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Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds

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Title: Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds
Language: English
Authors: Stephen Bok (ORCID 0000-0003-3421-1175), James Shum, Maria Lee
Source: Journal of Marketing Education. 2024 46(3):225-239.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Undergraduate Students, Business Administration Education, Electronic Learning, Time Management, Strategic Planning, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Reinforcement, Test Results, Self Evaluation (Individuals), Self Control, Self Efficacy, Student Motivation
Geographic Terms: California
DOI: 10.1177/02734753241232564
ISSN: 0273-4753
1552-6550
Abstract: Time management is essential for strong strategic business planning and marketing campaigns. Having sufficient time to complete essential planning is important, as is the punctuality of meeting deadlines. Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) explains the relationship between deciding to perform a task and expected incentives, consequences, and the cost of delay. We analyzed the time (in seconds) that business students submitted weekly quizzes before Saturday night deadlines (1,587 quiz submissions). Self-discipline was measured as a student's self-evaluation of their ability to start tasks promptly. We find that self-discipline, by itself, was associated with lower average quiz scores. However, self-discipline combined with greater punctuality was associated with higher quiz scores. High self-discipline associated with low emotional stability resulted in earlier average quiz submissions, which resulted in higher quiz scores than submitting work closer to deadlines. These results indicate using internal pressure like anxiety to initiate studying and completing schoolwork can lead to better academic performance. Based on TMT, students appear to use deadlines to reverse calculate the amount of time before a consequential deadline. This translates into a form of negative reinforcement (avoidance), as opposed to positive reinforcement for punctuality. Implications for business marketing students and academicians are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1446688
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0180585818;mke01dec.24;2024Nov04.04:17;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0180585818-1">Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds </title> <p>Time management is essential for strong strategic business planning and marketing campaigns. Having sufficient time to complete essential planning is important, as is the punctuality of meeting deadlines. Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) explains the relationship between deciding to perform a task and expected incentives, consequences, and the cost of delay. We analyzed the time (in seconds) that business students submitted weekly quizzes before Saturday night deadlines (1,587 quiz submissions). Self-discipline was measured as a student's self-evaluation of their ability to start tasks promptly. We find that self-discipline, by itself, was associated with lower average quiz scores. However, self-discipline combined with greater punctuality was associated with higher quiz scores. High self-discipline associated with low emotional stability resulted in earlier average quiz submissions, which resulted in higher quiz scores than submitting work closer to deadlines. These results indicate using internal pressure like anxiety to initiate studying and completing schoolwork can lead to better academic performance. Based on TMT, students appear to use deadlines to reverse calculate the amount of time before a consequential deadline. This translates into a form of negative reinforcement (avoidance), as opposed to positive reinforcement for punctuality. Implications for business marketing students and academicians are discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: punctuality; earliness; academic procrastination; self-discipline; emotional stability; quiz performance</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Frequently, students will put off schoolwork to a later time ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref1">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref2">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref3">104</reflink>]). When students remember, effort is often placed on submissions and less on studying for long-term memory. This is pronounced in higher education compared with elementary school. Colleges tend to have fewer graded assignments, class meetings, and guidance to support daily learning activities. For example, college students must personally schedule time to study (unrewarded/ungraded). By contrast, extracurricular activities and work responsibilities can take precedence. This autonomy relies on students to structure and allocate appropriate amounts of time in a digital world with distractions. Starting the night of a deadline makes it difficult to anxiously read, digest materials, and convert the information into long-term memory. According to Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT), individuals are driven to complete tasks for perceived utilitarian value at the cost of expected effort and pain ([<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref4">91</reflink>]). By delaying a task, individuals attempt to reduce contemplation and expend less effort on a task ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref5">44</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref6">105</reflink>]). The delay or procrastination avoids feeling anxiety and working until it becomes inevitable ([<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref7">94</reflink>]). There is often a miscalculation that motivation and favorable conditions (e.g., absence of distractions, hunger, or tiredness) will appear in the future to generate action.</p> <p>In the digital era, remote work is commonplace. Such online professional work environments require independent work ethic. Remote work has distant project deadlines and minimum supervision. For example, marketing researchers design ad campaign studies where timelines change with results. After graduating college, business students are expected to have developed professional workplace skills (e.g., autonomous work ethic, punctuality, and ability to learn new material). Students need to develop skills to self-start, study new information, and make repeated attempts on their own. Testing students with weekly quizzes is one method to evaluate performance ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref8">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref9">75</reflink>]). Multiple-choice quizzes can assess if students are able to recognize definitions, connect examples to key terms, and perform deductive reasoning ([<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref10">74</reflink>]). Quizzes are a good indicator of study behaviors and understanding of course materials. Acquiring new information is important in the workplace to adapt and solve problems. Sufficient time prior to deadlines is crucial for students to study and transform information into long-term memory. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to investigate academic punctuality in measurable time (i.e., average seconds to submit quizzes before consistent weekly deadlines). We measured and defined earliness/punctuality as sufficient time (in seconds) before a deadline. More time means more punctuality. Prior research has lacked behavioral measures to capture punctuality. This study provides a novel method to measure earliness in time (i.e., precise seconds) before deadlines.</p> <p>Ample research has studied procrastination (i.e., delay of work to a later time) and lateness (i.e., arriving pass an expected time; [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref11">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref12">35</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref13">82</reflink>]). However, it is the small daily/early tasks that amount to achieving long-term growth witnessed in higher education ([<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref14">97</reflink>]). For instance, it is often reviewing notes and reflecting on future marketing strategies that transform information into long-term memory. We draw on prior procrastination research for key insights that inform our study because of the absence of earliness studies. Much research on performance and time has revolved around procrastination (i.e., putting off work to a later time or not doing it at all; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref15">37</reflink>]). Research has shown procrastination negatively affects performance and overall workplace operations ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref16">9</reflink>]). For example, an initial task put off until later can grow to three crammed in less time. Performance quality decreases because it prioritizes finishing (as opposed to learning and long-term value).</p> <p>[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>] defined self-discipline as promptly starting tasks (often helpful to get menial tasks quickly done). Many individuals have the self-discipline to complete tasks in last-minute and anxious time pressure situations. Higher education requires a combination of self-discipline and cognition to absorb complex materials. High performance on college exams is not the same as taking the garbage out within minutes. It requires learning and iterations to comprehend dense materials. This is a habit of regular and thorough studying. By itself, self-discipline is not sufficient without additional time to digest and review content. Our goal is to increase understanding of punctuality to encourage a shift away from last-minute behaviors.</p> <p>Academic procrastination research found students generally lack self-regulation to perform tasks dutifully in conditions of less structure ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref18">6</reflink>]). Their research found students spent more time on assignments on (a) evenly spaced deadlines compared with (b) self-imposed, and (c) end-of-semester deadline conditions. Due dates provide external structure. They promote timely effort and completion because of students' lack of self-control. Without structure and self-control, dysfunctional procrastination can foster anxiety, depression, and guilt ([<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref19">98</reflink>]). Dysfunctional procrastination avoids important steps that normally accumulate into refined well-produced outcomes. This is suppressing thoughts and actions to complete tasks. For example, writing an excellent essay the evening before a deadline is more difficult than writing a series of paragraphs and drafts spread over days. [<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref20">98</reflink>] argues functional procrastination is possible if time is spent wisely thinking and creatively imagining outcomes. In higher education, most students need time to comprehend and practice complex concepts. We believe there are students who avoid tasks until due dates while there are those who use this time more effectively.</p> <p>In the digital age, remote learning has become commonplace ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref21">73</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref22">96</reflink>]). Online classroom environments require self-scheduled time: reviewing digital media, reading course material, studying, and completing term projects. The trend toward online learning presents the opportunity to study punctuality and online performance (i.e., weekly quiz performance). These are indicators of student development. Remote learning has increased the necessity for students to self-regulate and motivate oneself to complete coursework ([<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref23">103</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref24">103</reflink>] described three levels of self-regulated behaviors for academic learning: (a) superficial (e.g., rehearsal), (b) deep cognitive (e.g., critical thinking, elaboration, and organization), and (c) metacognitive (e.g., planning, monitoring, and regulating). These behaviors require consistent time and practice in transforming information into long-term memory. Our research investigates students' ability to work with minimum supervision and their punctuality to submit weekly quizzes. Instructors can better design classes with a greater understanding of how students approach online schoolwork.</p> <p>Learning platforms, like Blackboard Learning System, can open and close modules consistently each week ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref25">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref26">15</reflink>]). It is flexible for students to complete at their own convenience. Systematically, students have the equivalent 7 days to perform weekly quizzes. Submission times are also automatically and unobtrusively recorded. These behavioral data observe student punctuality with a high degree of accuracy and precision (within seconds). Prior research has not studied student performance throughout a semester with a consistent deadline. We measured punctuality as a measure of time (i.e., submission in seconds before weekly deadlines). Weekly quizzes better captured student punctuality and performance habits compared with one exam. Our study's purpose is to expand understanding of the punctuality of submissions and its relationship to online academic performance.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-3">Literature Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585818-4">TMT and Procrastination</hd> <p>TMT is an integral theory that draws on expectancy theory and utilitarian value literature ([<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref27">91</reflink>]). TMT helps to explain how a lack of self-control and discipline ineffectively utilizes the present time. Motivation on a task is evaluated in the expected value (difference of rewards to losses), weakened by delay. Avoiding projects or tasks until a later date is procrastination ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref28">44</reflink>]). Procrastination weighs the expectancy of successful completion with perceived negative task valuations in the delay (e.g., physical pain sitting and loss of time enjoying other activities; [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref29">94</reflink>]). Individuals evaluate task dislikes, future incentives, and time delay for these incentives to decide when to perform tasks ([<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref30">105</reflink>]). Poor self-regulation to cope with perceived task stress is attributed to procrastination ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref31">78</reflink>]). Researchers assert procrastination is a pervasive self-regulatory failure through voluntarily delay despite potentially worsening consequences ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref32">82</reflink>]). For example, accumulation of work can result in no submission.</p> <p>Moreover, research on stress and rumination was found to relate to procrastination behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref33">23</reflink>]). While in delay, negative thoughts of a task can generate avoidance. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref34">23</reflink>] discussed a series of interventions such as learned industriousness and cognitive restructuring. Thereby, we contend, shifting perceived stress toward action can reduce mounting negative feelings that cause delay. For example, students who study at a set time can establish personal boundaries for when they perform tasks. This reduces anxiety stressfully thinking about future cram sessions.</p> <p>Furthermore, researchers argue not all procrastination is negative ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>]). Procrastination occurs if a duty/task does not increase someone's self-worth or interests someone ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref36">9</reflink>]). Procrastination is logical with respect to an individual's self-interest. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref37">35</reflink>] explained that there is functional and dysfunctional procrastination. For example, a working full-time student with kids may not have the bandwidth to study until the weekend with fewer obligations. This functional procrastination can help with study efficiency. Meanwhile, there are students who intentionally delay to the last minute. This often results in speedy (often erroneous) completion. In other words, there are procrastinators able to delay even the thought of work until a later time. These individuals use last-minute time pressures to trigger self-discipline and focus. However, self-discipline to submit coursework promptly without enough thought, studying, and practice can produce poor outcomes. It is like attempting to fix a damaged water faucet without taking the time to gather the right equipment and study the proper method for repair. There is the combination of starting early enough to have the study time and patience to perform quality work.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-5">Self-Discipline and Prompt Action</hd> <p>Researchers studied self-discipline as the ability to start a task despite distractions or boredom ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref38">25</reflink>]). Self-discipline in the revised neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) measures someone's promptness to start tasks (e.g., "Get chores done right away" and "Get to work at once"; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]). Starting is important to completing tasks, but it does not necessarily mean tasks are completed proficiently. Teams unfamiliar with each other but continued over several weeks (vs. single session teams) completed work faster and with better quality ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref40">45</reflink>]). This indicates unfamiliarity requires time to adapt and will dip quality until adjustments are made. Similarly, on a weekly basis, students are expected to comprehend new dense course content. When tasks are completed just to get the job done, it misses the fine-tuned details and accuracy a well-practiced student would turn in. Additional time is needed to fully and thoroughly complete cognitive tasks. Getting started is just part of the process. Cognitive tasks (e.g., studying, rehearsing, and performing quizzes) require multiple exposures to materials and iterations for abstract content to transform into long-term memory.</p> <p>Moreover, college learning requires a combination of repeated studying and thorough work ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref41">50</reflink>]). Purely having self-discipline to jump blindly into quizzes can result in a submission, but with low performance. Quick and shoddy jobs tend to have mistakes (e.g., multiplication table test without practice). This is relevant in academics because coursework requires complex thinking and comprehension. Therefore, self-discipline can negatively affect student performance on quizzes when it is done simply to finish. Academic performance (e.g., quizzes) requires more effort in studying and comprehending materials. Having the self-discipline to complete quizzes without studying is insufficient to consistently perform well. The hypothesized model is presented in Figure 1.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Hypothesis 1 (H1): </bold> Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) will negatively associate with average quiz scores (academic performance).</item> </ulist> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Hypothesized Effects on Average Quiz Scores</p> <p>Academic self-discipline is measured and defined differently from self-efficacy and self-control. Academic self-efficacy is someone's confidence in their ability to execute a course of actions and ascertain goals ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref42">51</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref43">64</reflink>]). Self-efficacy is the persistence of completing tasks over time (e.g., such as studying throughout a semester to perform well on an exam). Researchers found academic self-discipline to mediate the relationship between self-efficacy and performance (i.e., semester Grade Point Average [GPA]) ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref44">56</reflink>]). These researchers posited self-efficacy is a facet of conscientiousness that affects context-specific effort. In academics, this attributes to a conscious effort to study, review, and submit work with additional thought. Final grades and GPA are a compilation of graded assignments, quizzes, exams, projects, presentations, attendance, and participation.</p> <p>Meanwhile, academic self-control is the "alignment of thoughts, feelings, and actions with enduringly valued goals in the face of momentarily more alluring alternatives" ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref45">33</reflink>]). Self-control is the ability to avoid distractions and focus on a given task for higher-order goal attainment ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref46">40</reflink>]). Academic self-control is the practice of delaying gratification to persevere and apply oneself to hard work over sustained amounts of time. Multiple regression analysis found measures of self-control to positively relate to final GPA among high school students ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref47">32</reflink>]). These researchers found self-control correlated with fewer school absences, less watched television, more time spent on homework, and starting homework sooner. Researchers also found measures of self-control (i.e., total and brief measures) correlated with higher GPAs ([<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref48">93</reflink>]). Second to high school grades, higher self-control predicted higher college GPA in multiple regression analysis among psychology students ([<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref49">100</reflink>]). Both self-efficacy and self-control contribute to academic achievement. However, we focus on self-discipline as it relates to the immediacy of completing tasks. Researchers have observed that students lack persistence ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref50">67</reflink>]). Many will partake in cramming behaviors (i.e., studying/performing most of the work close to an impending deadline) in online learning environments due to higher autonomy ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref51">65</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref52">67</reflink>]). We investigate how approaching schoolwork as a speedy task (e.g., mechanical household chores) decreases academic performance.</p> <p>Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) is a precursor to studying coursework and performing well in classes toward final grades. However, the online academic environment requires both self-discipline and early studying behaviors to digest abstract dense knowledge. Specifically, our study focuses on weekly automatically opened and closed online quizzes. These quizzes require time studying and scheduling time to complete by oneself. Online quizzes are one component of final grades and are different from in-person administered quizzes. Self-discipline in these online independent learning conditions allots the time to perform study behaviors that increase performance. Having more time also does not necessarily mean more direct time working on tasks. Experimental research found participants given 10 min (i.e., time scarcity group; compared with 20 or 30 min) spent more relative time on directly related activities ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref53">57</reflink>]). Deadlines act like boundaries and encourage focus on specific tasks.</p> <p>Procrastinating students can have a high level of self-discipline to complete coursework promptly at the last minute ([<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref54">97</reflink>]). However, higher education requires students to independently schedule and practice growth goals (i.e., studying without external rewards like points). The immediacy to complete tasks by itself is insufficient to perform coursework well. In higher education, an amalgamation of condensed knowledge is taught. This takes hours of consistent effort to thoroughly comprehend (e.g., studying leadership styles and deducing case studies in Sales Management class). Students can have the self-discipline to submit thoughtless answers before a deadline or take additional steps to engage in course materials. In fact, students can have the self-discipline to turn in last-minute careless submissions to pass a class and will score higher than those without the self-discipline to turn in anything. However, starting tasks to finish swiftly is insufficient when complex cognitive processing is needed to comprehend course material. There are more complex tasks that assist higher student performance. Students that take notes, read the textbook, self-quiz, and relate concepts to daily life tend to perform better on exams ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref55">43</reflink>]). Better college performance takes more time studying and spacing out coursework to absorb dense materials.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Hypothesis 2 (H2): </bold> Average time submitted early (i.e., seconds before weekly deadlines) will mediate the relationship between self-discipline and average quiz scores. Wherein, self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) will positively relate to earlier submissions.</item> </ulist> <p>Punctuality can be tested and measured by the length of time in earliness ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref56">7</reflink>]). Implementing time schedules benefits individuals and society because it keeps a continuous flow in everyday life ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref57">63</reflink>]). Individuals who practice early behaviors exhibit higher productivity and efficiency characteristics in day-to-day processes ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref58">28</reflink>]). Academic punctuality allocates time to study, self-test understanding, and accounts for technical errors. Having the self-discipline to start early allots time toward helpful actions to improve performance.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Hypothesis 3 (H3): </bold> Average time submitted early (i.e., seconds before weekly deadlines) will positively relate to higher average quiz scores.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0180585818-6">Emotional Stability and Anxiety to Perform</hd> <p>Producing in times of procrastination feeds off of the added pressure (e.g., anxiety) from an approaching deadline ([<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref59">102</reflink>]). Emotional stability is a positive form of neuroticism which is one of the big five personality traits ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref60">55</reflink>]). Emotional stability is an individual's ability to remain relaxed and self-confident ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]). Low emotional stability captures an individual's high level of anxiety or lack of calmness ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref62">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref63">69</reflink>]). Most students have experienced a terrifying last-minute experience (e.g., Internet crashing at the time of submission). Such a jarring memory can stimulate students to finally act in the 11th hour.</p> <p>However, students do not have to be late to experience these feelings of anxiety, worry, or dismay. Similar feelings from procrastinating can be felt early by imagining the negative consequences of a late future. Imagining future late consequences can generate internal pressure to perform early. Researchers found students can temporarily imagine their future selves and reduce procrastination behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref64">14</reflink>]). Many individuals can schedule and calmly complete tasks early by channeling anxious feelings into action. We posit that emotional instability, as a moderator, can spur early behaviors and thereby higher academic performance.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Hypothesis 4 (H4): </bold> Emotional stability will moderate the relationship between self-discipline and average time submitted early (i.e., seconds before weekly deadlines). Wherein, high self-discipline (to start tasks promptly), in the presence of low emotional stability (high anxiety), will heighten average time submitted early and therefore average quiz scores.</item> </ulist> <p>Emotions are often reactionary cues to external stimuli. Researchers argue emotions are "social signals coded in culturally evolved intentional conventions" shaped by the environment (e.g., society teaches deadlines have consequences; [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref65">81</reflink>]). Emotions like anxiety stirred up from approaching due dates are signals to take action to fulfill duties and obligations. Unfortunately, avoiding and stress-relieving through procrastination does not directly complete the work ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref66">78</reflink>]). This induces emotional reactions. [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref67">78</reflink>] describe procrastination as an emotional-regulation strategy to cope with stimuli (e.g., coursework). However, anxiety placed on studying and completing quizzes early is a good placement of emotions. It places effort toward facing the sources of negative emotions. More effective time studying and executing coursework supports better academic performance.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585818-8">Overview of Study and Participants</hd> <p>The study was conducted at a large public university in the diverse California Bay Area. Fall 2021, the university had 13,499 enrolled students with diverse ethnic identification: African American/Black 9.1%, Asian 22.4%, Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander 1.1%, Latinx 35.9%, Indigenous/Native American 0.1%, White 15.2%, and other/unknown 8.4%.</p> <p>Specifically, we collected quiz data on business college students enrolled in two sections of Marketing Principles and two sections of Sales Management classes. All classes were entirely online. Lectures covering quiz materials occurred weekly on Mondays, Tuesdays, or asynchronously (at students' convenience online). Monday and Tuesday lectures were completely online in Zoom sessions. Students completed a weekly module quiz that opened Sunday and closed Saturday before midnight (11:59 p.m.) on the Learning Management System (LMS), Blackboard Learning System. Blackboard Learning System is a widely used system by academic institutions with the capability to schedule modules to automatically open and close ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref69">15</reflink>]). Module quizzes were entirely online. Each quiz was uniformly allotted 40 min to complete. No student used the full allotted time to complete any quiz. Students completed quizzes in one attempt and in one online sitting at their convenience during the week. All quizzes were five multiple-choice questions with five possible points. Punctuality was calculated based on the time of submissions before deadlines. Punctuality was measured in the length of time (in seconds) prior to weekly deadlines.</p> <p>Participants also completed survey questions near the end (week 12–13) of the Fall 2021 semester (15 weeks long). Students completed the survey at their convenience during the timeframe the survey was open. The survey collected demographic information and psychological constructs (e.g., emotional stability and quality of life). Survey participation was awarded five extra credit points which was the equivalent of a quiz and enough to encourage survey completion. The survey was collected after most quizzes were submitted and graded. We analyzed data from 78 Marketing Principles students and 48 Sales Management students who completed the class (i.e., enrolled and remained in class for the full semester). All students were classified as business majors and of undergraduate junior/senior status. Of the 126 students, there was a 50% divide between males and females. The students' average age was 26.63 years old. The median household size comprised three individuals. Students self-reported using social media approximately 11.52 hr a week.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585818-10">Independent Variable</hd> <p>Self-discipline measured an individual's immediacy to perform tasks promptly using 10 items (e.g., "Start tasks right away"; alpha =.85; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref70">24</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref71">24</reflink>] defined self-discipline as starting promptly which is different from self-efficacy (defined by [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref72">56</reflink>]) as persistent action toward a goal. Individuals with self-discipline have an immediacy to start tasks but not necessarily for long-term goals. Self-discipline to start promptly can be effective for simple tasks like chores, but less so for complex cognitive tasks.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-11">Mediator</hd> <p>Average time submitted early (punctuality) measured student submission of a quiz in seconds before the weekly deadline (Saturday 11:59 p.m.). Quizzes could be completed at all hours during the week modules were opened until the deadline (Sunday to Saturday). The researchers converted dates into total days, hours, and seconds prior to submission. The researchers converted the days and hours into seconds, which was added with a second's column to calculate the total seconds before deadlines. Measuring time in seconds was both possible by the online learning system and a more precise measure of punctuality (compared with minutes or hours).</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-12">Moderator</hd> <p>Emotional stability measured someone's ability to remain relaxed and self-confident on a 7-point semantic differential scale using 2 items (1—Disagree strongly to 7—Agree strongly; e.g., "I see myself as: Calm, emotionally stable"; alpha =.73; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref73">42</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref74">42</reflink>] performed test–retest procedures with a large sample size to validate the brief scale. Emotional stability is one of the Big-Five Inventory personality traits (positive form of neuroticism) and is considered suitable to study as a standalone variable ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref75">55</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-13">Dependent Variable</hd> <p>Average quiz scores measured a student's performance on a weekly five-point multiple-choice quiz. Within each class, students saw the same questions and answer choices. There was a random presentation of answer choices. Quizzes utilized the Respondus Lockdown Browser software to discourage cheating through video proctoring. Students had one attempt to complete quizzes. Students could not start a quiz after the deadlines. Late/missed quizzes received zero scores. The analysis did not include late/missed quizzes because that was not considered early or on-time.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-14">Control Variables</hd> <p>The model included household size, marketing class subject (i.e., Marketing Principles = 1, Sales Management = 0), quality of life, and burnout as covariates. Quality of life was measured using 1 item on a 5-point scale ("How would you rate your overall quality of life during the past week?" 1—"Very bad, my life could hardly be worse" to 5—"Very good, my life could hardly be better"; [<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref76">106</reflink>]). Burnout was measured using 1 item on a 5-point scale ("Please classify your level of burnout." 1—"I enjoy my work/life. I have no symptoms of burnout" to 5—"I feel completely burned out and often wonder if I can go on. I am at the point where I may need some changes or may need to seek some sort of help.") ([<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref77">80</reflink>]). We included quality of life and burnout measures because prior research found various effects of student stress on performance ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref78">71</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref79">84</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref80">85</reflink>]). While single-item measures can have more uncertainty in reliability and difficulty assessing finer-grained psychological constructs (e.g., personality traits), they demonstrate good face validity for the construct intended to measure (e.g., quality of life measures someone's evaluation of their past week from very bad to very good; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref81">2</reflink>]). There is less ambiguity in its interpretation because there are no other items that measure different facets of the construct ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref82">13</reflink>]). Academic researchers have utilized various one-item measures to study different constructs: physical activity ([<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref83">68</reflink>]), in-group/outgroup self-categorization ([<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref84">86</reflink>]), self-esteem ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref85">79</reflink>]), and overall job satisfaction ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref86">31</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref87">72</reflink>]). This provides support for the use of single-item measures.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-15">Results</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations are presented in Table 1. Student participants submitted a total of 1,587 weekly quizzes before deadlines. Students completed an average of 9.02 out of 14 quizzes. The average quiz score was 4.39 (<emph>SD</emph> = 0.61) out of 5 points. Student grades also included handwritten assignments, attendance, a midterm exam, and/or a final exam. Students submitted quizzes an average of 26,250.92 s (<emph>SD</emph> = 1,403.20; approximately 7.29 hr) before the weekly deadline. The range between last-minute and punctual students differed in their average submission time. The shortest average submission time (for one student) was 346.66 s (approximately 5.78 min) before the weekly deadline. The longest average submission time (for one student) was 78,713.33 s (approximately 21.86 hr) before the weekly deadline. All other students submitted quizzes on average between these two lengths of time. Despite 7 days to complete quizzes, students completed quizzes on average within 24 hr of the deadline. The average time submitted early did not significantly relate to a longer quiz duration (<emph>b</emph> = –0.03, <emph>t</emph>[<reflink idref="bib125" id="ref88">125</reflink>] = –0.382, <emph>p</emph> =.702). Moderate normality thresholds for skewness (within ± 2.0) and kurtosis (within ± 7.0) values were observed ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref89">60</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref90">101</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Cross-Level Correlations.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" colspan="2">Variables</th><th align="center"><italic>M</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SD</italic></th><th align="center">Skewness</th><th align="center">Kurtosis</th><th align="center">1</th><th align="center">2</th><th align="center">3</th><th align="center">4</th><th align="center">5</th><th align="center">6</th><th align="center">7</th><th align="center">8</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="2">Constructs</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 1</td><td>Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly)</td><td>4.84</td><td>1.07</td><td>−0.32</td><td>−0.20</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 2</td><td>Average quiz scores</td><td>4.39</td><td>0.61</td><td>−0.47</td><td>0.40</td><td>−.170<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 3</td><td>Average time submitted early (s)</td><td>26,250.92</td><td>15,750.91</td><td>0.91</td><td>0.67</td><td>.271<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">***</xref></td><td>.123</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 4</td><td>Emotional stability</td><td>4.86</td><td>1.25</td><td>−0.42</td><td>−0.04</td><td>.361<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">***</xref></td><td>−.003</td><td>.035</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Covariates</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 5</td><td>Household size</td><td>3.56</td><td>1.56</td><td>0.46</td><td>−0.36</td><td>.002</td><td>−.073</td><td>.019</td><td>−.079</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 6</td><td>Marketing class subject</td><td>0.62</td><td>0.49</td><td>1.53</td><td>0.35</td><td>−.167<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>.201<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>−.132</td><td>−.154<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>.011</td><td align="center">—</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td> 7</td><td>Quality of life</td><td>3.59</td><td>0.80</td><td>−0.53</td><td>0.75</td><td>.085</td><td>−.029</td><td>.021</td><td>.166<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>−.036</td><td>−.119</td><td align="center">—</td><td /></tr><tr><td> 8</td><td>Burnout</td><td>2.45</td><td>0.89</td><td>0.63</td><td>0.38</td><td>−.085</td><td>.162<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">*</xref></td><td>−.059</td><td>−.246<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">***</xref></td><td>.051</td><td>.032</td><td>−.330<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn1">**</xref></td><td align="center">—</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>p</emph> <.10. **<emph>p</emph> <.05. ***<emph>p</emph> <.01 level (2-tailed).</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-16">Path Analysis Results</hd> <p>We used SPSS PROCESS macro V3.5 (model 7) with the 10,000 bootstrapped sampling procedure to perform moderated mediation analysis ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref91">46</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref92">48</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref93">77</reflink>]; see Table 2 and Figure 2). Model 7 directed the software program to perform the hypothesized moderated mediation model analysis. Statistical significance was considered when 0 was not between the 95% upper and lower bound confidence intervals. Mean centering was performed during analysis to reduce multicollinearity ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref94">53</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref95">54</reflink>]). The omnibus moderated mediation test of self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) and emotional stability demonstrated a significant indirect effect with average time submitted early to average quiz scores (index = –0.016, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.009 [LLCI –0.0358; ULCI –0.0005]) ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref96">47</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref97">49</reflink>]). Self-discipline related with lower average quiz scores (<emph>b</emph> = –0.105, <emph>t</emph> = –2.044, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.052, <emph>p</emph> <.05 [LLCI –0.2069; ULCI –0.0033]) (support for H1). Self-discipline related with longer average time submitted early (<emph>b</emph> = 3,901.317, <emph>t</emph> = 2.836, <emph>SE</emph> = 1,375.456, <emph>p</emph> <.01 [<emph>LLCI</emph> 1,177.535; <emph>ULCI</emph> 6625.098]) (support for H2). Longer average time submitted early related with higher average quiz scores (<emph>b</emph> = 8.120E-06, <emph>t</emph> = 2.346, <emph>SE</emph> = 3.460E-06, <emph>p</emph> <.05 [<emph>LLCI</emph> 1.270E-06; <emph>ULCI</emph> 1.500E-05]) (support for H3). By itself, self-discipline is insufficient to perform at high levels on quizzes (which require complex thought). Mediation results indicate having the self-discipline to engage with course materials sooner increases academic performance (i.e., average quiz scores). The covariates, household size, quality of life, and burnout, did not significantly influence average time submitted early (mediator) and average quiz scores in the model. The covariate, marketing class subject, did not significantly influence the average time submitted early (<emph>p</emph> <.05), but higher marketing principles average quiz scores compared with sales management class were observed (<emph>b</emph> = 0.252, <emph>t</emph> = 2.293, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.110, <emph>p</emph> <.05 [<emph>LLCI</emph> 0.034; <emph>ULCI</emph> 0.469]). This may be due to the more advanced topics covered in sales management class compared with marketing principles. To perform confirmatory factor analysis, the path model was analyzed in SPSS AMOS V25 ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref98">41</reflink>]). Adequate fit values based on recommended report indexes were found (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>/<emph>df</emph> = 1.456, <emph>p</emph> =.101, root-mean-square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.060, standardized root-mean-squared residual [SRMR] = 0.045, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.985; [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref99">52</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref100">60</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref101">87</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 2. Moderated Mediation Results of Self-Discipline on Average Quiz Scores.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="3">Antecedent</th><th /><th align="center" colspan="7">Outcome</th></tr><tr><th align="center" colspan="4">Average time submitted early (s)</th><th align="center" colspan="4">Average quiz scores</th></tr><tr><th align="center"><italic>Coeff.</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SE</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>p</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>Coeff.</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>SE</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>t</italic></th><th align="center"><italic>p</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly)</td><td>3,901.317</td><td>1,375.456</td><td>2.836</td><td><.01</td><td>−.105</td><td>.051</td><td>−2.044</td><td><.05</td></tr><tr><td>Average time submitted early (s)</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="center">—</td><td>8.120E−06</td><td>3.460E−06</td><td>2.346</td><td><.05</td></tr><tr><td>Emotional stability</td><td>−1,423.450</td><td>1,214.494</td><td>1.172</td><td>.244</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="center">—</td></tr><tr><td>Self-discipline × emotional stability</td><td>0.133</td><td>0.010</td><td>13.400</td><td><.0001</td><td /><td /><td /><td align="center">—</td></tr><tr><td colspan="9">Covariates</td></tr><tr><td>Household size</td><td>71.954</td><td>870.962</td><td>0.083</td><td>.934</td><td>−.034</td><td>.034</td><td>−1.001</td><td>.319</td></tr><tr><td>Marketing class subject</td><td>−3,440.820</td><td>2,846.801</td><td>−1.209</td><td>.229</td><td>.252</td><td>.110</td><td>2.293</td><td><.05</td></tr><tr><td>Quality of life</td><td>−274.559</td><td>1,804.708</td><td>−.152</td><td>.879</td><td>.047</td><td>.070</td><td>.673</td><td>.503</td></tr><tr><td>Burnout</td><td>−1,465.030</td><td>1,654.609</td><td>−.885</td><td>.378</td><td>.121</td><td>.062</td><td>1.947</td><td>.054</td></tr><tr><td>Model summary</td><td /><td><italic>R</italic>2 =.128</td><td /><td /><td /><td><italic>R</italic>2 =.131</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td /><td colspan="3"><italic>F</italic>(7, 118) = 2.483, <italic>p</italic> <.05</td><td /><td colspan="3"><italic>F</italic>(6, 119) = 2.979, <italic>p</italic> <.01</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note</emph>. Variables were mean centered. Relatively large values of average time submitted early (s) on small average quiz scores (out of 5) were presented as negative exponents to display decimal values. Marketing class subject was dummy coded with those Marketing Principles as 1 and those in Sales Management as 0.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 Modeled Effects on Average Quiz Scores Note. Relatively large values of average time submitted early (s) on small average quiz scores (out of 5) were presented as negative exponents to display decimal values. Covariates included household size, marketing class subject, quality of life, and burnout.** p <.05. *** p <.01 level.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-17">Moderated Mediation Results</hd> <p>Table 3 and Figure 3 display the moderated mediation results of self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) and emotional stability to average time submitted early on average quiz scores. Emotional stability did not have a significant direct relationship with average time submitted early (<emph>b</emph> = –1,423.450, <emph>t</emph> = –1.172, <emph>SE</emph> = 1,214.494, <emph>p</emph> =.244 [<emph>LLCI</emph> –3,828.4800 to <emph>ULCI</emph> 981.5829]). As hypothesized, high self-discipline and low emotional stability related to longer average time submitted early (<emph>b</emph> = 6,193.577, <emph>t</emph> = 3.805, <emph>SE</emph> = 1,627.643 [<emph>LLCI</emph> 2,970.396 to <emph>ULCI</emph> 9,416.757]) (support for H4). The mediation path through average time submitted early related to higher average quiz scores. Therefore, high levels of self-discipline with low emotional stability are related to longer average time submitted early and higher average quiz scores. In other words, individuals with high self-discipline and low emotional stability (high anxiety) will engage with course materials sooner. High anxiety motivates early action for those with a tendency to start promptly. Earlier engagement with course materials improves academic performance even if it is driven by a negative emotion. The significant direct effects of self-discipline on average quiz scores and the significant indirect effect through average time submitted early on average quiz scores demonstrated partial mediation ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref102">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 3. Conditional Direct and Indirect Effects With Moderator Emotional Stability.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th /><th align="center">Left-leaning</th><th align="center">Average</th><th align="center">Right-leaning</th></tr><tr><th align="center">Variable path</th><th align="center">Low (−1 <italic>SD</italic>)</th><th align="center">Mean</th><th align="center">High (+1 <italic>SD</italic>)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) → average time submitted early</td><td>6,193.577 (<italic>LLCI</italic> 2,970.3960; <italic>ULCI</italic> 9,416.7570)</td><td>3,636.254 (<italic>LLCI</italic> 880.5270 <italic>ULCI</italic> 6,391.9810)</td><td>1,727.804 (<italic>LLCI</italic> −1,740.2000 <italic>ULCI</italic> 5,195.8050)</td></tr><tr><td>Self-discipline (to start tasks promptly) → average time submitted early → average quiz scores</td><td>0.050 (LLCI 0.0053; ULCI 0.1001)</td><td>.030 (LLCI.0019 ULCI.0628)</td><td>.014 (LLCI -.0109 ULCI.0448)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Note. SD</emph> = standard deviation; LLCI = lower limit confidence interval; ULCI = upper limit confidence interval.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Moderator Emotional Stability With Self-Discipline (to Start Tasks Promptly) on Average Time Submitted Early</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-18">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0180585818-19">General Discussion</hd> <p>Within the context of TMT, individuals will delay based on their evaluation of the present moment in contrast to the incentives and downsides of future task ([<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref103">92</reflink>]). We found self-discipline (relating to promptly starting tasks like a quiz) directly related to lower quiz scores. Quizzes require a degree of studying and self-quizzing. Meanwhile, indirect path analysis showed self-discipline positively related to a longer average time to submit a quiz early and thereby higher quiz scores. The main effect reverses in the presence of starting sooner to allot study time. Sufficient time to study and complete quizzes before deadlines has less last-minute time pressures that can reduce effective learning and accurate recall. Starting sooner often means increasing more meaningful exposure to course materials before entering a quiz. Delaying closer to deadlines does not necessarily mean more studying or better performance. Results suggest there are intentional students who start and submit quizzes sooner. This prioritization of time indicates they are using their time more wisely and not utilizing the last-minute time pressures of a deadline to start/submit work.</p> <p>Moreover, high self-discipline with low emotional stability was associated with a longer average time to submit a quiz early. This moderated mediation effect showed the placement of anxiety from an approaching deadline toward starting sooner associated with higher quiz scores. Starting sooner allots time to check understanding of course materials and not blindly enter a quiz in a battle against time. These results indicate using internal pressure like anxiety to initiate studying and completing schoolwork can lead to better academic performance. This supports prior research describing how an optimal level of stress and anxiety relates to better academic performance ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref104">10</reflink>]). Too much anxiety can debilitate, while a healthy amount can facilitate behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref105">3</reflink>]). Arguably, waiting closer to a deadline increases debilitating anxiety to finish with less thoughtfulness. This also helps to explain meditation results where later submissions related to lower quiz scores (the inverse of hypothesis three).</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-20">Implications</hd> <p>Results enhance student insights for marketing educators. Students appear to use anchors to evaluate when to submit work. Prior research has found participants to use random numbers as anchors to evaluate subsequent products ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref106">4</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref107">5</reflink>]). For example, arbitrary numbers like 78 converted into $78 for different products (e.g., computer keyboard and wine) shift the amount they are willing to pay than without the presence of the random number. While hard deadlines are not arbitrary, they can act as anchors for when students feel it is time to submit coursework. All students in our study submitted quizzes on average within the last day (24 hr) of the deadline. Ironically, high self-evaluations on the self-discipline measure to start tasks promptly were connected to submitting coursework within the last day it was due. Based on TMT, students appear to use deadlines to reverse calculate the amount of time before the consequential deadline to receive a zero score. This translates into a form of negative reinforcement (avoidance), as opposed to positive reinforcement for punctuality. This is concerning because with hundreds of assignments and deadlines in college, many students are training themselves to better reverse calculate the latest possible time to complete work. This also helps to explain the number of quizzes not completed during the semester because many students ran out of time or forgot to perform quizzes throughout the semester. Likely absent are the early plans to read the textbook and digest materials over several workdays prior to coursework deadlines. This also implies it is important to schedule regular assignments/quizzes compared with just one giant final exam.</p> <p>Researchers found deadlines do not prevent students from cramming (i.e., studying/performing most of the work close to an impending deadline; [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref108">95</reflink>]). These researchers found conscientiousness to relate to higher distributive practices in studying and thereby performance. Student estimates of cramming prior to college exams range from 80% to 95% ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref109">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref110">90</reflink>]). The availability of online lecture recordings was found to relate to higher exam cramming behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref111">17</reflink>]). Students who procrastinate have adapted to the college system of studying and making deadlines with a typical series of events "calculated procrastination, preparatory anxiety, climactic cramming, nick-of-time deadline-making, and a secret, if often uncelebrated, victory" ([<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref112">88</reflink>]). Students often cram memorization in a mental state of duress before exams. Results illuminate opportunities to space out due dates and encourage personal routine study habits/practices. By measuring punctuality with time, researchers can classify students who start early (e.g., over a day before deadlines) and compare outcomes to those cramming at the last minute. Our results evince intentionally studying and completing sooner will associate with better long-term outcomes (e.g., academic performance).</p> <p>Furthermore, results increase understanding of student study behaviors beneficial for marketing educators. Most students delayed the time between lectures (e.g., Tuesday) and submission of quizzes to a later time (e.g., Saturday). Unfortunately, bits of information soon decay from short-term memory after a presentation ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref113">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref114">22</reflink>]). For example, researchers found participants to systematically recall six sequential alphabet letters incorrectly as time passed ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref115">22</reflink>]). Critical memorization processes occur during and right at the end of classes when information is suspended in short-term memory. Researchers evince short- to long-term memory transition requires repetition and establishing meaningful significance ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref116">18</reflink>]). Instructors can specifically share research on short- to long-term memory conversion. Then they can give some guidelines on how/when students can self-quiz themselves at regular intervals. Instructors can prompt at the end of class to "Please take a moment to recall and write terms covered in this class to self-quiz." Instructors can also market a variety of study techniques to help students integrate materials into their lives (e.g., [a] while commuting, sing the letters of a new term; [b] while shopping, evaluate an aspect of marketing used by a brand). Learning can happen through a variety of creative methods (e.g., singing [English alphabet] and drawing real-world connections). Instructors can empower students with additional methods that promote continuous learning. These techniques can reduce negativity associated with studying that delay action explained by TMT.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-21">Limitations</hd> <p>The structure of this study collected and analyzed time prior to deadlines. Firm deadlines created consistency and uniformity across classes. Malleable weekly deadlines would have altered results because of time spent emailing excuses to the instructor instead of performing quizzes on time and producing a false sense of additional time beyond deadlines ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref117">20</reflink>]). Therefore, the results excluded late/missed quizzes. The hundreds of submissions represent completed work and do not apply to late/missing work. Late/missing work is not punctual, it is late. This study focused on the completion of work prior to deadlines. Studying late/missing work was outside the scope of this project because we wanted to study (in consistent conditions) antecedents to early submissions.</p> <p>Furthermore, lateness and unethical practices are often related. Researchers found extenuating circumstances when quote lead times are impossible to meet (i.e., not enough time to complete expected work) can result in unethical behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref118">89</reflink>]). Therefore, we emphasize the distinction between the pressure of being past due and self-generated motivation to complete work early. They may produce similar forms of anxiety and emotions, but being past due can produce over-the-top corrective behaviors (e.g., emails with sensationalized excuses asking for extensions). Meanwhile, many professionals can recall the anxious feeling of speeding dangerously through traffic because they are late for work. Lateness can produce unethical acts of desperation. Fortunately, strong emotional late experiences can also jar students to change procrastination habits because punctuality is a daily practice.</p> <p>In addition, student participants completed approximately 9 out of 14 quizzes, which we believe was the result of several factors. First, waiting until the last minute and submitting even 1 s late was not accepted by the online system. Second, online classes require a high degree of independence, and with no reminders, students simply forget to perform coursework with busy working schedules. Third, despite explicit technology precaution notices and measures (e.g., no credit software check to double-check device systems), some students experienced technical difficulties (e.g., Internet glitches and computer complications) that resulted in no quiz submission. Fourth, students experienced personal issues (e.g., family deaths and illnesses) that resulted in no submissions for a given week. There were no makeups or second attempts on quizzes. This was a strict class policy to have consistency across all sections. The average of 1,587 submitted on-time quizzes over the duration of the semester helped to reduce potential confounds from missing quizzes. The researchers believe a flexible deadline would have resulted in more quiz submissions, but shift results closer to and after deadlines. Researchers have found students use deadlines as boundaries to finish work ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref119">6</reflink>]). A flexible deadline creates a false sense of available time and time-wasting unhelpful behaviors (e.g., messaging the instructor for an extension of time). Consistent policy enforcement and conditions are important for replication. Different instructors set and enforce varying classroom policies. Some students will often test and push these boundaries based on their circumstances or past experiences with other instructors. Larger sample sizes increase statistical power ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref120">21</reflink>]). Research recommends a minimum of 100 to 400 participants in structural equational modeling based on parameters ([<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref121">83</reflink>]). Replication with a larger sample size and different classes can help to verify findings.</p> <p>Researchers caution the use of single-item measures because of statistical power and reliability ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref122">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref123">66</reflink>]). However, these same researchers also found single-item measures to reliably measure long forms of their corresponding measures. We utilized brief scales (e.g., emotional stability) and single-item measures (e.g., control variables burnout and quality of life) to reduce participant fatigue while capturing a variety of practical measures ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref124">2</reflink>]). For example, researchers evinced high levels of effort and poor coping mechanisms are precursors to student burnout ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref125">70</reflink>]). The authors included burnout and other such variables in the path analysis model to quantify their impact on student performance. The inclusion of validated brief measures outweighed not collecting such variable data at all. Long surveys risk higher participant dropout rates and random selection of responses ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref126">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref127">39</reflink>]). While we performed post-data quality and attention checks, initial brevity in survey design is also an important factor in data quality. Results from this study give future researchers the ability to validate findings with long forms of the measures used.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-22">Future Research</hd> <p>Punctuality is a valuable skillset individual practice. [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref128">59</reflink>] describes time efficiency as producing an outcome with minimum wasted time. Individuals who stick to a consistent routine and use calendars to strategically plan their day's practice punctuality. Those with higher self-discipline have a greater awareness for the amount of time it takes to complete tasks and use allotted time more wisely ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref129">59</reflink>]). Despite a full 7 days to complete quizzes in modules, most of our participants waited until Saturday (the day it was due) to submit (<emph>M</emph> = 26,250.92 s [7.29 hr], <emph>SD</emph> = 1,403.20). Perceptions on what is early and when to start shift based on due dates. Future research can study punctuality on performance in various deadline conditions (e.g., same day, 3 days, and 7 days). In-person classes with scheduled quizzes have same-day submissions. Unlike online classes, there are typically deadlines days later. Later deadlines do not necessarily mean more studying and better outcomes. In fact, it can lead to less satisfaction from worrying and lack of external boundaries that help attain closure ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref130">6</reflink>]). While same-day deadline conditions will likely associate with more immediate anxiety, we believe it will result in overall better performance because less time will be spent delaying and worrying over more days. We believe the same study behaviors will occur sooner and with less delay.</p> <p>Results from this study provide a novel behavioral method for studying punctuality and performance in precise time before deadlines. Researchers can build on these findings by studying different variables and contexts. While this study examined data from a diverse student sample, other researchers have centered their research on demographic differences with academic performance. Researchers found self-efficacy improved performance for males and females, while study time was more beneficial for males ([<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref131">76</reflink>]). Females demonstrated higher academic ethic and GPAs compared with males ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref132">19</reflink>]). Meanwhile, other researchers found no significant gender differences in GPAs while also studying loneliness ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref133">16</reflink>]). Attending a low-quality high school enlarged African American and Hispanic ethnic performance gaps compared with Caucasian college students ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref134">36</reflink>]). Caucasian males had lower levels of delayed gratification compared with minority female students ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref135">12</reflink>]). Moreover, perceived academic workload positively related to stress ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref136">58</reflink>]). Having sufficient perceived time was qualitatively reported as a precondition to managing academic workload ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref137">62</reflink>]). Effective coping strategies mitigate enaction from high levels of perceived stress which can then translate into productive study behaviors. Although researchers found employment did not have a significant impact on grades, students will trade off credits enrolled in college courses for more hours they are employed ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref138">26</reflink>]). Collectively, these studies demonstrate opportunities to study academic punctuality as a precursor to academic performance among different populations and variables. Future research can study the effects of academic workload, part-time jobs, and personal life events with academic punctuality.</p> <p>Furthermore, researchers have studied how nudges can influence consumers (e.g., restaurant goers nudged to select healthier options on menus; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref139">61</reflink>]). Negative options can also nudge consumers to select less negative options versus take no action ([<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref140">99</reflink>]). Highlighting the benefits of earliness can shift some individuals to partake in punctual behaviors (e.g., arriving early to class). Early classroom students use this time to review materials, decompress from commuting, and socialize with classmates. These students recognize the benefits of earliness. The mention of early benefits can bring punctual behaviors into someone's cognition. Instructors can market specific punctual activities and their benefits to encourage behaviors. We hypothesize that simple nudges (like encouraging students to chat with classmates before class) can socialize punctuality and thereby increase early arrival. By increasing interactions in the classroom, it can promote positive associations with coursework and support learning behaviors. Future research can investigate the benefits of nudging and socializing punctuality on academic performance.</p> <hd id="AN0180585818-23">Appendix</hd> <p>Table of Scales and Items.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Item number</th><th align="center">Scales and items</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td /><td>Self-discipline (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Costa & McCrae, 2008</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>Get chores done right away</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>Am always prepared</td></tr><tr><td>(3)</td><td>Start tasks right away</td></tr><tr><td>(4)</td><td>Get to work at once</td></tr><tr><td>(5)</td><td>Carry out my plans</td></tr><tr><td>(6)</td><td>Find it difficult to get down to work (R)</td></tr><tr><td>(7)</td><td>Waste my time (R)</td></tr><tr><td>(8)</td><td>Need a push to get started (R)</td></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td>Have difficulty starting tasks (R)</td></tr><tr><td>(10)</td><td>Postpone decisions (R)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Emotional stability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr42">Gosling et al., 2003</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>Calm, emotionally stable</td></tr><tr><td>(2)</td><td>Anxious, easily upset (R)</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Household size</td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>How many people live in your household? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7+</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Quality of life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr106">Zimmerman et al., 2006</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>How would you rate your overall quality of life during the past week?<break />1—Very bad, my life could hardly be worse to 5—Very good, my life could hardly be better</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Burnout (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr80">Rohland et al., 2004</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>(1)</td><td>Please classify your level of burnout.<break />1—I enjoy my work/life. I have no symptoms of burnout to 5—I feel completely burned out and often wonder if I can go on. I am at the point where I may need some changes or may need to seek some sort of help.</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Note</emph>. (R) indicated reverse-coded items. There was a random presentation of items within each scale section.</p> <ref id="AN0180585818-24"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref25" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Al-khresheh M. (2021). Revisiting the effectiveness of Blackboard learning management system in teaching English in the era of COVID 19. World Journal of English Language, 12(1), 1–14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref81" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Allen M. S., Iliescu D., Greiff S. (2022). Single item measures in psychological science: A call to action. 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This includes no affiliations, knowledge, beliefs, personal relationships, or professional relationships in the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stephen Bok</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3421-1175</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Stephen Bok; James Shum and Maria Lee</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib104" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib91" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib105" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib94" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink 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  Data: Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stephen+Bok%22">Stephen Bok</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3421-1175">0000-0003-3421-1175</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22James+Shum%22">James Shum</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maria+Lee%22">Maria Lee</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Marketing+Education%22"><i>Journal of Marketing Education</i></searchLink>. 2024 46(3):225-239.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: Y
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  Data: 15
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  Data: 2024
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Business+Administration+Education%22">Business Administration Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Learning%22">Electronic Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Time+Management%22">Time Management</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Strategic+Planning%22">Strategic Planning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Negative+Reinforcement%22">Negative Reinforcement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Positive+Reinforcement%22">Positive Reinforcement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Results%22">Test Results</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Evaluation+%28Individuals%29%22">Self Evaluation (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Control%22">Self Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Motivation%22">Student Motivation</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22California%22">California</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
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  Data: 10.1177/02734753241232564
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0273-4753<br />1552-6550
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Time management is essential for strong strategic business planning and marketing campaigns. Having sufficient time to complete essential planning is important, as is the punctuality of meeting deadlines. Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) explains the relationship between deciding to perform a task and expected incentives, consequences, and the cost of delay. We analyzed the time (in seconds) that business students submitted weekly quizzes before Saturday night deadlines (1,587 quiz submissions). Self-discipline was measured as a student's self-evaluation of their ability to start tasks promptly. We find that self-discipline, by itself, was associated with lower average quiz scores. However, self-discipline combined with greater punctuality was associated with higher quiz scores. High self-discipline associated with low emotional stability resulted in earlier average quiz submissions, which resulted in higher quiz scores than submitting work closer to deadlines. These results indicate using internal pressure like anxiety to initiate studying and completing schoolwork can lead to better academic performance. Based on TMT, students appear to use deadlines to reverse calculate the amount of time before a consequential deadline. This translates into a form of negative reinforcement (avoidance), as opposed to positive reinforcement for punctuality. Implications for business marketing students and academicians are discussed.
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  Data: 2024
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  Data: EJ1446688
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        Value: 10.1177/02734753241232564
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 225
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Business Administration Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Electronic Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Time Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Strategic Planning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Negative Reinforcement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Positive Reinforcement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Test Results
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Evaluation (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Control
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Motivation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: California
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Temporal Motivation Theory: Punctuality Is a Matter of Seconds
        Type: main
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Stephen Bok
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: James Shum
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Maria Lee
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0273-4753
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1552-6550
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 46
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Marketing Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1