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The Message Matters: Advertisement Framing and College Women's Beliefs toward Exercise

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Title: The Message Matters: Advertisement Framing and College Women's Beliefs toward Exercise
Language: English
Authors: Jaclyn Inel Hadfield (ORCID 0000-0003-0315-5780), Lucia Guerra-Reyes (ORCID 0000-0003-3300-0720), Lesa Huber, Lesa Major, Carol Kennedy-Armbruster
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2024 72(9):3225-3236.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Females, Undergraduate Students, Student Attitudes, Exercise, Advertising, Intention, Health Behavior, Racial Differences, Ethnicity, Well Being, Physical Activity Level, Community Role, Self Concept, Human Body, Health, Physical Fitness, Gender Differences, Courses
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2155457
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: This study explores college women's beliefs and experiences about exercise informed by different framing strategies, and how they may influence exercise engagement. Participants: Four focus groups were conducted with 19 undergraduate women at a large public Midwestern university. Methods: Four differently framed group exercise advertisements were used to prompt focus group discussions on beliefs and intentions to exercise. Transcribed data were analyzed with a thematic content approach. Results: Undergraduate female participants described more positive beliefs that influence intention with a well-being-framed advertisement. More negative beliefs were described when the advertisement focused on enhancing appearance. Participants of color believed that seeing more representation of diversity in advertisements would make engaging in exercise easier. Conclusion: Positive beliefs linked to a "well-being" frame and diverse imagery of women in exercise advertisements may improve intention to exercise, increasing physical activity among women.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2024
Accession Number: EJ1452043
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0181109470;acl01dec.24;2024Nov28.03:47;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0181109470-1">The message matters: Advertisement framing and college women's beliefs toward exercise </title> <p>Objective: This study explores college women's beliefs and experiences about exercise informed by different framing strategies, and how they may influence exercise engagement. Participants: Four focus groups were conducted with 19 undergraduate women at a large public Midwestern university. Methods: Four differently framed group exercise advertisements were used to prompt focus group discussions on beliefs and intentions to exercise. Transcribed data were analyzed with a thematic content approach. Results: Undergraduate female participants described more positive beliefs that influence intention with a well-being-framed advertisement. More negative beliefs were described when the advertisement focused on enhancing appearance. Participants of color believed that seeing more representation of diversity in advertisements would make engaging in exercise easier. Conclusion: Positive beliefs linked to a "well-being" frame and diverse imagery of women in exercise advertisements may improve intention to exercise, increasing physical activity among women.</p> <p>Keywords: Beliefs; exercise; physical activity; women</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Improving population physical activity (PA) is known to promote overall general well-being and produce undeniable health benefits.[[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref2">3</reflink>]] However, one out of four adults globally are not sufficiently physically active,[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref3">5</reflink>] and less than 50% of the U.S. college student population engages in a recommended thirty minutes of moderate-vigorous intensity exercise five days a week, or at least twenty minutes of vigorous exercise three days a week.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref4">6</reflink>]</p> <p>Women are more likely to lack PA[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref6">7</reflink>] and struggle more to sustain it over time.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>] Almost 45% of U.S. men ages 18–24 met the U.S. PA guidelines, but only a little over 20% of comparable U.S. women met the same guidelines.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref8">9</reflink>] PA participation among women has been found to drastically decline during the transition from high school to college.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>] College women are a population of specific concern because college life is associated with a higher risk of developing unhealthy behaviors, like physical inactivity, that can negatively impact future health.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>]</p> <p>Attending a group-based exercise (GBE) class can be an effective solution to improve overall movement levels among women. GBE is a more sustainable behavior to improve overall PA levels compared to engaging in movement individually.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] Moreover, women tend to prefer and gravitate toward participating in GBE.[[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref15">16</reflink>]] GBE is commonly available at college campus recreation centers where it is promoted as a healthy tool to combat stress.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref16">17</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref17">18</reflink>] Availability of facilities and programming directed to college students may make GBE easier to access for women college students, with the potential to influence sustained physical activity into later adulthood through established GBE habits in college.</p> <p>It is important to better understand how to positively influence women students' intention to attend GBE by addressing how messaging informs exercise beliefs. Intention is "the single best predictor of whether one will (or will not) perform the behavior in question"[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref18">19</reflink>]<sups>(p.836)</sups>, and can be affected by messaging. The Reasoned Action Approach (RAA) states that intention is influenced by a person's attitudes, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control toward the behavior, and these constructs are based on one's foremost beliefs associated with the behavior. As such, college women's intention to engage in GBE can be influenced by their beliefs about the outcomes of engaging in GBE, what prominent people or social groups in their lives think about GBE, and the salient factors that enable or deter their engagement with GBE. Moreover, messaging that pulls at these beliefs can ultimately influence college women's intention to engage in GBE.</p> <p>Persuasive messages that utilize framing tactics to influence intention have the power to make a positive difference in PA behaviors.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref19">20</reflink>] Framing is a process through which information is presented in particular ways to influence public perception.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref20">21</reflink>] Frames are often not recognized by the public, yet encourage the categorization, labeling, and conceptualization of a social phenomenon.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref21">22</reflink>] Framing is the way a message makes one factor, such as weight loss, more important than other factors, such as stress reduction, when viewers interpret the message.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref22">23</reflink>] Furthermore, frames are tools that illuminate the way we see the world[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref23">24</reflink>] and are rooted in our culture, which supports the notion that the messages we receive do indeed shape our behaviors.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref24">25</reflink>]</p> <p>Prior research has identified the various beliefs young adult women have about movement behaviors,[[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref25">26</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref26">28</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref27">30</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref28">32</reflink>]] and have linked them more to external motivators like weight management and appearance.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref29">34</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref30">35</reflink>] External motivating factors are also linked to negative self-esteem, negative body esteem, and negative body satisfaction for women.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref31">36</reflink>] Understanding how gender influences the perception and interpretation of framed health messages for female college students is necessary, especially since gender is underrepresented when analyzing health experiences.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref32">37</reflink>]</p> <p>Understanding how framing leads to movement behaviors may result in actionable and translational findings to better design programs, interventions, and health communications to ultimately increase the physical activity levels of women college students. In this study, we assess college women's beliefs and experiences about exercise informed by different framing strategies, and how they may influence their potential for engaging in GBE. Using the RAA[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref33">38</reflink>] and framing theory[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref34">39</reflink>] we investigate how different frames relate to beliefs that ultimately influence participation in exercise for college women, which may be beneficial for college health professionals to consider.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-3">Method</hd> <p>This qualitative focus group study involved women undergraduate students at a Midwestern public university campus. Participants represented the target population of interest for research and potential intervention.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-4">Theoretical grounding</hd> <p>The research design was informed by the RAA. The RAA proposes that intention is influenced by one's attitude, perceived norm, and perceived behavioral control toward a behavior, and these determinants are influenced by one's beliefs toward the behavior. As Jimerson et al.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>] proposed more simply, a person's intention to do a specific behavior is influenced by how fun (attitude toward the act), popular (perceived norm), and easy (perceived behavioral control) they believe the behavior to be. Taking this perspective, we set out to explore the perceptions of each of these constructs in relation to different communication frames. While traditionally the RAA has been assessed quantitatively, this approach leaves many unanswered questions. Thus, this qualitative exploration of the RAA constructs allows us to better generate discussions about the things that may influence intention, and further show the versatility of the RAA. We did not measure intention directly because we focused on the lived experiences alongside beliefs that are direct influencers of intention.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-5">Communication frames</hd> <p>The communication frames employed were based on framing theory. Framing theory states that frames have the power to influence individual thought and behavior, especially when they adhere to a person's existing belief structure, which influences intention.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref36">39</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref37">41</reflink>] Thus, we explored four different frames: Communal, Agentic, Appearance, and Well-being. Prior research considers communal and agentic frames as the most important in generating behavioral motivation.[[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref38">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref39">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref40">46</reflink>]] A communal frame is a message that focuses on creating and managing social relationships, while an agentic frame focuses on personal mastery and success of the individual.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref41">45</reflink>] These constructs are based on the premise that humans need to gain social acceptance and connection (communion) and to have competency and status (agency).[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref42">46</reflink>] Appearance and well-being frames have been assessed in relation to eating disorders and sports psychology among young adult women.[[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref43">47</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref44">49</reflink>]] An appearance-framed message focuses on looking better physically, while a well-being frame would be a message that focuses on feeling better overall.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-6">Pre-study framed advertisement selection process</hd> <p>Tailored advertisements were created to represent each frame for a fictitious group exercise class titled "Movement Medley" following the methodology established by Dimmock et al.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref45">51</reflink>] Advertisements for each frame were created from existing visuals that matched the frame's premise. These visuals were found through an online search. The goal of this search was to identify a photograph that would accurately represent the premise of its frame while visually depicting women engaged in movement behaviors. The text was later added to complement the photograph specific to each frame category. The text was a generic written description communicating the fictitious group exercise class. The online image search was conducted using Google image search and Pinterest. These search engines were used because they are easy to access and are popular among this study's population.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref46">52</reflink>] To select the visuals that best represented each frame, different search terms were used specific to the frame's objective. Six photos were selected that best captured each frame category from this search, which totaled 24 advertisements.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-7">Pre-study frame validation process</hd> <p>To accurately identify one advertisement out of the six selected for each frame category, the advertisements were validated with a group of pre-study participants meeting the criteria of identifying as a woman, between the ages of 18–24, and being a currently enrolled undergraduate student. These students completed a survey to identify which of the selected advertisements most accurately captured the identity of the frame. This pre-study procedure was achieved by visiting two undergraduate media communication courses and asking students if they were interested in providing feedback on the advertising efforts of a new group exercise class. Interested and willing participants (<emph>N</emph> = 43) then viewed each of the 24 advertisements for 30 seconds. Students were given 30 seconds to answer three items catered to each framing category for every advertisement. Pre-study data were collected in-person via paper survey. Responses were provided on a five-point Likert scale to indicate how accurately they believed the advertisement matched the frame's criteria.</p> <p>SPSS version 25 (IBM, New York) was used to analyze the pre-study validation data. The responses were coded from one to five before conducting a descriptive statistical analysis. Five indicated a "strongly agree" response and one indicated a "strongly disagree" response. The three items for each advertisement were then averaged to create a total score. The advertisement with the highest mean in each framing category was identified as the best representation for that frame to be used in the study. The advertisements identified through this pre-study validation process are depicted in Figures 1–[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref47">4</reflink>].</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 1. Communal-framed advertisement.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 2. Agentic-framed advertisement.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 3. Appearance-framed advertisement.</p> <p>PHOTO (COLOR): Figure 4. Well-being-framed advertisement.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-8">Data collection</hd> <p>Data were collected in four 1-hour focus groups with college women ranging from ages 18–24 with a total of 19 participants in the spring of 2019. All protocols associated with the study were approved by the researchers' Institutional Review Board (IRB). Participants were recruited via email to a list of women-led campus organizations, and through direct visits to present the study at some undergraduate classes. An overview of the study was communicated through these efforts, and a request to hold a 1-hour focus group meeting before, during, or after their organization's weekly meeting time for 4–6 members with free food and drinks included. Participants did not receive any other incentives. Students were instructed to email the lead researcher to confirm the focus group meeting time, location, and to ensure they met the study's criteria (identifying as a woman, being currently enrolled as an undergraduate student, and between the ages of 18–24).</p> <p>The focus groups were held at central campus locations, including: a secured group study room in the library, the central office of the Latino Cultural Center, a sorority house study room, and a departmental meeting room. Participants were grouped by similar characteristics of race/ethnicity, or degree major to foster a collegial environment more conducive to openly sharing personal beliefs.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref48">53</reflink>] The lead researcher, a white woman trained in qualitative inquiry, with a strong interest in the study's topic led each focus group with a research assistant. All participants received information and provided individual consent to participate in the study. The participants understood they were viewing advertisements for a new group exercise class, and they would be asked about their beliefs regarding exercise behaviors. The participants were not informed that the class was conjured. Prior to following the focus group guide participants completed a brief paper survey to obtain demographic information (e.g., race/ethnicity, age, gender) and to screen again for meeting the study's criteria. Participants also verbally shared their name, major of study, and where they were from. This information was reported to provide additional demographic information for reporting. Each focus group was recorded and transcribed.</p> <p>The focus group guide was designed to generate discussion around each of the primary constructs of the RAA, for each of the differently framed ads. Focus groups as a form of data collection are ideal to generate consensus and understand common senses.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref49">54</reflink>] Thus, while the questions were based on the RAA constructs the discussion within each question was not directed. Questions probed beliefs and experiences related to intention for attending the differently framed GBE classes. This design of questioning was intentional to assess beliefs that are known predictors of intention to analyze how different framing strategies may influence participant's beliefs, and ultimately intention, about engaging in GBE differently. The guide began with a grand-tour question designed to spark conversation, <emph>what does group exercise mean to you?</emph> After this initial question, the group was shown each of the advertisements in sequence and asked six general questions (Table 1).</p> <p>Table 1. Focus group guide.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Construct</td><td>Question</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Attitude Toward the Act</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>What are the good things that might happen to female students like you if they go to this class?</p></list-item><list-item><p>What are the bad things that might happen to female students like you if they go to this class?</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Perceived Norm</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Who are the people that would approve of female students like you going to this class?</p></list-item><list-item><p>Who are the people that would disapprove of female students like you going to this class?</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Perceived Behavioral Control</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>What might make it easier for female students like you to make it to this class?</p></list-item><list-item><p>What might make it harder for female students like you to make it to this class?</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0181109470-9">Analysis</hd> <p>A thematic directed content analysis was used to identify repeating themes among participants' beliefs across each framed advertisement. The analytic perspective was an intersection of the frame and RAA constructs. The RAA's theoretical constructs were assessed across the four differently framed advertisements during analysis of reported beliefs and guided the initial coding structure. The lead researcher coded the data using a mixed deductive-inductive code structure. Predetermined coding categories were based on RAA constructs of interest, and emerging codes were created inductively within each of these broader code families to identify themes representing college women's beliefs toward differently framed GBE advertisements. It was in this code structure that our analysis focused on illuminating the relationship of these women's thematic beliefs influenced by framing and intention to engage in GBE. Predetermined categories of interest included: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref50">1</reflink>) the evaluative outcomes of engaging in GBE, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref51">2</reflink>) the social referents influencing GBE participation, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref52">3</reflink>) the facilitators and barriers to GBE. Subcategories were identified to recognize deeper belief themes within each major category of interest. The lead researcher used MAXQDA 2018[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref53">55</reflink>] to analyze and code transcribed data, and identify salient themes. Coding outcomes were shared with the coauthors to confirm clarity of the data and check for biases the lead researcher may have held while analyzing data due to her identifying as a woman and holding a strong interest in the study's topic.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-10">Results</hd> <p>Of the participants 13 identified as white, five identified as Latina, and one identified as African American. All were currently enrolled full-time students at the same large Midwestern University. Participants reported a diverse range of studies they were majoring in such as international studies, accounting, exercise science, and speech and hearing sciences. Participants in our sample represented every school on campus where this study took place. All participants were from the United States with most stating they were from the Midwest state where the university of this study took place or its bordering states, with others being from the Northeast coast region or California. All participants were 22-years old or younger with most being 18- to 20-years old. Our findings are organized by belief themes for each framed advertisement related to the main categories of interest and their relation to intention.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-11">The influence of community</hd> <p>The communal advertisement engendered mostly positive general feelings. Many described it as showing a class that would result in improved social connections and an improved sense of self through experiencing feelings of confidence and women's empowerment; and provide accountability for PA:</p> <p>Making friendships and creating different relationships with different groups of people that you may not have met otherwise, who kind of might have a similar journey. – African American, sophomore, African American and African diaspora studies major.</p> <p>However, some questioned what "community" it would be positive for. They described experiences of feeling excluded in exercise environments, which informed their questioning of the intended community. These negative feelings and experiences also informed beliefs that they could then face decreased PA levels with this type of communal class because they would lose motivation to continue attending and by feeling excluded.</p> <p>If you're a person of color, you might not feel like you fit in. – Latina, freshman, business major. You still might feel out of place if you're, if maybe if you compare yourself to other people that might be more advanced exercisers. – Latina, senior, international studies major.</p> <p>Interestingly, the role community plays in exercise engagement became a salient topic when thinking through factors that influence these behaviors. Some felt that a perceived exercise community would foster their engagement in exercise, while others expressed the concern that this type of community has the potential to negatively impact their engagement with exercise.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-12">Self-improvement as a complex goal</hd> <p>The agentic advertisement, which highlighted advanced physical fitness levels and goal achievements also generated some mixed responses. Some believed they would have an improved sense of self because of the goal-oriented message, and described past experiences and feelings of improved physical health with a class such as this:</p> <p>When you're in a class and you can't really stop, then I feel like I ended up pushing myself sometimes harder in group classes. So, I'd say that would be more of a good thing. Makes you more accountable and you don't want to be the one... or I don't want to be the one that stops. – white, senior, exercise science major.</p> <p>Few believed they would improve their social health by meeting others that have similar competitive fitness mentalities in this class. Yet, several also believed that a class focused on exercise agency could damage confidence and make participants feel less capable resulting in a negative sense of self, negative emotions, and a decreased interest in PA:</p> <p>If you're in the class and when you start to see everyone doing that and it's harder for you to do this type of one arm push up, you might start to feel less confident. – white, freshman, undeclared major.</p> <p>I feel like you could lose motivation too. Cause like if it's too hard then you don't want to go. And like if it could be embarrassing and like you wouldn't want to go. – Latin, senior, business major.</p> <p>The appearance of advertisements generated more negative than positive beliefs. Many explained that this class would create a negative body image:</p> <p>The general population does not look like the girl in the mirror. Um, as someone who obviously works out a lot, um, that is not average... you could look different and have more weight and still be considered healthy and beautiful. And they're kind of saying that the girl and the other side is not exactly. So it's kind of, could maybe create more self-conscious feelings. – white, senior, exercise science major.</p> <p>Some elaborated that having a negative body image would create more negative emotions for them as college women:</p> <p>It could give a wrong idea of beauty standards. Because of the picture she's, I guess you could take it as her seeing her goal in the mirror, but then the reverse is her seeing that her body, like herself is not good enough and this, the image reflected in the mirror is good and ideal. – African American, sophomore, African and African American diaspora studies major.</p> <p>You can't get down to the smallest size ass. Also just feeling like your body shape isn't sexy. What is, that?... it's advertising a sexy body. But all bodies are sexy. Let's, let's celebrate that. Let's not try to make everyone a stick. – Latina, freshman, business major student.</p> <p>Based on past exercise experiences, many also felt that this class would hamper their motivation if they did not achieve a desirable size quickly. Others shared they would feel embarrassed going to the "fat class," or not feel "sexy."</p> <p>The well-being advertisement produced the most positive outcome beliefs overall. Many described this class as providing improved physical health by increasing their energy, helping them sleep better, better focus, and feel better physically; improved social health because they could make friends and feel a sense of community easily in this type of exercise environment; and improved emotional health.</p> <p>It just looks like a lot of fun. Everyone's smiling, everybody like, yeah. And it doesn't look like it's hard. – white, senior, speech and hearing sciences major.</p> <p>Overall, the idea of improving oneself, whether that be physically, emotionally, or aesthetically, became a complex belief among participants. Each frame generated ideas that these classes could improve various facets of oneself, but there was a conflict in whether the idea of self-improvement was truly beneficial. For example, the complexity embedded in body image as a form of self-improvement was discussed with the appearance-based advertisement and how engaging in that type of class to improve your appearance could harm a sense of self-improvement. While participants were sharing their beliefs and experiences associated with these advertisements, they were also trying to tease out what exactly self-improvement meant to them and its role with their exercise engagement.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-13">Health, fitness, and gendered differences</hd> <p>For the communal framed class, participants described that it was something women, family, friends, and people interested in healthy living would welcome. But at the same time, it was not seen as challenging enough for those who were athletic or "into fitness."</p> <p>I feel like our own peers, they would see it as a form of meeting new people and also exercising and being better for yourself and having other people be there for you to push you. – white, senior sorority member, English major.</p> <p>People that say they are athletes or athletic coaches may not believe this type of class counts and believe it is a waste of time. – white, senior sorority member, accounting major.</p> <p>One participant elaborated that men and "fit people" would disapprove of women attending a communal class because it may not be seen as a legitimate form of exercise to "exercise people" based on previous experiences she had encountered with these individuals.</p> <p>Guys that are "gym bros" would think this class isn't good enough or credible. – white, senior, exercise science major.</p> <p>The agentic ad was described as obviously supported by "people really geared toward fitness" and men. Some participants believed men would approve of them attending this class because it was more strenuous. They believed male college students would be "approvers" because "it seems harder" and they would get more respect for doing this type of class "since most women only focus on cardio."</p> <p>People who like Insanity or go to Orange Theory would definitely approve of us going to this class. – Latina, freshman, undeclared major.</p> <p>Male peers just because they see this as more hardcore, more like worthy of respect, respect for being able to do this. – white, senior sorority member, health fitness specialist major.</p> <p>However, most viewed the agentic class as too "masculine" or "not feminine enough" to count as what male peers deemed appropriate exercise for women.</p> <p>I could see guys disapproving of this.... I like to go to like yoga. I feel like that's kind of stereotypical so guys might think, oh girls shouldn't be going to this type of fitness. – white, senior, exercise science major.</p> <p>Comparatively, the appearance-oriented class generated feelings that "fitness people" would approve of women attending this type of class focused on altering their appearance. They detailed this generalization to a particular person, Jillian Michaels from the Biggest Loser T.V. show, considered an American fitness icon and most frequently seen online in abdominal revealing shirts.</p> <p>What's that one super fit lady from the weight loss show?... Jillian Michaels! Yeah, she would want us to go to this class. – Latina, sophomore, international studies major.</p> <p>There was another shared belief that males would approve of them attending this class because it depicts the body type "that is over-sexualized in the media." Some felt that particularly men in fraternities would approve of women attending an appearance-focused GBE class because of the experiences they had with these males.</p> <p>A lot of hazing issues that have been going down in the fraternities has a lot to do with the women in the sororities that the fraternity affiliates themselves with... the majority of the people in those fraternities are Caucasian and I have never come across a non-white male that has acted and viewed women the way that white fraternity males do.... specifically when they haze based on female's body, or getting them to do something to a female body... I don't know what it is.... So yeah they would approve. – white, senior sorority member, health fitness major.</p> <p>Sorority member participants believed only a specific group of women would approve of them attending an appearance-based class, women sorority affiliates.</p> <p>Especially ones that haze for body image...because there are sororities that haze the girls for how they look and so they would have to join this class because they want you to look like that.... some log your hours of exercise.– white, senior sorority member, accounting major.</p> <p>The most interesting response came from one participant who strongly believed everyone would approve of her attending this class because of her belief that this messaging is embedded in US culture.</p> <p>I feel like everybody for this [class] would approve.... probably just because I feel like our society tends to care so much about appearance, especially in the United States.... it's become kind of every day.... There are ads that are trying to get us to change our look, whether it's makeup or clothes or fitness and things like that. So, it's something that's always on the minds of people and we kind of over sexualize women, especially with different ads and things.... just the saying 'shape into your sexy size' and then you'll have a beautiful appearance.... I feel like that's a goal for the majority of especially young women. - African American, sophomore, African and African American diaspora studies major.</p> <p>Conversely, participants believed that some college women like them would disapprove of women attending an appearance-focused GBE class, particularly curvy women and women that promote body positivity.</p> <p>The well-being ad was described as a class that everybody would support women attending. More specific referent groups were family, friends, women, and health/wellness advocates. Some believed their moms specifically would approve because they would be happy seeing them at a class like the one in the well-being ad.</p> <p>You can see a variety of people... everyone's smiling and having fun. And then you see a range in body types as well.... diversity and race.... diversity in body types. – African American, sophomore, African and African American diaspora studies major.</p> <p>I honestly feel like anyone in undergrad that's a woman would be supportive of somebody going through this just because it's not like designated to any specific form of exercise. – white, senior sorority major, health fitness specialist major.</p> <p>In contrast, participants reported fitness/exercise identifiers and men as those that would disapprove of them attending a well-being-focused GBE class. The types of people reported as fitness/exercise identifiers were: "hardcore workout people," "people that do cross fit," "my weightlifting teacher," and "bodybuilders." Participants felt that men would disapprove of them attending this class because it is not traditionally viewed as "real exercise."</p> <p>I think someone that might be more of a hardcore workout person, they might just be like, oh that's kind of like a BS class.– white, senior, community health major.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-14">Representation, environment, and body-image prioritization</hd> <p>The communal ad prompted many considerations participants believed would help facilitate their attendance: having a friend to go with, applicable and visible marketing materials, representation, free to attend, and at convenient class time and location. One elaborated on her belief that more representation would make it easier to attend the GBE class based on the experiences she has had in exercise environments, "I think it's always easier to work out if I see people of all fitness levels doing it, not just like super fit people doing it.... and sometimes I feel like I get self-conscious if I'm not super fit and everyone around me is super fit." – Latina, freshman, business major. The factors shared that would make it harder to attend a communal-styled GBE class were opposites of those that would make it easier.</p> <p>As for the agentic ad, participants also believed that seeing and experiencing more diverse representation would make it easier to attend. Latina students specifically felt it would be easier to attend this class if there were people that looked like them in the class, since they did not relate with the thin white women in the advertisement, and their experiences with exercise were more favorable when they did not feel like the minority in the class. Participants also believed environmental factors would make it easier to attend an agentic class such as having a motivating female instructor, an all-women class, knowing that different levels of the movements would be offered in class since it seemed to be strenuous exercise. Conversely, most believed lacking exercise experience would deter their attendance to an agentic class. Some also complemented this belief by sharing negative class environmental factors that would be a barrier for them, such as if the class content was more advanced than their current physical fitness level, if it was a "really fast-paced," if the "coach is intimidating," the "other females in the class have 6-pack abs," or if men were in the class.</p> <p>If men are in the class, cause I feel like if it's a high intensity workout, like I'd get more subconscious, I'm like sweating. – Latina, freshman, business major.</p> <p>The appearance ad only prompted beliefs that would facilitate participation among a few participants interested in this type of class. They believed it would be easy to attend this class because they had aesthetic-based goals for exercising. They also believed that not having men in the class would help because they would be able to focus on the exercises rather than how they looked, which became a concern for them while exercising if men were near. Although this belief was prompted from an appearance frame, the participant felt this way in general about exercise classes.</p> <p>Not having the pressure of having men there [would make it easier] because I feel like with men, or in workout classes when it's both sexes, I feel like there's more pressure to be pretty or to look a certain way.... and then it kind of takes away from the focus of why you're there. And so, I think if you don't have that pressure then it feels more like a welcoming space for everyone. – white, freshman, international studies major.</p> <p>These select few participants also shared that being a female undergraduate freshman would make it easier to attend an appearance-based class because college freshman women have more pressure for weight management.</p> <p>When you are a freshman you are worried about the freshman 15 when you come to college. – white, senior sorority member, English major.</p> <p>However, most participants held beliefs toward what would make it harder to attend an appearance-based class. Some felt that being overweight would be a barrier to attend this class because it would conjure feelings of embarrassment. These beliefs were a result of feelings rooted in past exercise experiences for participants.</p> <p>I feel like you always hear about people, like kind of making fun of someone who, um, may be bigger at the gym and like try to get healthier... and they get ridiculed even though they're making the effort to make that change, which can put them off in the future. Like if they are the other girl [the woman looking at herself in the mirror in the ad], like the girl looking at the mirror.... and feeling self-conscious and then obviously like go into that class they will feel judged. – Latina, senior, international studies.</p> <p>The well-being ad stimulated general beliefs about the GBE class environment that would serve as facilitators or barriers for attending. Overall, the well-being ad prompted beliefs rooted in contextual experiences participants had as college women aiming to integrate exercise into their student lives. Most believed having good music in class, positive people in the class, and a relaxing cool-down at the end would make it easier to attend a well-being class. Participants explained that positive GBE classes they had attended previously possessed these factors and they would like to see them replicated in this type of environment. Additionally, participants felt that a convenient class time, such as a mid-day time would make it easier to attend because "it seems like it is a good energy boost." There were beliefs that attending a well-being class would be harder if: the class was held at a distant location because the commute would be difficult to fit it into their busy schedules, the class time was inconvenient to their course schedules, and if their personal goals did not match the class's objective. More specifically, they felt that if a female undergraduate student had aesthetic-based goals it would make it harder to attend this type of class geared toward improving overall well-being.</p> <p>The themes of representation, the class environment, and how women prioritize body image presented themselves as factors that facilitate or hinder participants' engagement in GBE. Women of color expressed how seeing more people that looked like them across the various ads they viewed would positively influence their engagement. All participants actively contributed class environment factors that would facilitate their engagement, which showed how their previous exercise experiences helped build these beliefs. Conversely, the scale of body image prioritization was discussed among these women as a barrier to engaging in GBE. Meaning that when this was a top priority, women may be more inclined to participate in classes geared toward improving appearance, and less likely when this was not the class's focus. There was also the implication that if one had a negative body image then this could deter their participation in GBE for different reasons.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-15">Discussion</hd> <p>Our results indicate when compared across the framed messages, college women hold more favorable beliefs toward attending a GBE class when prompted with movement messages framed around improving their overall well-being. This finding supports evidence that exercise marketing is most successful in persuading the viewer to be active when the message is focused on how movement can improve one's life by making them feel better overall.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref54">56</reflink>] College health professionals that aim to promote healthy behaviors, such as physical activity/exercise, among this population of college women may find these results important to implement messaging strategies to achieve positive health behavior outcomes. The combination of RAA and framing theory allows a better understanding of women's beliefs and motivations for exercise by assessing important factors that influence intention informed by exercise messaging and addressing college health outcomes</p> <p>Considerations of body image were important for our participants. They discussed the complexities surrounding young adult women's body image and how its prioritization impacts one's intention to engage in exercise behaviors. For example, they described that an appearance-focused GBE class would negatively affect their body image, and it may lure them into class if they are focused on how they look. Body image has been shown to impact women's health and academic success.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref55">57</reflink>] Studies show that negative body image adversely impacts health and also decreases PA engagement across the lifespan.[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref56">58</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref57">59</reflink>] Health messaging efforts should avoid appearance frames that endanger women's PA participation and health.</p> <p>Well-being was a central desire for participants as expressed in their belief that the corresponding class would improve their emotional health. College students are self-reporting poor mental health conditions at increasing rates[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref58">60</reflink>] with health centers most commonly referring students with anxiety and depression symptoms for treatment.[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref59">61</reflink>] Evidence shows that even when positive or negative life events are controlled for, there has been a positive correlation between PA and improved mood among the undergraduate population.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref60">1</reflink>] Thus, it is important to understand the style of movement that a young woman believes will improve her mood and emotional health. Doing so may combat the prevalence of decreased mental and emotional health she may encounter on and off campus during her young adulthood. Participants reported many outcomes of self-improvement regarding emotional health that may occur from attending GBE focused on well-being.</p> <p>All, but the well-being-framed advertisement, were linked to beliefs that participating in such a class would lead to decreased physical activity. This is the exact opposite objective health professionals want college women to experience after viewing promotional movement messaging. The rationale of reporting decreased PA levels beliefs came from participants feeling they would lose motivation to keep attending the class due to boredom or embarrassment, which was rooted in previous experiences they had undergone with exercise. This finding is in line with evidence that when one exercises for external factors, such as making oneself more attractive or physically stronger for others, they are less likely to sustain exercise[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref61">62</reflink>] and consequentially at greater risk for disordered eating.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] A well-being frame did not yield such a negative belief showing it to be the most suitable framing strategy to encourage sustainable movement among this population and prompt positive beliefs to increase exercise intention.</p> <p>People that identified as being a "fitness person" or an "exerciser" were described as those that would approve of women attending the agentic-based or appearance-based GBE class. This highlights the concern of the popular acceptance among college women that fitness professionals or "exercise people" would support efforts for weight loss and altering aesthetics through movement behaviors among college women. Even more concerning is that participants believed these same social referents would disapprove of them attending a well-being or communal-based GBE. Although a woman may have higher intention to attend a well-being-framed GBE class to engage in movement, they will most likely be around "fitness/exercise people" in GBE environments. Consequently, this may alter young adult women's intention to continue GBE behaviors since there is a belief that these "fit" people could disapprove of them being there. Health professionals would benefit from considering the GBE climate promoted in campus exercise environments and among their student populations to ensure women feel supported and welcomed to engage in exercise.</p> <p>Social referents that motivate or hamper physical activity are central to intention. An interesting social referent for participants was "everybody." Participants felt that everybody would approve of them attending a well-being class because the class does not appear to do any harm or have a negative connotation. Conversely, one participant shared that everybody would approve of her attending an appearance-based class because "our society tends to care so much about appearance... and we over sexualize women." This finding points to the perception of social pressures for women to conform and suggests that exercising for appearance-related motivation places college-aged women at significantly higher risks for disordered eating and body dissatisfaction.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref64">35</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref65">63</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref66">64</reflink>] We argue that the "everybody" category is important and a proxy of the social expectation for this target population of young adult college women. It is a representation of what is expected of them as young women, which can also be translated as social expectations, and a fruitful area of future research of social influences of exercise intention that can be evaluated.</p> <p>In a culture saturated with fantasized ideal body shapes for health/fitness messaging, it is essential to examine if this communication strategy is helping or hurting women's intention to engage in healthy movement behaviors. Recall that framing is making one aspect more important than another to evoke action for the intended message. It is alarming that aesthetic-based frames assume appearance to be the most important factor when it has been shown that young adult women who respond to aesthetic motives for exercise are more likely to experience disturbed eating and body esteem.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref67">63</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref68">65</reflink>] Conversely, exercising for intrinsic overall well-being factors is more sustainable and there is less health risk associated with it.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref69">49</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref70">66</reflink>]</p> <p>Participants were split in reporting men as social referents for exercise, especially in reference to the agentic frame that was geared toward building exercise skills and physical strength. Some perceived men as unsupportive of women doing "masculine" types of exercise. However, participants believed men would approve of them attending an appearance-based class, especially male students in fraternities. Furthermore, participants also believed men would disapprove of them attending well-being and communal-styled GBE because they may not view these classes as credible or "real exercise." Overall this signals a continuation of strict gender role expectations in relation to PA among college women which may limit their participation in exercise and may endanger health.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref71">57</reflink>] However, it is also likely that women's perception of their male counterparts' preferences does not correspond to reality. Given the centrality of male perspectives on women's beliefs, and the current gender disparity in PA[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref72">5</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref73">67</reflink>] this is an area for possible future research.</p> <p>Representation emerged as a central issue in GBE advertisements. Women's perception of lack of representation in exercise environments impacted their exercise beliefs. Participants felt that if they saw people that looked like them or a range of different bodies in the class it would make it easier to attend. Those who shared this belief were all women of color. The standardized shape and race most prevalent of women in exercise advertisements is of white women, with a particularly slim physique. Attempting to reach that particular kind of body can have negative health consequences.[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref74">68</reflink>] Thus, moving to a more diverse representation of skin color and body shape can foster more positive beliefs and influence intention among women from marginalized groups.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-16">Limitations</hd> <p>Intention was not measured directly because we focused on the lived experiences alongside beliefs that according to the RAA are influencers of intention. As such, we used a theory to help us identify beliefs across frames and were able to associate their ability to increase or decrease the intention of the behavior at hand (GBE). This may be viewed as a limitation. Along this study's analytic journey, we were able to assess experiences, which can be linked to one's beliefs. We also believe employing the theory as we have described above (e.g., being able to determine how beliefs positively or negatively impact intention) allows the theory to cross over into more qualitative designs through methodologies like ours. We believe it is important to give this voice to the participant in studies such as ours that can contribute findings that influence intention for health behaviors. Future qualitative research may benefit from measuring intention as well as associated beliefs to make even stronger relationships with findings.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-17">Conclusion</hd> <p>Focusing on using framing tactics that positively prompt college women's beliefs and intentions to engage in movement behaviors will help college health stakeholders create effective messages to improve movement engagement levels for college women. To move college women toward future adherence to protective PA health behaviors, it is imperative that messages communicate more than what they should do and speak to their personal beliefs.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref75">20</reflink>] The beliefs a woman holds are a result of her experiences and culture, which influence how she interprets messaging and how she makes choices,[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref76">69</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref77">70</reflink>] which make them integral when designing promotional health behavior messages.</p> <p>Our research can provide actionable and practical steps for college health professionals interested in fostering effective interventions for the mental and physical well-being of college-aged women through exercise. It is important to recognize that the communication framing focus of the exercise, from the images to the language, influences women's intentions to engage through belief structures. Thus, exercise programming on college campuses should consider the implications of framing, and perhaps move toward fostering more inclusive communication, such as centering on overall well-being with a diverse range of women visually represented in advertisements. Doing so will positively influence movement behaviors among women who do not actively identify as "exercisers" and would move toward bridging the gap of movement engagement inequality.</p> <hd id="AN0181109470-18">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Indiana University.</p> <ref id="AN0181109470-19"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Giacobbi PR, Hausenblas HA, Frye N. 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Message Matters: Advertisement Framing and College Women's Beliefs toward Exercise
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jaclyn+Inel+Hadfield%22">Jaclyn Inel Hadfield</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0315-5780">0000-0003-0315-5780</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lucia+Guerra-Reyes%22">Lucia Guerra-Reyes</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3300-0720">0000-0003-3300-0720</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lesa+Huber%22">Lesa Huber</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lesa+Major%22">Lesa Major</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Carol+Kennedy-Armbruster%22">Carol Kennedy-Armbruster</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2024 72(9):3225-3236.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Females%22">Females</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Exercise%22">Exercise</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Advertising%22">Advertising</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intention%22">Intention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health+Behavior%22">Health Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Racial+Differences%22">Racial Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethnicity%22">Ethnicity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Well+Being%22">Well Being</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activity+Level%22">Physical Activity Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Community+Role%22">Community Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Human+Body%22">Human Body</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health%22">Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Fitness%22">Physical Fitness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Courses%22">Courses</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2155457
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: This study explores college women's beliefs and experiences about exercise informed by different framing strategies, and how they may influence exercise engagement. Participants: Four focus groups were conducted with 19 undergraduate women at a large public Midwestern university. Methods: Four differently framed group exercise advertisements were used to prompt focus group discussions on beliefs and intentions to exercise. Transcribed data were analyzed with a thematic content approach. Results: Undergraduate female participants described more positive beliefs that influence intention with a well-being-framed advertisement. More negative beliefs were described when the advertisement focused on enhancing appearance. Participants of color believed that seeing more representation of diversity in advertisements would make engaging in exercise easier. Conclusion: Positive beliefs linked to a "well-being" frame and diverse imagery of women in exercise advertisements may improve intention to exercise, increasing physical activity among women.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1452043
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1452043
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2022.2155457
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
        StartPage: 3225
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Females
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Exercise
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Advertising
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intention
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Health Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Racial Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnicity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Well Being
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activity Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Community Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Human Body
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Fitness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Courses
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    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Message Matters: Advertisement Framing and College Women's Beliefs toward Exercise
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