Bernt Douhan also argued that self-sufficiency in competence was a motive for ironworks to finance and organise schools.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>]</p> <p>Michaëlsson argued that ironworks' motives for supporting schools were not primarily philanthropic or a desire to extend social care to their workers. Rather, the opportunity to influence the schools was a more likely motive, as it allowed participation in the design of the teaching, discipline, and education, created a favourable reputation in the district, ensured accessible labour, gave control over where the school was placed, and helped keep riots and strikes at bay.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>] Regardless of the motives, it was a given that the children would participate and learn things in line with the motives.</p> <p>The fact that local pre-industrial and industrial actors engaged in and/or funded mass schooling was not a specifically Swedish phenomenon. In her study of the creation of a productive workforce in the iron industry during the industrialisation of Luxembourg and Brazil in the first half of the 1900s, Irma Hadzalic discussed the aims of companies' initiatives regarding healthcare and education for their workers' children. She argued that, in processing industries, companies' healthcare and educational benefits for their workers' children were aimed at creating a loyal workforce and protecting and creating the next generation of workers.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>] Such a motive created double benefits for the company through ensuring satisfied, loyal workers in the present and creating a healthy, competent, and loyal next generation of workers. Even if an industrial actor did not engage in schooling, its local presence could still influence schooling. In Adrian Palacios Mateo's study of the Spanish iron industry's relationship to education, he argued that the industry had influenced education both positively and negatively and attributed differences in education to the decentralised school system. Mateo showed that there was a weak positive effect among boys in areas with iron ore mines, but a strong positive effect in areas of processing industries. In processing industries, education could lead to opportunities for better jobs given the presence of technology.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>] The knowledge-intensive processing industries had a positive impact on education, which is of importance for this study, since the ironworks in northern Sweden were part of the processing industry, not mining.</p> <p>Local actors and their influences have also been discussed in several studies of state-regulated schools. David Easton argued that all actors involved in school politics can affect the outcome in schools in some ways.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>] Arthur Zilversmit wrote that even though different national programmes have striven to create equal schooling, local independence, local resources, and local actors affect what happens in local schools.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] Johannes Westberg showed that a number of factors even outside local politics affected local schools, and that cooperation between communities, as well as nearby communities' actions, could affect local actions through both competition and inspiration. He also argued that different local, social, economic, and cultural factors were central to understanding the development of mass schooling.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] Ramona Ivener stated that local traditions and cultural patterns could also affect ideas about, and attitudes to, education and schooling.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]</p> <p>Åsa Melin, who has studied the 1950s Swedish school system at the local level, summed up her earlier research by stating that international as well as Swedish research shows that superficially equal national school systems display large local variations that can be explained only by different local factors.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>] In line with Melin's results, this article studies similarities and differences at the local level, even though national directives and motives have striven for equal, or at least comprehensive, school systems. This article also touches on the national need for knowledge in a period of strong economic and social change. Gabriele Capelli et al. presented a literature review dealing with basic education in relation to human capital in Europe. The authors noted the consensus that human capital accumulation has had a major impact on economic growth from the 1870s to the present day.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>] They also wrote that, in the late 1800s, an educational cluster was created in Central Europe in countries such as France, Prussia, and Sweden, but noted that northern Sweden should be excluded as an exception to that cluster.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>]</p> <p>Joerg Baten and Dácil Juif studied the relationship between inequality and human capital from 1820 to 2000, and their results show that fundamental structural inequality has a major impact on human capital because structural inequality does not reward potential educational efforts, and that countries making early investments in education also created human-capital-intensive industries earlier, leading to economic growth. The authors included Scandinavia among these early human-capital-investing regions.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>] In a study of education and landowners in southern Sweden, Jens Andersson and Thor Berger noted that Sweden had a disproportionately high level of human capital in relation to Sweden's economic development at the time of industrialisation, despite low school attendance and opportunities for local conservatives to influence school development at the local level in Sweden's decentralised school system.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>] To sum up, Capelli et al., Baten and Juif, and Andersson and Berger connected a striving for schooling and knowledge, but they also identified variation between regions, which is important in this study of local school organisation, children's attendance, and gained knowledge.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-8">Organisation and school subjects, Robertsfors and Bygdeå</hd> <p>Robertsfors ironworks was founded in 1756 in the village of Edfastmark.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>] Education was provided before the founding of the ironworks school in the 1830s, and an inventory list from 1841 includes items illustrating the teaching content.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] The inventory list for the Robertsfors school includes a sand board bench, a broken inkwell, various tables, three mathematics books, and five copies of Hübner's Biblical History.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>]</p> <p>The decentralising Elementary School Act of 1842 made the elementary-school system a parish responsibility.[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] After organising a school board in Bygdeå parish, it was decided to have two schools in the district, a new parish school near Bygdeå church and the ongoing ironworks school in Robertsfors.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] Bygdeå parish, which suffered from financial problems, applied for a state grant for the new parish school;[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>] the application was rejected, but the parish applied again. Mr. Häggström, manager of Robertsfors ironworks, but who in this context served as a ward holder in Dalkarlså, said that if the funds were granted, perhaps they should be used to fund future schools in the parish. It was decided, however, that if the parish received a grant, it would instead fund the construction of a poorhouse. In the state grant application from October 1845, the parish highlighted their benevolence but also emphasised the financial troubles faced in recent years:</p> <p>Due to the parish church's many and hefty expenses in recent years, for example, for the new chipping and tarring of the church roof, the expansion of the courtyard, the painting of the belfry, the repair of the rectory, the break-up and expansion of new land, the construction of stone bridges, and the construction of the parish warehouses, etc.[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>]</p> <p>At the beginning of November 1845, the school board decided that the ironworks should build new school premises for teaching and the teacher's residence, and that the ironworks should maintain the school and teacher with their own funds. The school should be used by the children in the northern part of the school district, who were closer to Robertsfors than to Bygdeå.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] However, the ironworks manager, Ekenstam, seemed to have been dissatisfied with the rest of the parish's commitment to the school construction, as shown by a parish protocol from 14 November 1845, in which Ekenstam laid out several conditions for the school's construction. He argued that if the ironworks were to pay for "their school", certain conditions would apply. First, Robertsfors ironworks and others associated with it would "never" help pay for the parish school's maintenance. Second, the ironworks should pay only for the school and the teacher; the "inventories, books and tables, firewood and all the annual allowances" should be paid for by the parish's school fund, which would be formed if the parish received the grant. Third, the two school districts in the pastorate were separated and the ironworks district should have as many members on the school board as the other district.[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>]</p> <p>At the school board meeting on 20 November 1845, Reverend Sellin announced that the state had granted Bygdeå parish 106 riksdaler and 32 shillings,[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] and the parish school was started in Bygdeå in 1846–1847.[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>] Therefore, as of 1847, Bygdeå parish was home to two permanent schools, Bygdeå parish school and Robertsfors ironworks school. In 1846, Robertsfors' permanent ironworks school moved into the new schoolhouse in Robertsfors.[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>] In connection with the described conflicts, Robertsfors ironworks recruited a new preacher and teacher, Hardin, who only worked at the ironworks from 1846 to 1847. At the graduation for the Robertsfors ironworks school in the early summer of 1847, 80 children participated, five of whom received "honours" grades.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>] In 1848, Rosenius came to Robertsfors ironworks as a preacher and teacher,[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] and later, in the 1860s, became a school inspector for the studied school districts.</p> <p>The subjects at Robertsfors ironworks school in 1847 were, in addition to the two traditional subjects of reading and catechism, spelling, biblical history, Swedish history and geography, mathematics, and writing.[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>] In the late 1840s, Robertsfors ironworks, despite some conflicts with Bygdeå parish, had a relatively well-functioning school with several school subjects in addition to reading and catechism.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-9">Organisation and school subjects, Gideåbruk and Gideå</hd> <p>Gideåbruk ironworks was founded in 1804 and was built through the 1803 acquisition of leased farms belonging to the crown. The area became the site for the construction of the ironworks in the following decades.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>] The Gideå parish school started in response to the Elementary School Act of 1842, and in January 1843 the parish decided on a school with two locations, one in Gideå village and another in Trehörningsjö.[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>] Gideå village was the parish seat, and Trehörningssjö village was located on the outskirts of the parish's school district. Six months later, the school board instead decided to establish an ambulatory school with four locations (stations), one in the south (in Gideå village), one in the west, one in the north, and one at Gideåbruk ironworks, in the eastern part of the parish.[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>] By the time school started in October 1846, a schoolhouse had been arranged in Gideå village, and this school became permanent whereas the ambulatory school rotated between the other three locations.[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>] The first school at Gideåbruk ironworks was therefore an ambulatory school organised by the parish. The Gideå parish school was a Bell–Lancaster school, a type popular at the time because it allowed for the teaching of many children at various levels of knowledge at the same time.[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>] The first teacher at the Gideå parish school was Wikman. In 1849, Näslund and Nyberg started working at Gideå parish school.[<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref76">76</reflink>]</p> <p>The three-location ambulatory school proved insufficient for all children in the parish, and discussions of expansions and organisation occurred over the next decade.[<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref77">77</reflink>] At Gideåbruk ironworks, Carl Ludvig Trolle was the inspector. He wanted to start a permanent school at the ironworks, an idea the ironworks owner, Oscar Dickson, supported. From October 1861, the school in Gideåbruk was managed by the local ironworks owner, and Valfrid Trolle, inspector Trolle's son, served as the teacher there until 1865.[<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref78">78</reflink>] The ironworks school was located at the bridge abutment in Hötjärn village. The permanent ironworks school was founded in 1861,[<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref79">79</reflink>] although, as described above, teaching had already been occurring at Gideå parish's ambulatory ward schools [roteskolor], and from 1861 the owner of Gideåbruk ironworks ran it as a permanent elementary school.[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref80">80</reflink>] This owner also ran an elementary school at Husum's sawmill, which he also owned.[<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref81">81</reflink>] At this time, Gideå parish agreed to expand the parish schools. The ambulatory school was transformed into lower-elementary schools that would teach basic knowledge. In the last two years of their schooling, all children would attend one of the two permanent elementary schools, either the parish or the ironworks school.[<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref82">82</reflink>] The ironworks also ran two lower-elementary schools, one starting the same year as the ironworks school and the other the following year.[<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref83">83</reflink>]</p> <p>According to the ironworks school's schedule, every day the children studied different content in work teams. The main subjects in elementary school were catechism and biblical history, followed by writing, spelling, mathematics, and other subjects, if time permitted.[<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref84">84</reflink>]Table 1 shows the schedule and Table 2 the work teams' content.</p> <p>Table 1. Gideåbruk ironworks school schedule for the 1863 spring semester.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td>Monday</td><td>Tuesday</td><td>Wednesday</td><td>Thursday</td><td>Friday</td><td>Saturday</td><td>Sunday Prayer</td></tr><tr><td>9–17</td><td>8–17</td><td>9–19</td><td>9–17</td><td>9–17</td><td>18–20</td><td>16–18</td></tr><tr><td><bold>9–12</bold></td><td><bold>8–11</bold></td><td><bold>9–11</bold></td><td><bold>9–11</bold></td><td><bold>9–11</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Work teams 1–4</td><td>Work teams 1–4</td><td>Work teams 1–4</td><td>Work teams 1–4</td><td>Work teams 1–4</td><td /><td>Prayer with the children</td></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>11–12</bold></td><td><bold>11–12</bold></td><td><bold>11–12</bold></td><td><bold>11–12</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Proper reading Natural science</td><td>Writing</td><td>Writing</td><td>Writing</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>13–15</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Writing</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><bold>15–17</bold></td><td><bold>14–16</bold></td><td><bold>13–15</bold></td><td><bold>14–15</bold></td><td><bold>13–14</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Writing</td><td>Spelling</td><td>Proper reading Natural science</td><td>Spelling</td><td>Spelling</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td><bold>16–17</bold></td><td><bold>15–16</bold></td><td><bold>15–17</bold></td><td><bold>14–16</bold></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Mathematics</td><td>Understanding practice*</td><td>Mathematics</td><td><italic>Wagenii Reader</italic></td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td /><td><bold>17–19</bold></td><td /><td><bold>16–17</bold></td><td /><td><bold>16–18</bold></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>Singing</td><td /><td>Understanding practice</td><td /><td>Singing</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td><bold>18–20</bold></td><td /></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>Singing</td><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Source: Rosenius's internal reports, 1863, GIII ha:1 1859–1864.</p> <p>2 *Understanding practice is to make sure the children understood what they read in Catechism.</p> <p>Table 2. Gideåbruk ironworks school work teams, 1863 spring semester.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Work team</td><td>Monday 9–11</td><td>Tuesday 8–11</td><td>Wednesday 9–11</td><td>Thursday 9–11</td><td>Friday 9–11</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Work team 1</td><td>Geography of catechism and Palestine</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Geography</td><td /><td>Geography</td></tr><tr><td>Work team 2</td><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Biblical history</td><td /><td>Catechism</td></tr><tr><td>Work team 3</td><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Work team 4</td><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 Source: Rosenius's internal reports, 1863, GIII ha:1 1859–1864.</p> <p>In 1863, the ironworks school's subjects, in addition to reading and catechism, were writing, spelling, mathematics, biblical history and geography, and natural science.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-10">School organisation and school subjects in comparison</hd> <p>Overall, the organisation of schools in Bygdeå parish with Robertsfors ironworks and in Gideå parish with Gideåbruk ironworks differed. Whereas Robertsfors ironworks organised a school before 1842, and after 1842 ran it independently from Bygdeå parish, Gideåbruk ironworks school started as part of Gideå parish's ambulatory ward schools. Not until 1861 did Gideåbruk ironworks start to manage the ironworks school. This situation illustrates slightly different local conditions for school organisation. The two ironworks also had different owners and managers, whereas the owner of Gideåbruk ironworks also managed a school at Husum's sawmill.</p> <p>In the schools' early years, the subjects were relatively similar at all studied schools. In 1846–1847, in the Robertsfors ironworks school, in addition to reading and catechism, the children studied writing, spelling, mathematics, biblical history, and Swedish history and geography. In the Gideåbruk ironworks school in 1863, the schedule from Rosenius's visit shows that the school subjects, in addition to reading and catechism, were writing, spelling, mathematics, biblical history, geography, and the geography of Palestine; singing and natural science were also taught, and the children used the <emph>Wagenii Reader</emph> in addition to only the hymnbook, the catechism book, or the Bible. The similarities are probably due to the Elementary School Act, which issued some directives on what knowledge teachers should have.[<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref85">85</reflink>] The differences in school subjects and reading content may have arisen simply due to the span of approximately 15 years covered by the empirical material, so no major conclusions should be drawn. It is more interesting, and highlights local variations, to examine how the schools were organised. In Bygdeå parish, Robertsfors ironworks first organised schooling, whereas the schooling in Gideå parish started in response to the Elementary School Act in 1842, with the parish first organising schools and the ironworks only managing and funding them after 15 years had elapsed.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-11">Reported attendance and gained knowledge</hd> <p>The children's attendance and knowledge gained were studied by triangulating several source materials that, in various ways, reported, commented on, and described schools in the studied parishes. For Bygdeå/Robertsfors ironworks, the reported attendance and knowledge gained from 1848 to 1863 were studied, with an emphasis on 1848–1850 and 1861–1863. For Gideå/Gideåbruk ironworks, the focus is on 1861–1863. Because the source materials for the various schools are not entirely comparable, they are described and discussed separately before being analysed and compared.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-12">Bygdeå and Robertsfors, 1848–1860</hd> <p>After an 1847 remark from the Härnösand consistory regarding the low school attendance in Bygdeå parish, the vicar of the parish, Erik Olof Sellin, conducted two investigations of the absent children. The parish's school district was divided into a northern and a southern district (according to Ekenstam's conditions in 1845). In 1848, Sellin's survey showed that 99 children in the southern district, representing the parish school, received remarks, whereas in the north, representing the Robertsfors ironworks school, 159 children received remarks. Of the latter children, 34 were enrolled in the ironworks school, and 25 of them lived at the ironworks. The second investigation revealed that 343 school-age children lived in the southern district; of those, 72 knew their catechism well and only 56 attended the parish school or were part of the homework reading groups that former students and the seminar teacher arranged. In the northern district, 323 children were required to attend school; of these, 20 attended school regularly, 36 read well, and 13 read poorly.[<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref86">86</reflink>]</p> <p>The source material provides us with the numbers of enrolled children in each school district. For 1848 to 1850, these figures are reported separately for the ironworks school in Robertsfors and the parish school in Bygdeå, as Table 3 shows. Later, the statistical data were reported together for the entire parish, with certain marginal remarks added.</p> <p>Table 3. Children enrolled in the different forms of school in Robertsfors and Bygdeå, 1848–1850.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Year</td><td>School</td><td>Total number of children</td><td>Formal schooling<sup>a</sup></td><td>Home schooling or no teaching at all</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1848</td><td>Robertsfors ironworks school</td><td>237</td><td>38</td><td>199</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Bygdeå parish school</td><td>305</td><td>52 (3)</td><td>253</td></tr><tr><td>1849</td><td>Robertsfors ironworks school</td><td>248</td><td>26</td><td>222</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Bygdeå parish school</td><td>321</td><td>29</td><td>289</td></tr><tr><td>1850</td><td>Robertsfors ironworks school</td><td>360</td><td>27 (1)</td><td>387</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Bygdeå parish school</td><td>388</td><td>31 (6)</td><td>357</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 Source: documents about elementary schools, 1820–1885 (GIII a).</item> <item>5 <sups>a</sups>"Formal schooling" means schooling organised by the parish or another actor within the parish, and includes schooling at permanent, ambulatory, primary, and small schools. In this case, the number represents the number of children enrolled in one of the permanent schools: Robertsfors ironworks school and Bygdeå parish school.</item> </ulist> <p>As previously mentioned, Bygdeå parish had received complaints from the Härnösand consistory in 1847. When reporting the statistical data, the district wrote marginal comments about the reasons for the low attendance and poor knowledge acquisition in the school district. In 1848–1849, Vicar Sellin wrote about Bygdeå parish school, stating that:</p> <p>[with] reasonable regard to the vastness of the parish, the significant distance of most villages from the schools, the generally poor situation of the inhabitants and weak ability to entertain the children there, as well as the apparent lack of living quarters for their accommodation during the school semesters, the school board, after receiving warnings, however, did not consider itself capable of proceeding in all its rigor according to the regulations in 8th §, nr 5 of His Royal Majesty's Gracious School Act, but for the time being was content with the parents' teaching at home and the clergy's careful investigation at the house hearings as to how this teaching is maintained, and that those with the weakest of Christian knowledge are noted and to an irresistible attitude in school are exhorted.[<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref87">87</reflink>]</p> <p>The following year, 1850, L. G. Södermark wrote the following about the Robertsfors ironworks school:</p> <p>[To the] Robertsfors ironworks school belongs, together with its own lands, so many villages of Bygdeå parish that the population within the district of this school is about half of the entire parish's population. Children's education is generally poorly cared for by the common people here, and most of the children receive necessary instruction in Christian knowledge in the parental home.[<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref88">88</reflink>]</p> <p>Both marginal notes emphasised the local conditions of long distances to school and the difficulties of the common, poor people in sending their children there. To try to remedy the problem of long distances to school, the new vicar, Bylund, wrote in 1851 that there was a former student who would teach the children in the most remote villages.[<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref89">89</reflink>] This activity developed during the years 1852–1860 to include the former student and a graduate seminar teacher who taught partly in the parish school, but who, in their free time and without compensation, travelled to the more distant villages, tested the children's knowledge, gave them homework, and instructed the parents to "let the children in the meantime read diligently".[<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref90">90</reflink>] Bygdeå parish, including Robertsfors ironworks, demonstrated an awareness of the school children's poor attendance and knowledge acquisition. However, the parish failed to increase school attendance and instead invested in having the teachers visit the children in their homes. This activity continued for two decades, illustrating how local situations needed local solutions.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-13">Bygdeå and Robertsfors, 1861–1863</hd> <p>Based on information from the first volume of the published statistics from the state school inspector's first three inspection years (1861–1863),[<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref91">91</reflink>]Tables 4–7 are presented. Table 4 shows Bygdeå parish's geographic data in relation to information about school activities, and Table 5 shows which subjects the children studied, as well as how many children participated in the school subjects. These tables report information on the entire congregation's information, which means that the information on Robertsfors ironworks school is included in the Bygdeå parish figures.</p> <p>Table 4. The state of elementary schools in Bygdeå, according to the 1861–1863 elementary-school inspector's report.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Parish area (approx.)</td><td>Parish population</td><td>Number of school-age children</td><td>School attendance</td><td>Teaching quality</td><td>Attendance during inspector's visit</td><td>Number of children with minimum knowledge</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>150 km<sup>2</sup></td><td>4850</td><td>725</td><td>Quite irregular</td><td>Quite defensible</td><td>163 children – 93 boys, 70 girls</td><td>90 children – 40 boys, 50 girls</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 Source: Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket, 1865, pp. 44–51.</p> <p>Table 5. Subjects studied in Bygdeå, according to the 1861–1863 school inspector's report.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Writing</td><td>Mathematics</td><td>Geography</td><td>History of the fatherland</td><td>Natural science</td><td>Geometry</td><td>Grammar</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>112 children</td><td>34 children</td><td>126 children</td><td>79 children</td><td>17 children</td><td>4 children</td><td>0 children</td><td>0 children</td><td>0 children</td></tr><tr><td>63 boys</td><td>18 boys</td><td>74 boys</td><td>49 boys</td><td>11 boys</td><td>2 boys</td><td>0 boys</td><td>0 boys</td><td>0 boys</td></tr><tr><td>49 girls</td><td>17 girls</td><td>52 girls</td><td>30 girls</td><td>6 girls</td><td>2 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 Source: Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket, 1865, pp. 44–51.</p> <p>Table 6. The state of elementary schools in Gideå, according to the 1861–1863 elementary-school inspector's report.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Parish area (approx.)</td><td>Parish population</td><td>Number of school-age children</td><td>School atten-dance</td><td>Teaching quality</td><td>Attendance during the inspector's visit</td><td>Number of children with minimum knowledge</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>100 km<sup>2</sup></td><td>2700</td><td>372</td><td>Quite regular</td><td>Quite commen-dable</td><td>106 children</td><td>70 children</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>57 boys</td><td>30 boys</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>49 girls</td><td>40 girls</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>8 Source: Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket, 1865, pp. 44–51.</p> <p>Table 7. Subjects studied in Gideå, according to the 1861–1863 elementary-school inspector's report.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Catechism</td><td>Biblical history</td><td>Writing</td><td>Mathematics</td><td>Geography</td><td>History of the fatherland</td><td>Natural science</td><td>Geometry</td><td>Grammar</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>99 children</td><td>89 children</td><td>63 children</td><td>54 children</td><td>5 children</td><td>0 children</td><td>0 children</td><td>0 children</td><td>0 children</td></tr><tr><td>50 boys</td><td>50 boys</td><td>31 boys</td><td>26 boys</td><td>5 boys</td><td>0 boys</td><td>0 boys</td><td>0 boys</td><td>0 boys</td></tr><tr><td>49 girls</td><td>39 girls</td><td>32 girls</td><td>28 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td><td>0 girls</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>9 Source: Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket, 1865, pp. 44–51.</p> <p>Table 4 presents the number of children present during the state school inspector's visit, general comments about school attendance, the inspector's perception of school quality, and the number of children who had gained at least the minimum required knowledge. This information was set in the parish's specific context in terms of population and surface area. Table 5 shows the number of children who studied various school subjects.</p> <p>Of the 725 school-aged children in Bygdeå at that time, 163 were present at the school inspector's visit and 90 had gained the minimum level of knowledge expected of them (Table 4). Conversely, 635 children had not gained the minimum level of knowledge. Catechism, Biblical history, writing, mathematics, geography, and the history of the fatherland were the subjects taught (Table 5). Only a few children studied the last two subjects: geography and the history of the fatherland.</p> <p>Bygdeå parish school district was 150 square kilometres, and with that came problems in getting the local children to attend school, at either the parish school at church or the Robertsfors ironworks school. It is unlikely that the ironworks owner in Robertsfors would have had the power, as an employer, to force the workers' children to attend school, since he did not employ all the children's parents. However, Sellin's investigation tells us that the ironworkers' children were also absent from school, which indicates that the patron in Robertsfors did not have the power, or the will, to force the children to attend school, as shown by the examples provided by Bergström's and Florin and Johansson's studies.[<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref92">92</reflink>] An explanation could be that although the hierarchy was strong, structural inequality and poor social mobility made educational efforts unattractive to workers. Another possibility is that the ironworks owner, who lived some kilometres away in Dalkarlså, was not present or did not consider school important.[<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref93">93</reflink>] The similarities between Bygdeå parish school and the ironworks school indicate that the local ironworks owner did not have any "extra" impact on schooling in terms of attendance or school results.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-14">Gideåbruk and Gideå, 1861–1863</hd> <p>Data are also available from the first volume of the published state school inspector's reports on both Gideå parish school and Gideåbruk ironworks school.[<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref94">94</reflink>] For Gideå, figures are given for these two schools together. Table 6 presents the number of children attending the schools in Gideå, the frequency and quality of schooling, as well as the number of children considered to have gained at least the minimum knowledge of the school's instructional content. Table 7 shows the number of children participating in classes on the various school subjects.</p> <p>Table 6 shows that 106 of the 372 enrolled children were present during the inspector's visit and that 70 children had gained the minimum level of knowledge. The schools nevertheless receive an overall good rating of "quite commendable" teaching quality. Table 7 shows that a few children studied geography, but that the subjects more commonly studied were catechism, biblical history, writing, and mathematics.</p> <p>Tables 6 and 7 do not distinguish the district's schools as parish schools or ironworks schools, as the parish's school board was primarily responsible for all schools within the parish. However, this source material has been triangulated with the other sources: the school inspector's and the parish vicar's internal reports to the diocese. These reports contain statements distinguishing between the different schools, complementing and clarifying the contents of the table considerably.</p> <p>The state school inspector, Rosenius, visited Gideåbruk ironworks school for an inspection on 25 February 1863. Rosenius wrote in his internal report to the diocese that the teaching was regulated by a set schedule, which was attached to Rosenius's report. Twenty-three boys and 28 girls were present and their performance in school was described as good. Rosenius cited several examples of what the children had achieved, including that 20 boys and 24 girls had started to read the catechism and biblical history, and that all the school children had started to write and do mathematics. The order in the school was very good and the children "have been carefully and skilfully taught". He also praised the teacher's skill and warm Christian zeal. Rosenius also stated that the register, journal, and examination records were in order and that the teaching register was in all respects sufficient and in excellent condition. His only criticism was that the school premises were somewhat limited, but that a new school was under construction. Rosenius concluded by clarifying that the ironworks owner paid for both school premises and teacher.[<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref95">95</reflink>] In the same report, he wrote that the school board must urge parents to send their children to the parish school so that they will have diligent and consistent instruction and be able to gain the minimum required knowledge.[<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref96">96</reflink>]</p> <p>The ironworks school was also visited by Gideå's vicar, Hammargren, in May 1863, in the same spring semester as the above inspection visit, and he also submitted a report to the diocese.[<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref97">97</reflink>] He described the ironworks school's activities in considerable detail. Hammargren considered the ironworks school a well-functioning school with a qualified teacher and shared schooling for both girls and boys. Although the schoolroom was described as temporary, Hammargren still considered it serviceable, with its 34-foot length, 18-foot width, and 10-foot height. The ironworks school had 40 children registered and at least half were present every day; he compared this to the parish school, where 225 children were registered, but only about 50–60 were present at any one time. The teacher at the ironworks school was described as very skilled and talented, and Gideåbruk ironworks school had a proper [ordentlig] school in comparison with the parish school, which was not proper.[<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref98">98</reflink>] Hammargren also wrote that the vicar kept himself informed about the schooling and visited the school, even though no special supervisor had been appointed. The school board members also participated in the children's graduation ceremonies. Hammargren listed the teaching material available at the ironworks school during his visit: readers, tables, textbooks for spelling and reading, <emph>Oldsberg's Home Schooling, The New Testament</emph>, hymnbooks and catechism books, <emph>Biblical History</emph> by O. O. Roos, <emph>Wagenii reader, Wessblad's Mathematics Tables</emph>, prescription tables, <emph>Winnberg's Calculation Tables, Summary of Swedish History</emph>, excerpts from an atlas, and maps of Europe, Sweden, and Norway. The inventory list also contained a globe.[<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref99">99</reflink>]</p> <p>During the spring semester of 1863, two different reports were written about the schools in Gideå. Both reports described well-functioning activity in the ironworks school, while the parish school was reported to be deficient. What is remarkable is that Rosenius's perception of the differences in quality between the ironworks and parish schools was confirmed by Gideå parish's own vicar, Hammargren, who was more responsible for managing the Gideå parish school than the Gideåbruk ironworks school.</p> <p>In 1867, the second volume of the elementary-school inspector's printed reports was published. Rosenius, who had died, had been replaced by Widén as the inspector of the school district, and his official report praised the newly built schoolhouse of the Gideåbruk ironworks school, together with Husum's sawmill school. Widén characterised both as "excellent".[<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref100">100</reflink>]</p> <p>Gideåbruk ironworks school was thus given a better assessment than the Gideå parish school, in both Vicar Hammargren's and the state school inspector Rosenius's reports from 1863 and in Widén's report from 1867. We do not know whether the ironworks owner, Dickson, or inspector Trolle had exerted pressure on their workers, but we can see that the children's attendance and, above all, their gained knowledge seemed high in the Gideåbruk ironworks school. However, no extended school course was taught beyond the minimum, although material for extended teaching was available.[<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref101">101</reflink>] The local conditions of Gideåbruk, with its local actors, ironworks owner, and teacher, may have affected the children's attendance and knowledge gained.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-15">Discussion and conclusions</hd> <p>This case study reveals differing results among the four schools, including between the two ironworks schools, even though both ironworks schools were run by ironworks in the same type of processing industry. Therefore, there are no general similarities to Mateo's and Hadzalic's studies from Spain and Luxembourg.[<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref102">102</reflink>] It is only Gideåbruk ironworks school that stands out from the four schools in this study. Robertsfors ironworks school and the Bygdeå and Gideå parish schools had similar problems with low attendance. We thus have two different results and contexts: whereas Gideåbruk ironworks school was praised by different inspectors, Robertsfors ironworks school and the two parish schools were described as having major problems with attendance and, therefore, with gained knowledge. The variations seem to be very local and might be connected to the local actors in Gideåbruk.</p> <p>The subjects studied were relatively similar across the four schools, which is traceable to national recommendations, and it is in the children's attendance and the school facilities themselves where the large variations emerge. What could explain these local variations? The reasons for variation in attendance and gained knowledge addressed by previous research are: poverty, distance to school, different opportunities for social mobility, parents' trust in school, hierarchy, loyalty to employers, and skill supply as human capital.[<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref103">103</reflink>] All such factors could cause some differences, but comparing the two schools in Gideå suggests that social mobility, hierarchy, and loyalty to employers might be more likely causes of divergence, especially if the skill supply motivated the ironworks' assumption of school management after 1861. In this case, however, we also must highlight the geographical location of the Gideåbruk ironworks, which is farther south and situated among several other schools managed by factory owners, for example, the Olofsfors ironworks and Husum's sawmill schools, the latter being run by the same owner as ran the Gideåbruk ironworks school.</p> <p>Another prerequisite we must consider is the social position of the ironworks, due to their geographical locations. Robertsfors ironworks was established in the existing village of Edfastmark, where it was established in parallel with the traditional village and parish, while Gideåbruk ironworks instead bought crown homesteads and established the community.[<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref104">104</reflink>] This may have affected the view of, reputation of, and workers' loyalty to the ironworks owners. The Robertsfors case displays similarities to that of Olofsfors ironworks, which struggled to establish good relations with the parish, while central Sweden's ironworks were almost synonymous with the parishes there, since the ironworks had established the communities, just as in the Gideåbruk case.[<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref105">105</reflink>]</p> <p>We cannot ignore the relations within a parish or the reputation of the employer and ironworks manager, nor can we ignore the value of the teacher. In Gideåbruk ironworks school, the praised teacher was the son of the ironworks manager, Trolle. The ironworks owner managed this school with care, as well as the nearby school at Husum's sawmill, both of which were praised in Widén's school-inspection report.[<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref106">106</reflink>] Those local actors, i.e. the owner, manager, and teacher, might have had important roles in shaping the local conditions of Gideåbruk ironworks school.</p> <p>That the school was clearly prioritised by the owner of Gideåbruk ironworks, perhaps based on the need for skilled labour, may have been significant for the families of workers at Gideåbruk ironworks, who may have felt encouraged to send their children to school.[<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref107">107</reflink>] We cannot see such an effect at the Robertsfors ironworks school, perhaps because the patron of the school lived in Dalkarlså and there seem to have been conflicts between the school manager and Bygdeå parish about supplying the school, which led to the school district's division into northern and southern parts in 1847, which may have affected local trust in school activities.[<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref108">108</reflink>]</p> <p>If we shift our perspective and compare the two ironworks schools based on when they were established, we see that Robertsfors ironworks school initially seemed to have functioned well, with its 80 examined children, five of whom finished with honours in 1847.[<reflink idref="bib109" id="ref109">109</reflink>] After 1847, however, the quality at the Robertsfors ironworks school seems to have declined. This could be interpreted as the result of the ironworks manager, Ekengren, ceasing engagement in the school after the conflict with the parish. Another explanation for the phenomenon of low attendance at Robertsfors ironworks school could be the parents' attitude towards the school in general: the results of the study of Robertsfors ironworks school are consistent with Johansson's studies of northern Sweden's low rates of school attendance.[<reflink idref="bib110" id="ref110">110</reflink>] The results also recall the conclusion drawn of Capelli et al., that northern Sweden was the exception to the European educational cluster that emerged during the nineteenth century.[<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref111">111</reflink>]</p> <p>Gideåbruk ironworks school seems to be the exception rather than the rule. The schools in northern Sweden seem to have had problems with attendance, according to previous research.[<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref112">112</reflink>] This finding seems to apply to three of the four schools studied here. However, the results of this study show that, within the northern Sweden region, there were indeed local variations, in this case illustrated by Gideåbruk ironworks school, which confirms other research on local varieties.[<reflink idref="bib113" id="ref113">113</reflink>]</p> <p>This article shows that the children attending Gideåbruk ironworks school had a higher rate of attendance, possibly due to higher trust in the school, ironworks community loyalty, and/or the ironworks owner's clear prioritisation of, and investment in, the school. Since Gideåbruk ironworks school displayed such different results from the other studied schools, the present findings show that the organisation of a school, with its local conditions and local actors, did have an impact on schooling in Gideåbruk ironworks school, and that local actors could have played an important role in schooling in the nineteenth century. Another result of this study is that attendance and teaching quality seemed to be crucial for a high level of gained knowledge, which, in the long run, could have affected the accumulation of human capital in Sweden in the mid nineteenth century.</p> <hd id="AN0180359578-16">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.</p> <ref id="AN0180359578-17"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Petrus Norberg, <emph>Avesta skola 1642–1842, en folkskola 200 år äldre än folkskolestadgan</emph> (Stockholm: Svenska tryckeriaktieboklaget, 1924); and Paul Paulsson, <emph>Historik öfver folkunderwisningen i Sverige från äldsta tid till närvarande tid</emph> (Stockholm: A Bonnier, 1866).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Carin Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare på landet före folkskolereformen 1842</emph> (Stockholm: Nordiska museet, 2000), 27; and Egil Johansson, <emph>En studie med kvantitativa metoder av folkundervisningen i Bygdeå socken 1845–1873</emph> (Umeå: Umeå University, 1972).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Norberg, <emph>Avesta skola 1642–1842</emph>; Paulsson, <emph>Historik öfver folkunderwisningen i Sverige; Kongl. Maj:ts Nådiga stadga angående Folkundervisningen i Riket</emph> [Elementary School Act 1842] (Swensk författningssamling [SFS] 1842:19). Although the regulated schooling might not have achieved the purpose of being qualitatively equal, it was more comprehensive as elementary schools were offered throughout the country.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> See, for example: David Easton, <emph>The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science</emph> (New York: Knopf, 1953), 130; Arthur Zilversmit, <emph>Changing Schools: Progressive Education Theory and Practice, 1930–</emph>1960 (Chicago: The University of Chicago press, 1993), 91; Westberg, <emph>Att bygga ett skolväsende: Folkskolans förutsättningar och framväxt 1840–1900</emph> (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2014), 23–30, 170–1, 292–4, 305–7; and Åsa Melin, <emph>Olika vägar till enhetlig skola? En studie av grundskolans etablering på kommunal nivå, 1950–1968</emph> (Karlstad: Karlstads universitet, 2022), 15.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Lina Spjut and Fredrik Olsson Spjut, "Folkskoleväsende och industrialisering i Norra Sverige: Relationer mellan Olofsfors järnbruk och Nordmaling socken vid organiseringen av folkskoleväsendet i 1800-talets decentraliserade skolsystem," <emph>Nordic Journal of Educational History</emph> 10, no. 1 (2023).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Gabriele Capelli, Leonardo Ridolfi, Michelangelo Vasta, and Johannes Westberg, "Human Capital in Europe, 1830s-1930s: Toward a New Spatial Dataset," in <emph>Quaderni del Dipartimento di economia Politica e statistica</emph>, n. 873 Marzo (Siena: Universitá di Siena 2022).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> GIII: <emph>Domkapitlet i Härnösands arkiv</emph>, Handlingar, skrivelser angående folkskolor; GIIIa: Handlingar, skrivelser angående folkskolor 1820–1885, Ansökan om statsmedel till folkskoleväsendet, 22 oktober 1845, Marginalanteckning i Berättelser om förhållandet med folkundervisningen 1848, vt 1849, 1850–1860, GIIIf: Handlingar angående folkskolor, uppgifter i pedagogiskt avseende. GIIIf:1, Uppgifter i pedagogiskt avseende. 1866, GIIIf:2, Uppgifter i pedagogiskt avseende 1867, GIIIf:3, Uppgifter i pedagogiskt avseende. 1865–1875, and GIIIha: Handlingar angående folkskolor. Folkskoleinspektörernas årsberättelser, GIIIha:1, Folkskoleinspektörernas årsberättelser 1859–1864, Kyrkoherde Hammargrens rapport 1863, Rosenius interna rapport 1863.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> K: <emph>Domkapitlet i Härnösands arkiv</emph>, sockenstämmoprotokoll, KI2: Sockenstämmoprotokoll Västerbotten Bygdeå församling, 1844–1845, and <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket 1861–1863, afgifna af tillförordnade folkskoleinspektörer</emph> (Stockholm: P.A. Norstedts & söner, 1865); and <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket 1864–1866, afgifna af tillförordnade folkskoleinspektörer</emph> (Stockholm: P.A. Norstedts & söner, 1867).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Matthew Lange, <emph>Comparative-historical methods (</emph>Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013), 7–14; and Deborah Cohen and Maura O´Connor, "Introduction: Comparative history, crossnational history, transnational history – Definitions," in <emph>Comparison and history: Europe in cross-national perspective</emph>, ed. Deborah Cohen and Maura O'Connor (New York: Routledge, 2004), xi.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cohen and O'Connor, <emph>Introduction</emph>, ix–xxiv.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Compare with frame factor theory, for example: Ulf P. Lundgren, "Ramfaktorteori och praktisk utbildningsplanering," <emph>Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige</emph> 1 (1999): 31–41; and Urban Dahllöf, "Det tidiga ramfaktorteoretiska tänkandet" <emph>Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige</emph> 1 (1999): 5–29.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Melin, <emph>Olika vägar till enhetlig skola</emph>?, 36.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lange, <emph>Comparative-historical methods</emph>, 7–14; and Cohen and O´Connor, Introduction, xi, ix–xxiv.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket</emph> (1865).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Norberg, <emph>Avesta skola 1642–1842</emph>; Paulsson, <emph>Historik öfver folkunderwisningen i Sverige från äldsta tid till närvarande tid</emph>; and Daniel Lindmark, <emph>Pennan, plikten, prestigen och plogen: Den folkliga skrivkunnighetens spridning och funktion före folkskolan</emph> (Umeå: Umeå University, 1994), 139.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lindmark, <emph>Pennan, plikten, prestigen och plogen</emph>, 139; Madeleine Michaëlsson, <emph>Privata bidrag till folkskolan: Järnbruken och det svenska folkskoleväsendet 1850–1930</emph> (Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2016), 33–72; and Gunilla Klose and Johannes Westberg, <emph>Folkundervisningens finansiering före 1842</emph> (Uppsala: Uppsala universitet, 2011).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Norberg, <emph>Avesta skola 1642–1842</emph>; Paulsson, <emph>Historik öfver folkunderwisningen i Sverige; Kongl. Maj:ts Nådiga stadga angående Folkundervisningen i Riket.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johannes Westberg, "A Conflicted Political Will to Levy Local Taxes: Inequality and Local School Politics in Sweden 1840–1900," <emph>Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy</emph> 4, no. 1 (2018): 4. Some kind of organised compulsory schooling, in which children had to attend an organised school, was not regulated until 1882 (6 ch. 49–51 § <emph>Kongl. Maj:ts förnyade nådiga stadga angående folkundervisningen i riket</emph> (SFS 1882:8)).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> These documents are available at the Swedish National Archives (Riksarkivet, RA).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Schools were to cover, at minimum: reading, catechism, singing, writing, and maths (Egil Johansson, "'Mindre än minimum': den gamla hemläsningen och föräldrarnas ambitioner för barnen i ljuset av folkskoleinspektörernas berättelser 1861–68," <emph>Forskning om utbildning</emph> 4 (1991).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Josef Gralén, <emph>Folkskoleinspektionen i Gävleborgs län 1861–1876</emph> (Stockholm: Föreningen för svensk undervisningshistoria, 1953), 15.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>, 44–51.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Michaëlsson, <emph>Privata bidrag till folkskolan</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Klose and Westberg, <emph>Folkundervisningens finansiering före 1842</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ingrid Nilsson, "Folkundervisning i privatskolor – bruks och vallonskolor" i <emph>Skilda lärohus</emph>, red Ingrid Nilsson (Lund: Dialogos,1989); Westberg, <emph>Att bygga ett skolväsende.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bertil Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph> (Uppsala: Almqvist och Wiksell, 1921).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 102–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fredrik Olsson, <emph>Järnhanteringens dynamik: Produktion, lokalisering och agglomerationer i Bergslagen</emph> (Umeå: Umeå University, 2007), 41.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christer Ericsson, "Gåvor och gengåvor, midsommarfirande vid svenska bruk från slutet av 1800-talet till 1910-talet" i <emph>Bergslagsarkiv: årsbok för historia och kulturhistoria i Bergslagen</emph> 4, (1993), 40–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Birger Steen, <emph>Baronernas Leufsta: Om brukslivet i Norra Uppland på baronernas tid, efter förre brukskamreren Joel Godeaus berättelser upptecknat och kompletterat av Birger Steen</emph> (Stockholm: Norstedts & Söner, 1966), 177–81, 358.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Göran Rydén, <emph>Hammarlag och hushåll: om relationen mellan smidesarbetet och smedshushållen vid Tore Petrés brukskomplex 1830–1850</emph> (Uppsala: Uppsala University, 1990), 203–19.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 107.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> SOU 1949:4, <emph>Utredning med förslag om Lösdrivarelagens upphörande m.m. Avgiven av 1948 års lösdriveriutredning</emph>, (Stockholm: Isaac Marcus boktryckeriaktiebolag, year), 35–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mats Hellspong, "Bruk och industrisamhällen," i <emph>Land och stad: svenska samhällstyper och livssformer från medeltid till nutid</emph>, red. Mats Hellspong och Orvar Lövgren (Lund: Gleerups, 1974), 166.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ericsson, "Gåvor och Gengåvor," 40–50.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 40–50.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare</emph>, 139.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 139.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Christina Florin and Ulla Johansson, "<emph>Alla dessa barnen" sågverksepoken och folkskolans historia i Skön 1850–1919</emph> (Umeå: Pedagogiska institutionen, 1984), 16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare</emph>, 124.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bernt Douhan, <emph>Arbete, kapital och migration: valloninvandringen till Sverige under 1600-talet</emph> (Uppsala: Uppsala universitet, 1985), 146–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Michaëlsson, <emph>Privata bidrag till folkskolan</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Irma Hadzalic, "Transatlantic Iron Connections: Education, Emotion and the Making of a Productive Workforce in Minas Gerais, Brazil (ca 1910–1960)," in <emph>Fabrication Modern Societies: Education, Bodies and Minds in the Age of Steel</emph>, ed. Karin Priem and Frederik Herman (Boston: Brill, 2019), 198–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Adrian Palacios Mateo, <emph>Education, Industrialisation and the Mining Sector: Spain, 1860–1924</emph> (Norges teknisk- og naturvitenskapelige Universitet, 2022).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Easton, <emph>The political system</emph>, 130.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zilversmit, <emph>Changing Schools</emph>, 91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Westberg, <emph>Att bygga ett skolväsende</emph>, 23–30, 170–1, 292–4, 305–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ramona Ivener, <emph>Kunskapens händer: kunskapstraditioner, maskulinitet och förändring i Lesjöfors 1940–2010</emph>. (Karlstad: Karlstads universitet, 2014), 17, 205–6, 211–12.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Åsa Melin, <emph>Olika vägar till enhetlig skola</emph>, 15.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Capelli et al., "Human Capital in Europe 1830s-1930s".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Joerg Baten and Dácil Juif, "A Story of Large Landowners and Math Skills: Inequality and Human Capital Formation in Long-Run Development 1820–2000," <emph>Journal of Comparative Economics</emph> 42 (2014).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jens Andersson and Thor Berger, "Elites and the Expansion of Education in Nineteenth Century Sweden," <emph>The Economic History Review</emph> 72, no. 3 (2019).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 24.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 124; Karl Fahlgren, <emph>Bygdeå sockens historia: På uppdrag av kommunalfullmäktige</emph> (Umeå: Bokförlaget Botnia, 1963), 438–40.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boethius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 124.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johannes Westberg, "Basic Schools in Each and Every Parish: The School Act of 1842 and the Rise of Mass Schooling in Sweden," in <emph>School Acts and the Rise of Mass Schooling: Educational Policy in the Long Nineteenth-Century</emph>, ed. Johannes Westberg, Lukas Boser, and Ingrid Brühwiler (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 202–3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> KI2: <emph>Sockenstämmoprotokoll</emph>, 12 maj, 1844.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Ansökan om statsmedel till folkskoleväsendet</emph>, 22 October 1845.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sixten Axelsson and Carl-Arthur Burman, eds., <emph>Bygdeå och Nysätra socknars skolhistoria</emph> (Umeå: Tryckeri CITY, 1992), 13.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> KI2: <emph>Sockenstämmoprotokoll</emph>, 14 November 1845.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Axelsson and Burman, <emph>Bygdeå och Nysätra socknars skolhistoria</emph>, 14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fahlgren, <emph>Bygdeå sockens historia</emph>, 440–3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 150.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fahlgren, <emph>Bygdeå sockens historia</emph>, 440 ff.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>, 150.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Per Söderlind, <emph>Gideå bruk och Husums sågverk</emph>; Första delen (Örnsköldsviks kommun: SEWE-Förlaget, 1990), 36–9; and Otto Lundström and Ester Lundström, <emph>Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån: samlingar till Grundsunda, Gideå och Björna socknars beskrivning</emph> (Örnsköldsvik: Grundsundas hembygdsförening, 1966), 270–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lundström and Lundström, <emph>Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån</emph>, 211.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Manfred Berglund, <emph>Gideå Hembygdsbok</emph> (Örnsköldsvik: Ågrens Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1954), s. 58.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIha:1: <emph>Hammargrens rapport 1863</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Berglund, <emph>Gideå Hembygdsbok</emph>, 60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 61.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Berglund, <emph>Gideå Hembygdsbok</emph>, 60–2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIII ha:1, <emph>Hammargrens rapport 1863</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lundström and Lundström, <emph>Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån</emph>; Bengt Hallberg, <emph>Norra Ångermanland: Handel – Hantverk – Industri</emph> (Örnsköldsvik: Ågrens Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, 1942), 121; and Berglund, <emph>Gideå Hembygdsbok</emph>, 62.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 74 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lundström and Lundström, <emph>Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån</emph>, 207–10.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Berglund, <emph>Gideå Hembygdsbok</emph>, 63.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 74 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIha:1: <emph>Rosenius interna rapport 1863.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Kongl. Maj:ts Nådiga stadga angående Folkundervisningen i Riket.</emph> </bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Axelsson and Burman, <emph>Bygdeå och Nysätra socknars skolhistoria</emph>, 36.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Marginalanteckning 1848, vt 1849.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Marginalanteckning 1850.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Marginalanteckning 1851.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Marginalanteckning 1852, 1853, 1855, 1856, 1858, 1859, 1860</emph>. Quotation from <emph>Marginalanteckning 1856.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1861–1863</emph>; and <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare</emph>; and Florin and Johansson, <emph>Alla dessa barnen.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> GIIIa: <emph>Ansökan om statsmedel till folkskoleväsendet</emph>, 22 October 1845.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1861–1863</emph>; and <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 84 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 74 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See note 74 above.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hadzalic, "Transatlantic Iron Connections"; and Mateo, <emph>Education, Industrialisation and the Mining Sector.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In order: Johansson, <emph>En studie med kvantitativa metoder</emph>; Baten and Juif, "A Story of Large Landowners and Math Skills"; Andersson and Berger, "Elites and the Expansion of Education<emph>".; Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1861–1863; Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>; Boëthius, <emph>Robertsfors bruks historia</emph>; Hellspong, "Bruk och industrisamhällen"; Florin and Johansson, <emph>Alla dessa barnen</emph>; Rydén, <emph>Hammarlag och hushåll</emph>; Ericsson, "Gåvor och gengåvor"; Bergström, <emph>Skolmostrar och läsmästare</emph>; Michaëlsson, <emph>Privata bidrag till folkskolan</emph>; and Douhan, <emph>Arbete, kapital och migration</emph>; Hadzalic, "Transatlantic Iron Connections".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Söderlind, <emph>Gideå bruk och Husums sågverk</emph>; Lundström and Lundström, <emph>Bygden kring Gideälven och Husån.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Spjut and Olsson Spjut, "Folkskoleväsende och industrialisering i Norra Sverige".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Berättelser om folkskolorna i riket för åren 1864–1866</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Douhan, <emph>Arbete, kapital och migration</emph>; and Hadzalic, "Transatlantic Iron Connections"; Mateo, <emph>Education, Industrialisation and the Mining Sector</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> KI2: <emph>Sockenstämmoprotokoll</emph> 14 November 1845.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fahlgren, <emph>Bygdeå sockens historia.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johansson, <emph>En studie med kvantitativa metoder.</emph></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Capelli et al., "Human Capital in Europe 1830s-1930s".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Johansson, <emph>En studie med kvantitativa metoder</emph>; and Capelli et al., "Human Capital in Europe 1830s-1930s".</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See for example: David Easton, <emph>The political system</emph>; Arthur Zilversmit, <emph>Changing Schools</emph>; Westberg, <emph>Att bygga ett skolväsende</emph>; Melin, <emph>Olika vägar till enhetlig skola?</emph>; and Spjut and Olsson Spjut, "Folkskoleväsende och industrialisering i Norra Sverige".</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Lina Spjut and Fredrik Olsson Spjut</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Lina Spjut is a researcher and teacher in Education and works at Umeå University In Sweden. Her research focus has been on representations of Sweden's and Finland's common history, ethnicity, nationalism and national minorities in textbooks, teaching materials and curriculum studies. Spjut is now in a research project on industrial actors in Swedish mass-schooling in the nineteenth century. Spjut's research often combines pedagogy with history of education, focused on theory and methods in didactics, curriculum theory, critical discourse analysis and historic comparative method.</p> <p>Fredrik Olsson Spjut is a researcher and lecturer, as well as Director of the Unit for Economic History, Umeå University. Fredrik's research covers ironworks, sawmills, energy, and education in a historical perspective. He is also active in matters relating to regional and national archives, based on his chairmanship of the board of the Company Archives in Westerbotten.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Organisation, Attendance, and Gained Knowledge: A Case-Study of Local Variations in Parish Schools and Ironworks Schools in Northern Sweden
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lina+Spjut%22">Lina Spjut</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0517-5374">0000-0002-0517-5374</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Fredrik+Olsson+Spjut%22">Fredrik Olsson Spjut</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7446-0873">0000-0002-7446-0873</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Paedagogica+Historica%3A+International+Journal+of+the+History+of+Education%22"><i>Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 60(5):905-926.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 22
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Schools%22">Religious Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Schools%22">Elementary Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Organization%22">School Organization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attendance%22">Attendance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Legislation%22">Educational Legislation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Metal+Working%22">Metal Working</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Activities%22">School Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Institutional+Characteristics%22">Institutional Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Churches%22">Churches</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Municipalities%22">Municipalities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employers%22">Employers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employees%22">Employees</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sweden%22">Sweden</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/00309230.2023.2230910
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0030-9230<br />1477-674X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Sweden's first Elementary School Act of 1842 stated that every parish was obliged to organise and fund schools to be offered to all children in the parish. Many parishes were poor and had a difficult time funding schools. In some parishes, local industries, such as ironworks, organised, funded, and managed schools for their workers. Even though state regulations might have striven for more comprehensive schooling, parishes faced different local conditions that could have affected school organisation and results. This study examines four elementary schools in northern Sweden to analyse differences and similarities caused by local conditions and local actors. Two of the schools were ironworks schools and two were parish schools, and they are studied from the 1840s through the 1860s. This case study of the Robertsfors and Gideåbruk ironworks schools and the Bygdeå and Gideå parish schools focuses on the school organisation, school subjects, children's attendance, and reported gained knowledge. The research questions are: how were the four schools organised in their local communities? Which subjects were taught in the schools? How were the children's reported attendance and gained knowledge? What similarities and differences can be seen among the four local school cases? The results indicate both similarities and differences. One school, Gideåbruk ironworks school, reported higher attendance and higher results, traceable to variations in local actors and local conditions in Gideåbruk. The Gideåbruk ironworks and its role in the community seem to be crucial for the ironworks school organisation.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1444771
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RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/00309230.2023.2230910
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 22
        StartPage: 905
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Religious Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Organization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attendance
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Legislation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Metal Working
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Institutional Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Churches
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Municipalities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employees
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sweden
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Organisation, Attendance, and Gained Knowledge: A Case-Study of Local Variations in Parish Schools and Ironworks Schools in Northern Sweden
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lina Spjut
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Fredrik Olsson Spjut
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0030-9230
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1477-674X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 60
            – Type: issue
              Value: 5
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1