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The Effect of a Family Member-Assisted Online Early Reading Intervention Program for Students with Intellectual Disability in China

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Title: The Effect of a Family Member-Assisted Online Early Reading Intervention Program for Students with Intellectual Disability in China
Language: English
Authors: Huan Li (ORCID 0000-0001-7332-6122), Ning An, Li Deng, Jing Yu, Shuo Zeng
Source: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. 2024 39(4):249-259.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Students with Disabilities, Intellectual Disability, Intervention, Early Reading, Online Courses, Family Relationship, Family Environment
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1177/10883576241232902
ISSN: 1088-3576
1538-4829
Abstract: Early reading skills are a prerequisite for children to acquire subsequent reading skills. Many online programs have been reported to be effective in improving students' reading skills. However, there is limited evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of online early reading programs for students with intellectual disability (ID). Using a single-case multiple-probe across-participant design, the study examined whether a family member-assisted online early reading program could improve the early Chinese reading skills of students with ID. All three participants demonstrated significant treatment effects on early reading skills in response to the program. These acquired effects were generalized across settings and maintained in follow-up conditions for all participants. As such, this study extends the limited literature on the effectiveness of online programs to develop early reading skills in students with ID.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1446536
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180585745;fdd01dec.24;2024Nov04.04:17;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180585745-1">The Effect of a Family Member–Assisted Online Early Reading Intervention Program for Students With Intellectual Disability in China </title> <p>Early reading skills are a prerequisite for children to acquire subsequent reading skills. Many online programs have been reported to be effective in improving students' reading skills. However, there is limited evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of online early reading programs for students with intellectual disability (ID). Using a single-case multiple-probe across-participant design, the study examined whether a family member–assisted online early reading program could improve the early Chinese reading skills of students with ID. All three participants demonstrated significant treatment effects on early reading skills in response to the program. These acquired effects were generalized across settings and maintained in follow-up conditions for all participants. As such, this study extends the limited literature on the effectiveness of online programs to develop early reading skills in students with ID.</p> <p>Keywords: family member; online learning; intellectual disability; early reading skills; Chinese</p> <p>Early reading skills are a prerequisite for children to acquire subsequent reading skills ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref1">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref2">33</reflink>]), as has been demonstrated in studies of different languages. However, children with intellectual disability (ID), whether English or Chinese speakers, commonly have difficulties with early reading ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref4">27</reflink>]). Therefore, it is essential to provide effective early reading interventions for children with ID. In the digital era, online learning has become increasingly popular because of its benefits, such as flexibility and convenience of time and place, and its wide range of learning resources ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref5">25</reflink>]). As a result, many online reading programs, such as Headsprout and Raz-Kids, have been developed to improve students' reading skills, and substantial literature has explored the benefits and effectiveness of these online reading programs for typically developing (TD) students ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref6">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref7">24</reflink>]). However, it has been reported that many students with ID do not have access to appropriate online educational activities that could meet their needs and abilities ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref8">4</reflink>]), and there is limited evidence supporting effective online early reading programs for students with ID ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]). This study aims to examine the effectiveness of a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program for students with ID in China.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-2">Early Reading Skills in Chinese</hd> <p>Based on the simple view of reading ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref10">7</reflink>]), early reading skills can be defined as basic reading techniques that are closely related to decoding and language comprehension, such as alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, and print knowledge, in English ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref11">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]). This model has been validated in different languages, including English and Chinese ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref13">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref14">19</reflink>]). However, compared to English, special attention should be given to the decoding process when teaching early reading in Chinese, which has a writing system profoundly different from alphabetic systems ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref15">28</reflink>]). In Chinese, the basic unit for reading is the Chinese character, and learners have to retrieve pronunciation, form, and meaning in a very short timeframe when decoding a Chinese character ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref16">21</reflink>]), and these three components of Chinese characters cannot be retrieved separately. Thus, the core of early Chinese reading skills for a beginning reader is to learn the three components of Chinese characters to reach a full understanding of primary characters.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-3">Interventions of Early Chinese Reading Skills for Students With ID</hd> <p>As an ideographic language, visual skills are one of the most important variables in predicting the Chinese reading ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref17">32</reflink>]). However, students with ID often have difficulties with visual skills, so they have been reported to experience significant difficulties in Chinese reading ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref18">29</reflink>]). Specifically, the forms of some Chinese characters are visually similar, for example, "日" [rì] (meaning: sun) and "曰" [yuē] (meaning: say), and these students often perform poorly in visual discrimination compared with TD children ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref19">2</reflink>]). Thus, students with ID often find it difficult to distinguish between similar Chinese characters and therefore to read them fluently ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref20">29</reflink>]). Furthermore, given that students with ID have been identified to have deficits in visual working memory ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref21">20</reflink>]), it is challenging for beginning readers with ID to simultaneously process the three components of Chinese characters (form, pronunciation, and meaning), thus making it difficult for them to read ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref22">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although the number of empirical studies on early reading interventions for Chinese beginning readers with ID is very limited, existing studies have provided preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of visual support in improving the early Chinese reading of these students ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>]). Image-character instruction, developed from the principle of visual support, has been widely used as an early reading instructional strategy for TD children in China ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref24">34</reflink>]). Specifically, the image-character instruction applies images of objects that are similar to the form of the characters to assist in character recognition. In addition, the animation is applied to present the transformation from an image to a Chinese character, which may facilitate visual discrimination of Chinese characters in students with ID. Furthermore, these images in image-character instruction are selected from real life and are developmentally appropriate learning materials for children ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref25">34</reflink>]); thus, this visual support might improve the visual memory of Chinese characters for students with ID. However, only one previous study has conducted a pilot study with one child with ID to provide preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of image-character instruction in brick-and-mortar education ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref26">15</reflink>]), and this study aims to further examine the effectiveness of image-character instruction on online early reading skills for students with ID in China.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-4">Family Member–Assisted Online Reading Programs for Individuals With ID</hd> <p>The number of studies on online reading interventions for students with ID is very limited, with existing studies focusing on the effectiveness of online phonics-based programs in improving the English reading skills of students with ID ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref27">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref28">10</reflink>]). However, existing studies on online English reading programs still have important implications for this study. Specifically, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref29">1</reflink>] reported that only 25% of the participants completed the online English reading program in 6 months, and participants' usage and progress in the online reading program were associated with many factors, including family issues that affected learning scheduling and consistent usage of the online program. In addition, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref30">10</reflink>] found that most of the participants' early reading skills acquired in online programs were not maintained at follow-up, while other researchers have reported that the assistance of family members can increase the generalization and maintenance of the skills that children have acquired ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref31">12</reflink>]). Thus, this study included family member assistance with the online Chinese early reading intervention program to improve the Chinese early reading skills of beginning readers with ID.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-5">Research Aims</hd> <p>We aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program based on image-character instruction for teaching early reading skills to three first-grade students with ID in China. Generalization across family members and materials and maintenance in the absence of ongoing intervention were also measured.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-6">Method</hd> <p>Approval for undertaking this study was granted by the university research ethics committee, and informed consent was obtained from the participant's parents.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-7">Participants</hd> <p>Three first-grade students with ID were recruited from a special education school in a western city in China. A complete description of the participants' information is presented in Table 1. The three participants were selected based on the following inclusion criteria: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref32">1</reflink>) a diagnostic record of ID verified by qualified doctors; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>) the need for early reading instruction due to poor reading skills reported by teachers (i.e., the number of recognized Chinese characters other than their names was less than 10); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref34">3</reflink>) intelligibility of speech higher than 65% (a 30-min one-to-one conversational language sample between the participants and their classroom teachers to obtain their speech intelligibility); (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref35">5</reflink>) no previous exposure to individualized early reading interventions; (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref36">6</reflink>) an absence of autism, hearing impairment, or visual impairment; and (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>) an absence of chronic challenging behaviors.</p> <p>Table 1. Participant and Family Members Information for Study of Early Reading Intervention.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Participant name/gender/age</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">WAIS-III scores</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Number of recognized characters</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Speech intelligibility</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Family income<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn2">a</xref></th><th align="center" colspan="2">Relationships of family members</th></tr><tr><th align="center">In intervention</th><th align="center">In generalization</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Anan/girl/8 years</td><td>VIQ: 47;PIQ: 53;FSIQ: 44</td><td>6</td><td>81%</td><td>Low</td><td>Mother</td><td>Father</td></tr><tr><td>Bobo/girl/7 years</td><td>VIQ: 47;PIQ: 55;FSIQ: 42</td><td>10</td><td>68%</td><td>Low</td><td>Mother</td><td>Elder brother</td></tr><tr><td>Cong/boy/8 years</td><td>VIQ < 42;PIQ: 53;FSIQ: 39</td><td>9</td><td>77%</td><td>Middle</td><td>Grandfather</td><td>Grandmother</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> WISC-Ⅲ = the Chinese version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition; IQ = intelligence quotient; VIQ = verbal IQ; PIQ = performance IQ; FSIQ = Full-scale IQ.</p> <p>2 China National Bureau of Statistics divides household economic levels into three levels based on personal disposable income per capita (low-income: ＜ ¥7,380; middle-income: ¥15,777- ¥39,230; high-income:＞ ¥76,401). <ulink href="http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/202002/t20200228%5f1728913.html">http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/202002/t20200228%5f1728913.html</ulink>.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-8">Research Design</hd> <p>This study applied a single-case, multiple-probe across-participants design ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref38">5</reflink>]) to explore the effectiveness of a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program for three students with ID in China. This design was chosen because, on the one hand, children with ID have heterogeneous characteristics, and early intervention for these children is usually delivered in an individualized way in China; on the other hand, a rigorous single-subject experimental design has strong internal validity through the intensive study of the case that serves as one's control ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-9">Settings and Materials</hd> <p>The online learning sessions were conducted in a quiet room in the participants' homes. To ensure consistency in the learning environments, only a desk, two chairs, and a laptop were placed in the learning area throughout the study.</p> <p>Image-character instruction software (<ulink href="http://zhiyingjiaoyu.cn/">http://zhiyingjiaoyu.cn/</ulink>), a computer-based system for teaching early reading in Chinese developed by the Chinese language education researcher [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref40">34</reflink>], was applied as the instruction material. The materials had three levels of difficulty, level 1 (easy), level 2 (moderate), and level 3 (hard), based on the complexity of the structure of Chinese characters. Each level contained 30 lessons, and each lesson contained nine different Chinese characters with the same theme. All of the participants were assigned to Level 1 based on the limited number of Chinese characters that they had recognized. First, the software presented each character individually for students to learn its pronunciation, form, and meaning. Second, three literacy games were presented to reinforce the pronunciation, form, and meaning of characters: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref41">1</reflink>) the Treasure Box game, in which students would obtain treasures when they correctly matched the meaning of a character to its form; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref42">2</reflink>) the Pick the Fruit game, in which students would obtain a fruit when they matched the form of a character to its meaning; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref43">3</reflink>) the Smash the Egg game, in which students would obtain a gift hidden in a golden egg when they matched the form of a character to its pronunciation.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-10">Independent Variables</hd> <p>The independent variable was a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program. Specifically, it was an online synchronous instruction conducted via an online conferencing platform (VooV Meeting) by the implementer (i.e., the second author) using image-character instruction materials and with the assistance of family members.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-11">Dependent Variables and Measurements</hd> <p>The dependent variables were early reading skills. As these three components of primary Chinese characters cannot be separately measured ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref44">30</reflink>]), this study measured early reading skills from two dimensions: form-pronunciation correspondence and form-meaning correspondence. Thus, this study had three outcome variables, that is, form-pronunciation correspondence scores, form-meaning correspondence scores, and overall scores of early reading skills (the sum of the first two variables).</p> <p>The measurement system of early reading skills was consistent across baseline, intervention, generalization, and maintenance conditions. In each baseline session, the implementer randomly selected one lesson from Level 1 and then randomly selected four characters from this lesson as the target Chinese characters for assessment. In each intervention and generalization session, four Chinese characters taught in that session were assessed after the intervention. In each maintenance session, four Chinese characters were randomly selected for assessment among the characters taught in previous sessions.</p> <p>First, form-pronunciation correspondence was measured by the pronunciation task, which is often applied in Chinese exams ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref45">31</reflink>]). Specifically, the implementer showed the form of a target Chinese character in PowerPoint and asked, "Please tell me how to pronounce this character" and waited 5 s for the response. If the student did not respond, the implementer would repeat the above instructions and wait 5s for the response again. If the student still did not respond, the implementer would continue to assess another target Chinese character. If the student pronounced the character, the implementer would not provide feedback or prompts for the response. When the student's pronunciation was ambiguous, the implementer asked the student to repeat the pronunciation to ensure that the pronunciation could be clearly distinguished and then assessed whether the student pronounced the character correctly based on the standard pronunciation of the target Chinese character while accounting for the influence of dialect on their pronunciation.</p> <p>Then, the form-meaning correspondence was measured by the picture selection task. Specifically, the implementer showed the form of a target Chinese character with three pictures in PowerPoint and asked, "Please choose the picture according to the meaning of the character." All three pictures were illustrations of the same size. One was the target picture representing the meaning of the Chinese character, one was the picture with semantic relevance to the Chinese character, and the other was the semantically irrelevant picture. For example, if the target Chinese character was "口" (meaning: mouth), the three pictures were the target picture (mouth); the semantically related picture (eyes); and the semantically irrelevant picture (fish). The waiting time and responding opportunities for each Chinese character were the same as those in the form-pronunciation correspondence task.</p> <p>The scoring criteria were as follows: if the student correctly accomplished either the form-pronunciation correspondence task or form-meaning correspondence task for a character, they would receive 0.5 points for each task; the total score of four target characters for each task was the final score for that task.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-12">Procedures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585745-13">Baseline</hd> <p>At baseline, we assessed the early reading skills of participants based on the measurement system. When the stability of the first participant's three consecutive data points at baseline reached 80% ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>]), the intervention was introduced to the first participant. When approximately three consecutive data points in the intervention condition showed no overlap with those of the baseline condition for the first participant, we introduced the intervention to the second participant. The same criterion was used to determine when to introduce the intervention to the third participant.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-14">Preintervention and Family Member Training</hd> <p>Researchers have suggested that a preintervention should be implemented before the initiation of an online reading program to familiarize students with the learning materials and create a positive teacher–student relationship for subsequent learning ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref47">8</reflink>]). Thus, we administered a 2-week face-to-face preintervention after baseline sessions for both participants and the implementer's preparation. The preintervention was conducted by the implementer in a one-to-one format in a consultation room at the participants' school every school day afternoon. The preintervention procedure was consistent with the online intervention (please find the detailed procedure in the intervention sessions). However, the characters taught in the preintervention would not be included in the later sessions. Notably, in contrast with English early reading skills, the connections between semantic or phonetic information and the form of primary Chinese characters introduced in the lower grades are arbitrary or irregular ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref48">32</reflink>]). This makes it impossible for beginning readers with ID to infer the pronunciation, form, and meaning of unlearned characters based on the characters they have learned. Thus, the characters learned in the preintervention would not affect the scores of dependent variables in online learning.</p> <p>Before the online intervention, the researchers conducted 1-hour online training for each family member involved in assistance. The family members participating in the online intervention sessions were Anan's mom, Bobo's mom, and Cong's grandfather, and the family members participating in the generalization sessions were Anan's dad, Bobo's elder brother, and Cong's grandmother. The training consisted of the following components: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>) clarifying the family member's role and responsibilities. In this study, the implementer took the role of teacher, whereas family members were responsible for ensuring that children could attend online learning on time and concentrate on learning. (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref50">2</reflink>) Maintaining regular learning scheduling. We discussed a detailed study plan with family members and emphasized the importance of regular online learning scheduling. (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>) Operating procedures for the apps. The family members were asked to log into the online conferencing platform in advance and ensure the network connection of the devices during the online intervention. (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref52">4</reflink>) Behavior management. In the preintervention, we found that inattention was the main behavioral problem of all participants, and thus, attention management strategies became the focus of family member training. (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref53">5</reflink>) Guaranteeing the authenticity of students' responses. The family members were required to avoid reminding the students of correct answers as the students completed tasks to ensure the authenticity of feedback from the students.</p> <p>After the training, one post-training online session was conducted to determine whether the family members had mastered the training components. The implementer checked the fidelity of family members' assisting behaviors based on the assisting behavior checklist of the online intervention. If family members' assisting behavior fidelity reached 90%, the online intervention was started. If not, family members were trained again until they were qualified.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-15">Intervention</hd> <p>In intervention sessions, the implementer conducted individualized early reading instruction on the VooV meeting app with the assistance of a family member. The three students received approximately 25 min of instruction every weekday afternoon, specifically, Anan at 12:30 p.m., Bobo at 1:30 p.m., and Cong at 2:30 p.m.</p> <p>The implementer taught the pronunciation, form, and meaning of the target characters through the following procedures. <emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>) Characteristic instruction</emph>. The implementer showed the students animations that presented the transformation from an image to the form of a character and the pronunciation of the character. Meanwhile, the implementer used actions or objects related to the form and meanings of the target character to promote the student's understanding and memorization of the character and engagement. Then, the implementer led the student in pronouncing the character three times via verbal modeling. If the student correctly pronounced the character, the implementer would verbally praise the student by saying "good job"; if the student did not, the implementer would repeat the modeling and practice until the student could pronounce it correctly. <emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>) Making words.</emph> The implementer made words with the target character to help the students better understand the meaning of the characters and apply the characters in daily life scenarios. For example, the implementer combined the character "门" [mén] (meaning: door) and "开" [kāi] (meaning: open) to make the word "开门" [kāi mén] (meaning: open the door), explained the meaning of the word to the student, and asked the student to pronounce the word via verbal modeling until the student could pronounce it correctly. <emph>(<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>) Sentence completion in familiar contexts.</emph> The implementer led the student in combining the isolated words made in step (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref57">2</reflink>) with sentences in familiar contexts to support student links between print and meaning in reading ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref58">13</reflink>]). If the student did not respond or completed the sentence incorrectly, the implementer used actions or objects to remind the student of the target words. If the student still did not respond or answer incorrectly, the implementer would complete the sentence and ask the student to repeat the sentence. Finally, the students played with the three literacy games in the software to reinforce the pronunciation, form, and meaning of the characters that were taught on that day.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-16">Generalization</hd> <p>After the completion of the intervention, generalization sessions were conducted to examine whether the students could generalize content learned through online learning to other conditions, that is, with different measurement materials (G1) and with the assistance of different family members (G2).</p> <p>In G1 sessions with different measurement materials, the measurement system was consistent with baseline and intervention sessions, with the exception that the measurement materials were based on daily life scenarios. We set up a restaurant order, hospital physical examination, and map navigation to examine the generalization of the target characters.</p> <p>After the G1 sessions, G2 sessions with the assistance of different family members were conducted. The intervention procedures and measurement system in G2 sessions were consistent with the online intervention sessions, but they involved assistance from different family members.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-17">Maintenance</hd> <p>Two weeks after the G2 sessions, the maintenance data on early reading outcomes were collected for five consecutive days, without any instruction. The procedures during maintenance were consistent with baseline conditions.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-18">Interrater Agreement</hd> <p>Interrater agreement (IRA) was calculated by using the point-by-point method in which the number of agreements was divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements and multiplied by 100 ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref59">5</reflink>]). Two raters independently scored the measurement results of the three participants. First, the implementer scored all the measurement results through the "real-time" assessment. Then, an independent assistant, a special education graduate student who was trained in the measurement system and blinded to the study, randomly selected 30% of the measurement results from each condition and scored them by watching the recorded video. The IRA of baseline, generalization, and maintenance was 100% among all of the participants, and the IRA in the Anan, Bobo, and Cong intervention sessions was 95.83%, 93.75%, and 87.50%, respectively.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-19">Procedural Fidelity</hd> <p>A research assistant randomly selected and coded 30% of intervention session videos for each participant using a procedural fidelity checklist and then independently calculated procedural fidelity by dividing the number of correctly completed implementer behaviors by the total number of expected researcher behaviors and multiplying by 100 ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref60">5</reflink>]). The procedural fidelity of all three participants was 100%.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-20">Social Validity</hd> <p>Upon completion of the study, the implementer conducted one-to-one interviews with the students' family members with the following questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>) please talk about your satisfaction with this online early reading program and explain why; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref62">2</reflink>) please talk about your perceptions regarding the effectiveness and practicability of this program; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref63">3</reflink>) would you consider continuing your child with a similar intervention program and explain why. The results revealed that the family members were all very satisfied with the effectiveness of the intervention on their children's early reading skills, and they hoped that we could continue to provide this learning resource for their children.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-21">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Visual analysis and a widely used effect size measure, Tau-U ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref64">18</reflink>]), were used to evaluate the effects of the online early reading intervention program. Specifically, we visually analyzed the dependent variables for the level, trend, variability, overlap, immediacy of effect, and consistency of data patterns. The Tau-U examines data nonoverlap between phases and can control for undesirable baseline trends ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref65">18</reflink>]), leading to more precise effect size estimates. We calculated the Tau-U by using a web-based calculator ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref66">26</reflink>]). A Tau-U value of 1.00 signifies an extremely high or maximum effect, while a value range of 0.93–0.99 represents a high effect, 0.66–0.92 represents a moderate effect, and 0.00–0.65 shows a low effect ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref67">18</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-22">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585745-23">Overall Scores of Early Reading Skills</hd> <p>Figures 1–3 present the overall scores of early reading skills, form-pronunciation correspondence scores, and form-meaning correspondence scores for each participant, respectively. For all participants, the overall scores of early reading skills at baseline ranged from 0 to 1 points (full score of 4) with variability. However, the overall scores of early reading skills immediately increased to 2 to 3 points after entering intervention conditions, and Anan and Bobo even received a full score in some intervention sessions. Although the data for all participants demonstrated variability within the intervention condition, the visual analysis showed no overlap between the baseline and intervention data for any of the participants. The Tau-U for all three participants is 1.00, which supports the very high effectiveness of the online program on the overall scores of early reading skills of the three participants. The overall scores of early reading skills in generalization and maintenance conditions were maintained in the range of 1.5–3 points for all participants.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Overall Early Reading Skill Scores for Participants.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Form-Pronunciation Correspondence Scores for Participants.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Form-Meaning Correspondence Scores for Participants.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-24">Form-Pronunciation Correspondence Scores</hd> <p>At baseline, participants' form-pronunciation correspondence scores were only 0–0.5 points (full score of 2), and they scored 0 in most baseline sessions. However, the visual analysis demonstrated that the form-pronunciation correspondence scores immediately increased to 0.5–1 points after entering intervention conditions. Although the data for all participants demonstrated variability during intervention conditions, The Tau-U for Anan, Bobo, and Cong reached 0.95, 0.84, and 0.84, respectively, which supports the medium to high effectiveness of the online program on the form-pronunciation correspondence scores for all of the participants. The form-pronunciation correspondence scores in generalization and maintenance conditions were maintained in the range of 0.5–1.5 points.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-25">Form-Meaning Correspondence Scores</hd> <p>At baseline, all participants' form-meaning correspondence scores were only 0–0.5 points (full score of 2) in most baseline sessions. The form-meaning correspondence scores immediately increased to 1.5–2 points after entering intervention conditions for all participants. Although all participants' data were not stable during intervention conditions, there was no overlap between the baseline and intervention data for Anan and Cong, and there was a 5% overlap between baseline and intervention for Bobo. The Tau-U results for the three participants reached 0.95, 1.00, and 1.00, respectively, which confirmed the high to very high effectiveness of the online program on form-meaning correspondence. The form-meaning correspondence scores in generalization and maintenance conditions were maintained in the range of 1–2 points for all participants.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-26">Discussion</hd> <p>This study was the first attempt to explore the effectiveness of a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program for first-grade students with ID in China. The program produced very high treatment effects on overall early reading skills, high to very high treatment effects on form-meaning correspondence, and medium to high effects on form-pronunciation correspondence. In addition, the improved early reading skills were grossly maintained in generalization and follow-up conditions for all participants. The preliminary findings supported the feasibility and effectiveness of family member–assisted online learning programs in improving early reading skills for students with ID.</p> <p>First, consistent with a previous study by [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref68">15</reflink>], the study confirmed that image-character instruction was effective in improving the early reading skills of students with ID. Furthermore, the current online program demonstrated relatively high efficiency in teaching students with ID. Previous interventions for students with ID were often intensive and time-consuming; for example, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref69">15</reflink>] used a computer-assisted intervention to teach a student with moderate ID only 10 Chinese characters in 12 intervention sessions. In this study, three participants learned a total of 104–112 characters taught in 26–28 intervention sessions, respectively. However, this study showed that progress regarding the form-meaning correspondence and the form-pronunciation correspondence of Chinese characters varied. On the contrary, the most important feature of image-character instruction is that it presents the transformation from an image of an object to a Chinese character through vivid and interesting animation ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref70">34</reflink>]). This feature promotes learning in students with ID by holding their attention and fostering their active engagement. In addition, given the ideographic nature of Chinese characters, the form of characters can provide clues for the identification of the meaning, which may help students master the form-meaning correspondence of the characters. On the contrary, the implementer noted that two participants with poor speech intelligibility seemed less willing to engage in pronunciation practice, which may have contributed to less progress in the form-pronunciation correspondence. Thus, the interventions for the form-pronunciation correspondence of students with ID need to be further explored.</p> <p>Second, this study demonstrated that the acquired early reading skills could be potentially generalized across settings and materials, consistent with the findings of previous studies on early reading interventions for children with ID ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref71">6</reflink>]). Specifically, this study found that all participants generalized their early reading skills to daily life scenarios, which is critical to developing functional skills in the daily life of children with ID ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref72">13</reflink>]). Furthermore, this study demonstrated that all participants achieved high scores in early reading skills with the assistance of different family members. This finding preliminarily revealed that the role of online learning assistants for children with ID may not be limited to parents, but other family members with limited education could also effectively assist in the online learning of these children.</p> <p>Third, consistent with previous studies ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref73">17</reflink>]), this study found that the assistance of family members played an important role in the online learning of children with ID. Changes in learning modalities from brick-and-mortar to online have confused parents on their roles during children's online learning, and parents often face different challenges in assisting their children to participate in online learning ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>]). Thus, this study organized family member training before online learning to clarify their roles and enable them to acquire necessary skills, such as behavior management strategies.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-27">Limitations</hd> <p>While this study provides preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of an online early reading intervention program for students with ID, several limitations should be accounted for when interpreting the results. First, since only three students were taught in this single-case design study, larger and more rigorous experimental designs should be used to ascertain the generality of these results. Second, before online learning sessions, we conducted training for family members to ensure the quality of their assistance. However, we did not examine the implementation fidelity of their behaviors during online learning.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-28">Implications</hd> <p>The results of this study indicate that students with ID demonstrated improved early reading skills in response to the family member–assisted online early reading intervention program. The finding is preliminary but promising and suggests that students with ID, even first graders with ID, may benefit from online learning. This finding is particularly important during the period of mass school closures due to pandemics. Notably, family member assistance is critical to this online intervention program. In addition to addressing the inattentive behaviors of students with ID when learning online, they may also consciously help children generalize skills across settings ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref75">14</reflink>]). Thus, in future online interventions for students with ID, family members should be provided with the necessary training to give full play to their supportive role in the online intervention and to promote the generalization of intervention effects.</p> <p>Second, this study confirms that visual support plays an important role in acquiring early Chinese reading skills, especially form-meaning correspondence. Thus, more visual cues should be used in future interventions to assist associative learning of the form and meaning of Chinese characters. However, our results showed that participants made less progress in form-pronunciation correspondence than in form-meaning correspondence. Thus, more technology-based intervention programs tailored to teach form-pronunciation correspondence systematically and explicitly with sufficient chances for practice are needed to improve early Chinese reading skills in students with ID.</p> <hd id="AN0180585745-29">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study provided preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a family member–assisted online early reading intervention program for first-grade students with ID in China and highlighted the generalization effect of intervention across different family members' assistance as well as different settings. In addition, we stressed the important components of an effective online intervention for early Chinese reading, namely, family members' training and visual support. 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China Light Industry Press.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0180585745-31"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> This work was supported by Chongqing Social Science Planning project of China (grant no. 2021YC027); Key project of Chongqing Language Committee (grant no. yyk22101); Innovation Research 2035 Pilot Plan of Southwest University (grant no. SWUPilotPlan004).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Informed consent was obtained for all individual participants included in the study.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Huan Li</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7332-6122</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Huan Li; Ning An; Li Deng; Jing Yu and Shuo Zeng</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref75"></nolink>
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  Data: The Effect of a Family Member-Assisted Online Early Reading Intervention Program for Students with Intellectual Disability in China
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Huan+Li%22">Huan Li</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7332-6122">0000-0001-7332-6122</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ning+An%22">Ning An</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Li+Deng%22">Li Deng</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jing+Yu%22">Jing Yu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Shuo+Zeng%22">Shuo Zeng</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Focus+on+Autism+and+Other+Developmental+Disabilities%22"><i>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</i></searchLink>. 2024 39(4):249-259.
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  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intellectual+Disability%22">Intellectual Disability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Reading%22">Early Reading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Online+Courses%22">Online Courses</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Relationship%22">Family Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Environment%22">Family Environment</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/10883576241232902
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  Data: 1088-3576<br />1538-4829
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  Data: Early reading skills are a prerequisite for children to acquire subsequent reading skills. Many online programs have been reported to be effective in improving students' reading skills. However, there is limited evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of online early reading programs for students with intellectual disability (ID). Using a single-case multiple-probe across-participant design, the study examined whether a family member-assisted online early reading program could improve the early Chinese reading skills of students with ID. All three participants demonstrated significant treatment effects on early reading skills in response to the program. These acquired effects were generalized across settings and maintained in follow-up conditions for all participants. As such, this study extends the limited literature on the effectiveness of online programs to develop early reading skills in students with ID.
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      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
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      – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disability
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      – SubjectFull: Intervention
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      – SubjectFull: Early Reading
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      – SubjectFull: Online Courses
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      – SubjectFull: China
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      – TitleFull: The Effect of a Family Member-Assisted Online Early Reading Intervention Program for Students with Intellectual Disability in China
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    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1088-3576
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1538-4829
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 39
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
              Type: main
ResultId 1