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Harsh Discipline and the Development of Children's Externalizing Problems: Longitudinal Mediation of Intraindividual Reaction Time Variability

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Title: Harsh Discipline and the Development of Children's Externalizing Problems: Longitudinal Mediation of Intraindividual Reaction Time Variability
Language: English
Authors: Yuan Peng (ORCID 0000-0003-3077-0922), Yuan Liang, Yali Wang, Guangyan Yang
Source: Early Education and Development. 2025 36(1):186-203.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Elementary School Students, Early Experience, Trauma, Discipline, Behavior Problems, Parenting Styles, Negative Reinforcement, Student Behavior, Reaction Time, Brain Hemisphere Functions, Neurological Impairments
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2366697
ISSN: 1040-9289
1556-6935
Abstract: Research Findings: The present study aimed to investigate whether the trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability (IIV), which reflects prefrontal cortex activity related to attentional and cognitive control, mediated the longitudinal effects of earlier harsh discipline on children's later externalizing problems. The study involved 235 elementary school children (M[subscript age] = 7.25, 46% female) who underwent up to three repeated assessments. Specifically, the Chinese version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale and the Child Behavior Checklist were completed by the children's mothers to assess harsh discipline (including corporal punishment and psychological aggression) and the children's externalizing problems at three assessment waves. In addition, the children's IIV was measured using the Go/No-Go task at three assessment waves. The results from structural equation modeling revealed that the longitudinal path between corporal punishment at T1 and externalizing problems at T3 was partially mediated by IIV at T2. This suggested that more corporal punishment children experienced, the greater IIV and the more externalizing problems they will develop at a later stage. Practice or Policy: The findings highlight the proposed process model, which shows that corporal punishment impairs the development of children's prefrontal function as indexed by IIV, ultimately increasing the risk of externalizing problems.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1455750
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0181909715;h4j01jan.25;2024Dec31.02:22;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0181909715-1">Harsh Discipline and the Development of Children's Externalizing Problems: Longitudinal Mediation of Intraindividual Reaction Time Variability </title> <p>Research Findings: The present study aimed to investigate whether the trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability (IIV), which reflects prefrontal cortex activity related to attentional and cognitive control, mediated the longitudinal effects of earlier harsh discipline on children's later externalizing problems. The study involved 235 elementary school children (M<sub>age</sub> = 7.25, 46% female) who underwent up to three repeated assessments. Specifically, the Chinese version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale and the Child Behavior Checklist were completed by the children's mothers to assess harsh discipline (including corporal punishment and psychological aggression) and the children's externalizing problems at three assessment waves. In addition, the children's IIV was measured using the Go/No-Go task at three assessment waves. The results from structural equation modeling revealed that the longitudinal path between corporal punishment at T1 and externalizing problems at T3 was partially mediated by IIV at T2. This suggested that more corporal punishment children experienced, the greater IIV and the more externalizing problems they will develop at a later stage. Practice or Policy: The findings highlight the proposed process model, which shows that corporal punishment impairs the development of children's prefrontal function as indexed by IIV, ultimately increasing the risk of externalizing problems.</p> <p>Externalizing problems, such as aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors, are common in childhood and are characterized by undercontrolled and acting-out behaviors (Achenbach, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]; Achenbach & Edelbrock, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]). If persistent, these problems can lead to academic failure, peer rejection, and mental health problems in later life, promoting considerable research to understand the underlying risk factors and mechanisms (Campbell, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref3">8</reflink>]; Campbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref4">9</reflink>]; Moffitt, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref5">38</reflink>]). While harsh discipline has been found to contribute to externalizing problems in children (Gershoff, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref6">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref7">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref8">21</reflink>]; Hecker et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref9">22</reflink>]; X. P. Xing et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref10">66</reflink>]), less is known regarding the underlying mechanisms explaining this association. According to the neurosequential model of therapeutics (Perry, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref11">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref12">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref13">45</reflink>]), adverse family experiences, including harsh discipline, may interfere with the development of a child's brain function and result in maladjustment. Recently, there has been growing interest in the intrial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability (IIV), which reflects prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity, as a means of understanding the mechanism by which children's externalizing problems develop (Kelly et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref14">27</reflink>]; MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref15">36</reflink>]; Tamm et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref16">56</reflink>]). However, there is limited understanding of whether IIV mediates the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline and children's externalizing problems. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the potential mediation effect of IIV on this relationship to develop effective prevention and intervention programs.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-2">Harsh Discipline and Externalizing Problems</hd> <p>The family environment plays a crucial role in shaping a child's development, with parenting behavior being a primary influence on a child's externalizing problems. Harsh discipline, which includes both corporal punishment and psychological aggression, is a widely used parenting practice, despite its negative effects (Gershoff, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref17">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref18">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref19">21</reflink>]; Hecker et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref20">22</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref21">61</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref22">62</reflink>]; X. P. Xing et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref23">66</reflink>]). Corporal punishment involves physical force intended to cause bodily pain, while psychological aggression involves verbal and symbolic actions intended to inflict psychological pain or fear (Straus, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref24">52</reflink>]). Research has shown that children who experience high levels of harsh disciplinary tend to develop more externalizing problems, particularly in Western societies (Gershoff, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref25">19</reflink>]; M. T. Wang & Kenny, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref26">60</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref27">61</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref28">62</reflink>]). While harsh discipline may be viewed positively in traditional Chinese societies as a sign of parental concern, involvement, and love (Simons et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref29">51</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref30">61</reflink>]); however; research suggests that it may result in developmental trauma and predicts greater externalizing problems among Chinese children (Lansford et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref31">29</reflink>]; Van der Kolk, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref32">59</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref33">62</reflink>]). The type of harsh discipline used also affects the relationship with externalizing problems, with corporal punishment being seen as more aggressive and intrusive but also less commonly used, while psychological aggression may be relatively more normative and acceptable (Niu et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref34">41</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref35">61</reflink>]). Prior research suggested that psychological aggression and corporal punishment may have differential associations with child problem behaviors (McKee et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref36">37</reflink>]). The relationship between psychological aggression and externalizing problems varies across studies. For instance, some studies found links between parental psychological aggression and children's externalizing problems (Liu & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref37">34</reflink>]; M. T. Wang & Kenny, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref38">60</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref39">61</reflink>]), others did not (Brinke et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref40">6</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref41">62</reflink>]). In comparison, the relationship between corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems appears more consistent and robust (M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref42">62</reflink>]; X. Xing et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref43">67</reflink>]). Previous studies have revealed that corporal punishment predicts both concurrent and prospective children's externalizing problems (Berlin et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>]; Gershoff, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref45">19</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref46">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref47">21</reflink>]; Mulvaney & Mebert, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref48">39</reflink>]) and has been found to be a more potent predictor of children's externalizing problems than psychological aggression (Lansford et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref49">31</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref50">62</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-3">The Mediation Role of IIV</hd> <p>According to the neurosequential model of therapeutics (Perry, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref51">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref52">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref53">45</reflink>]), adverse family experiences, including harsh discipline, may interfere with the development of a child's brain function and result in maladjustment. Thus, harsh discipline may also indirectly contribute to a child's externalizing problem by disrupting neural functions. One such process that has garnered increasing attention is IIV, which refers to short-term fluctuations in reaction time during cognitive tasks (Macdonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref54">35</reflink>]; Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref55">65</reflink>]). IIV is not only a feature of attentional control (Isbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref56">25</reflink>]; Unsworth, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref57">58</reflink>]), but also a marker of PFC activity associated with attentional and cognitive control (Macdonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref58">35</reflink>]; Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref59">65</reflink>]).</p> <p>Studies have shown structural and functional links between IIV and the PFC. Firstly, the U-shaped curve of IIV across the lifespan is closely linked to the maturation and degeneration of brain morphology, especially in the PFC (MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>]). Secondly, lesions to the PFC have been found to be associated with greater IIV, supporting the structural link between IIV and PFC (Murtha et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref61">40</reflink>]). Furthermore, FMRI studies have demonstrated that greater fluctuations in PFC and anterior cingulate cortex are associated with IIV, showing the functional link between IIV and PFC (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref62">26</reflink>]; MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref63">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref64">35</reflink>]). Additionally, IIV may reflect the competition between task-related prefrontal activity and the default-mode network (Gazzellini et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref65">18</reflink>]; Kelly et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref66">27</reflink>]). Therefore, measuring IIV during cognitive tasks can provide an effective means of assessing PFC function without the need for invasive procedures. IIV measured during cognitive tasks represents not only PFC activity related to attentional and cognitive control, but also activity across functional networks (Adamo et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref67">3</reflink>]; Fassbender et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref68">16</reflink>]; Weissman et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref69">63</reflink>]; Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref70">65</reflink>]). Individuals with greater IIV exhibit inconsistent task-related PFC activity and unstable inhibition of the default mode network, leading to increased attentional lapses. In contrast, individuals with lower IIV have more robust PFC activity and more efficient and consistent inhibition of the default mode network, resulting in more stable and effective cognitive process (Bielak & Anstey, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref71">5</reflink>]; Kelly et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref72">27</reflink>]; MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref73">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref74">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given that IIV is considered an indicator of PFC function (MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref75">36</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref76">35</reflink>]; Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref77">65</reflink>]), it is reasonable to hypothesize that IIV may mediate the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline and children's externalizing problems. The neurosequential model of therapeutics (Perry, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref78">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref79">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref80">45</reflink>]) and the concept of developmental trauma (van der Kolk, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref81">59</reflink>]) suggest that traumatic family experiences can profoundly impact a child's physical, emotional, cognitive, and social development by altering neural network development. Accumulating evidence suggests that harsh discipline is linked to individual differences in various facets of brain function. For instance, Pozzi et al. ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref82">47</reflink>]) found that increased levels of harsh and inconsistent parental discipline was associated with a reduction in surface area in medial parietal and temporal pole regions as well as reduced cortical thinning in medial parietal regions. Hoffman ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref83">23</reflink>]) suggested that harsh discipline is likely to cause affective overarousal in their children. IIV develops during childhood and may be shaped by harsh discipline. Therefore, it is possible that harsh discipline disrupts the development of PFC function and increases IIV.</p> <p>Moreover, greater IIV during cognitive task performance has been proposed as a potential indicator of neuropsychological difficulties and psychological issues, including externalizing problems among children (Kofler et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref84">28</reflink>]; Macdonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref85">35</reflink>]). For instance, Brunnekreef et al. ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref86">7</reflink>]) found that children with externalizing problems exhibited the greatest IIV during cognitive task. Other studies have also demonstrated a positive association between IIV and externalizing problems in children (Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref87">42</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref88">68</reflink>]). As previous studies suggested, greater IIV, which reflects task-related prefrontal activity, may be a core characteristic of externalizing problems among children (e.g., Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref89">42</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref90">68</reflink>]).</p> <p>Based on the evidence highlighted above, it is reasonable to hypothesis that IIV could be a significant pathway mediating the influence of harsh discipline on children's externalizing problems. Specifically, harsh discipline may have an impact on IIV, which subsequently affects children' externalizing problems, providing a potential neurobiological pathway from harsh discipline to externalizing problems. It is worth noting that other neurobiological processes may also play mediating roles between parenting on externalizing problems. As a result, it is expected that IIV will partially, rather than fully, mediate the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline and externalizing problems.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-4">The Present Study</hd> <p>The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether and how IIV functions as a mediator in the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline and child's externalizing problems during a crucial period of rapid development in attentional control and externalizing problems among children. Using three repeated mother-report assessment, we evaluated harsh discipline, including corporal punishment and psychological aggression, and children's externalizing problems. Additionally, three assessments were conducted during the Go/No-Go task performance to obtain IIV data for children from first grade to three grade. Through longitudinal equation modeling, our aim was to test whether harsh discipline, including corporal punishment and psychological aggression, would predict IIV, which in turn would predict externalizing problems. Based on prior research (Hoffman, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref91">23</reflink>]; Peng et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref92">42</reflink>]; Pozzi et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref93">47</reflink>]), we hypothesized that IIV would partially mediate the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline especially corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems.</p> <p>Moreover, according to the the bidirectional theory of parent- child relationships (A. Sameroff, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref94">49</reflink>]; A. J. Sameroff, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref95">50</reflink>]), previous studies have examined the reciprocal relationship between parental harsh discipline and children's externalizing problems. However, the findings have been inconsistent. Some studies have reported non-significant results (X. Xing et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref96">67</reflink>]), while others have indicated that children's externalizing problems predict subsequent parenting, even after controlling for previous parenting (Lansford et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref97">30</reflink>]). Therefore, we evaluated a cross-lagged model nested within a longitudinal mediation design to investigate whether externalizing problems preceded parental harsh discipline. This approach would enhance our confidence in clarifying the directionality of the relationships.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-5">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0181909715-6">Participants</hd> <p>Children were recruited from an elementary school in a city in North West China. During the first assessment (T1), 235 first grade elementary school students (108 girls, <emph>M</emph> = 7.25 years, <emph>SD</emph> =.32) completed the children's Go/No-Go task to assess their IIV, and their mothers completed questionnaires assessing parental harsh discipline and children's externalizing problems. For the second assessment (T2), 227 children (102 girls, <emph>M</emph> = 8.32 years, <emph>SD</emph> =.45) completed the same Go/No-Go task, and their mothers also completed the questionnaires. The third assessment (T3) involved 213 children (103girls, <emph>M</emph> = 9.44 years, <emph>SD</emph> =.61) completing the Go/No-Go task, and their mothers completing the questionnaires. The majority of mothers and children were Han ethnicity (98%). At T1, the family monthly income was reported by mothers on a 4-point scale (1 = less than ¥3000/US$500, 2 = ¥3000–¥7000/US$500–1200, 3 = ¥7000–¥10000/US$1200–1700, and 4 = more than ¥10000/US$1700), and mother's education level was assessed on a 7-point scale. An index of the participants' socioeconomic status (SES) was calculated by summing the standard scores (<emph>M</emph> = 0, <emph>SD</emph> = 1) of three variables in accordance with previous studies (Cohen et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref98">11</reflink>]). A majority of fathers (78%) and mothers (74%) held a bachelor's degree or above, and 52% of the families had a monthly household income of more than ¥10000/US$1700.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-7">Procedure</hd> <p>This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of XXX University. The elementary school assisted in communications with the children and their parents. Through the school, we distributed informed consent forms to the parents of all first grade children and invited them to participate in the study. Informed consent for participation was obtained from the children's mothers and children at each study wave. The mothers visited the research laboratory at the scheduled time and completed questionnaires regarding parental harsh discipline and their children's externalizing problems, while the children engaged in the Go/No-Go task in a different room. The mothers and children received ¥50 (approximately US$8) and a gift at each study wave, respectively, for their participation.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-8">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0181909715-9">Harsh Discipline (Measured at T1, T2 and T3)</hd> <p>Harsh discipline was assessed by the Chinese version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC; Straus et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref99">54</reflink>]). Two subscales include psychological aggression subscale (five items, e.g., "shouted, yelled, or screamed at") and corporal punishment (six items, e.g., "spanked on bottom with bare hand") which were the primary focus of this study were used. Mothers rated how often she engaged in each discipline strategy in the past year on a 7-point scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (more than 20 times). As suggested by Straus et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref100">54</reflink>]), frequency of harsh discipline was calculated by converting the CTSPC items into a weighted frequency scale, with 0 = never, 1 = once, 2 = twice, 4 = 3–5 times, 8 = 6–10 times, 15 = 11–20 times, and 25 = more than 20 times. The Chinese version of this scale was used widely and showed good internal reliability and validity (Tang, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref101">57</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref102">62</reflink>]). In the present study, the internal consistency reliability (α) of corporal punishment is.81 and psychological aggression is.78 in the present study.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-10">Externalizing Problems (Measured at T1, T2 and T3)</hd> <p>The Chinese version of the CBCL (Achenbach, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref103">1</reflink>]; Leung et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref104">32</reflink>]) subscale was completed by mothers to assess their children's externalizing problems. Externalizing problems over the past six months was rated on a 3-point Likert scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true). The 33-item externalizing problem subscale comprised 20 and 13 items on aggressive behaviors and rule-breaking behaviors, respectively, exhibited by the children. The Chinese version of this scale was used widely and showed good internal reliability and validity (M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref105">62</reflink>]). The item scores were summed to score the children's externalizing problem. The internal consistency reliability (α) was.89 in the present study.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-11">IIV: Go/no-Go Task (Measured at T1, T2 and T3)</hd> <p>Consistent with previous studies (Isbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref106">25</reflink>]), the computerized Go/No-Go task was used to assess children's IIV. The Go/No-Go task included 20 practice trials (10 Go trials and 10 No-Go trials) in random order. The test phases consisted of 160 trials (80% Go trials and 20% No-Go trials) divided into two blocks (80 trials in each block) and 30 s of rest between them. At the beginning of each trial, a fixation cross in the middle of the screen lasted for 1,000 ms, and then the target stimulus (square or circle) appeared for 200 ms with an interstimulus interval of 1,800 ms. The children were asked to press the space key if the square (Go stimuli) appeared and not to make any response if the circle (No-Go stimuli) appeared.</p> <p>The task was programmed via E-Prime 2.0 (Psychology Software Tools, Inc., USA), and the experimental stimuli was presented on a 14-inch computer screen placed approximately 60 cm away from the participants. All target stimuli were of the same size.A diagram describing the task is shown in Figure 1.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of the Go/NoGo task. Each trial began with the appearance of a fixation cross at the center of the screen for 500 ms. Then, square (Go trail) or circle (NoGo trail) square presented for 1000 ms in the center of the screen. After the square disappeared, an interval appeared for 500 ms.</p> <p>During the Go/No-Go task performance, standard deviation of RTs only the correct Go trials used as the index of IIV. Greater IIV indicates greater fluctuation in reaction times among different trials, and vice versa.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-12">Control Variables</hd> <p>Children's sex (0 = girls, 1 = boys) and family SES were included as control variables in the analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-13">Analysis Plan</hd> <p>The present study followed recommended the procedures r by Preacher et al. ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref107">48</reflink>]) and tested the mediation models using maximum likelihood estimation in MPlus 7.4 (see Figure 2). In addition to analyzing IIV, the present study also considered measures of accuracy (ACC) and average reaction times (RT) to understand their unique contributions. Firstly, the autoregressive model of corporal punishment, IIV/ACC/RT and externalizing problems (Model 1a,1b, 1c), and the autoregressive models of psychological aggression, IIV/ACC/RT and externalizing problems (Model 2a, 2b, 2c) were examined separately. Secondly, longitudinal mediation associations between corporal punishment, IIV/ACC/RT and children's externalizing problems (Model 3a, 3b, 3c), as well as longitudinal mediation associations between psychological aggression, IIV/ACC/RT and children's externalizing problems (Model 4a, 4b, 4c) were examined. The mediation analysis was based on 5000 bootstrapped samples and 95% confidence intervals. Full information maximum likelihood was used to account for missing data (Enders, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref108">15</reflink>]), allowing the full sample to be included in model testing. Model fit was assessed using a chi-square test, CFI, Tucker-Lewis (TLI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Hu and Bentler ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref109">24</reflink>]) suggested that a well-fitting model would have a CFI or TLI greater than 0.95, and an RMSEA less than 0.08 (<emph>N</emph> < 250). Finally, the present study also examined possible causal paths operating in the opposite direction (Cole & Maxwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref110">12</reflink>]), Specifically longitudinal mediation associations between children's externalizing problems, IIV/ACC/RT, and corporal punishment (Model 5a, 5b, 5c), as well as longitudinal mediation associations between children's externalizing problems, IIV/ACC/RT, and psychological aggression (Model 6a, 6b, 6c).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. longitudinal mediation associations between corporal punishment, IIV and children's externalizing problems (Model 3). CP = corporal punishment, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0181909715-15">Description Statistics</hd> <p>Preliminary results using descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations for each of the study variables were shown in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>13</td><td>14</td><td>15</td><td>16</td><td>17</td><td>18</td><td>19</td><td>20</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1 Sex</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2 SES</td><td>−.09</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3 CP T1</td><td>.25**</td><td>−.16*</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4 CP T2</td><td>.17*</td><td>−.17*</td><td>.68**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5 CP T3</td><td>.29**</td><td>−.13</td><td>.51**</td><td>.68**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6 PA T1</td><td>.16*</td><td>−.07</td><td>.21*</td><td>.11</td><td>.12</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7 PA T2</td><td>.13</td><td>−.05</td><td>.14</td><td>.17*</td><td>.15*</td><td>.44**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>8 PA T3</td><td>.19*</td><td>.07</td><td>.12</td><td>.03</td><td>.19*</td><td>.48**</td><td>.39**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>9 IIV T1</td><td>.20**</td><td>.09</td><td>.32**</td><td>.23**</td><td>.24**</td><td>.18*</td><td>.11</td><td>.14</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>10 IIV T2</td><td>.20**</td><td>.02</td><td>.33**</td><td>.25**</td><td>.22**</td><td>.06</td><td>.06</td><td>.04</td><td>.35**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>11 IIV T3</td><td>.26**</td><td>.01</td><td>.25**</td><td>.27**</td><td>.34**</td><td>.07</td><td>.01</td><td>.15*</td><td>.41**</td><td>.36**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>12 EXT T1</td><td>.18**</td><td>−.15*</td><td>.36**</td><td>.23**</td><td>.23**</td><td>.22*</td><td>.15*</td><td>.15*</td><td>.31**</td><td>.24**</td><td>.17**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>13EXT T2</td><td>.16*</td><td>−.06</td><td>.33**</td><td>.29**</td><td>.25**</td><td>.07</td><td>.17*</td><td>.17*</td><td>.31**</td><td>.26**</td><td>.25**</td><td>.61**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>14 EXT T3</td><td>.14*</td><td>−.05</td><td>.33**</td><td>.26**</td><td>.33**</td><td>.12</td><td>.10</td><td>.29*</td><td>.30**</td><td>.31**</td><td>.31**</td><td>.51**</td><td>.54**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>15 RT T1</td><td>−.12</td><td>.11</td><td>−.01</td><td>−.08</td><td>−.06</td><td>−.03</td><td>−.01</td><td>.14*</td><td>.53***</td><td>−.04</td><td>.18**</td><td>.12</td><td>.21**</td><td>−.01</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>16 RT T2</td><td>.02</td><td>.15*</td><td>−.19**</td><td>.10</td><td>.07</td><td>.04</td><td>−.01</td><td>.08</td><td>.35***</td><td>−41**</td><td>.22**</td><td>.14*</td><td>.16*</td><td>.08</td><td>.54**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>17 RT T3</td><td>−.11</td><td>.07</td><td>.02</td><td>−.04</td><td>.03</td><td>−.04</td><td>−.03</td><td>.07</td><td>.19**</td><td>.08</td><td>.39**</td><td>.04</td><td>.04</td><td>.04</td><td>.36**</td><td>.58**</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>18 ACC T1</td><td>−.25***</td><td>.02</td><td>−.21**</td><td>−.19**</td><td>−.11</td><td>−.18**</td><td>−.14*</td><td>−.09</td><td>−.57***</td><td>−.28**</td><td>−.26**</td><td>−.25**</td><td>−.12</td><td>−.18**</td><td>.03</td><td>.01</td><td>.02</td><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>19 ACC T2</td><td>−.29***</td><td>.05</td><td>−.34**</td><td>−.33**</td><td>−.23**</td><td>−.10</td><td>−.06</td><td>−.01</td><td>−.33**</td><td>−.54**</td><td>−.36**</td><td>−.27**</td><td>−.26**</td><td>−.33**</td><td>.21**</td><td>.03</td><td>.23**</td><td>.48**</td><td>1</td><td /></tr><tr><td>20 ACC T3</td><td>−.25***</td><td>.15*</td><td>−.15**</td><td>−.24**</td><td>−.18**</td><td>−.04</td><td>−.03</td><td>.02</td><td>−.14*</td><td>−.26**</td><td>−.49**</td><td>−.08</td><td>−.11</td><td>−.08</td><td>.14*</td><td>.12</td><td>.19**</td><td>.24**</td><td>.58**</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td><italic>M</italic></td><td>−</td><td>−</td><td>13.50</td><td>13.23</td><td>12.69</td><td>16.68</td><td>17.63</td><td>16.92</td><td>157.24</td><td>131.94</td><td>120.56</td><td>8.76</td><td>7.28</td><td>7.67</td><td>304.68</td><td>272.46</td><td>242.70</td><td>.94</td><td>.97</td><td>.98</td></tr><tr><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td>−</td><td>−</td><td>13.48</td><td>13.45</td><td>12.87</td><td>4.92</td><td>5.14</td><td>5.10</td><td>48.91</td><td>41.37</td><td>41.85</td><td>6.55</td><td>5.51</td><td>6.18</td><td>75.84</td><td>72.57</td><td>60.01</td><td>.06</td><td>.04</td><td>.03</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>*p</emph> <.05，**<emph>p</emph> <.01，***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, PA = psychological aggression, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems, RT = reaction time, ACC = accuracy.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-16">Cross-Domain Longitudinal Panel Models</hd> <p>In a preliminary analysis, we estimated the autoregressive models separately for corporal punishment, IIV/RT/ACC, and externalizing problems (Model 1a, 1b, 1c), and for psychological aggression, IIV/RT/ACC, and externalizing problems(Model 2a, 2b, 2c) using likelihood ratio test.We found that more complex and fully saturated autoregressive models provided better data fits and controlled for all previous scores. Therefore, we retained these models for subsequent analysis. To further explore the associations, we combined the autoregressive models and added demographic variables such as sex and SES at assessments. However, this model did not fit the data well (χ2 = 79.32, df = 24, <emph>p</emph> <.001; TLI =.82, CFI =.91, RMSEA =.10, SRMR =.11).</p> <p>To improve the model fit, we included cross-domain paths from corporal punishment to IIV and from IIV to externalizing problems, as well as cross-domain paths from psychological aggression to IIV and from IIV to externalizing problems, which were the predicted contributory pathways. We found that these inclusions significantly improved the model fit (χ2 = 43.26, df = 19, <emph>p</emph> =.001; TLI =.90, CFI =.96, RMSEA =.07, SRMR =.06) for corporal punishment, and (χ2 = 104.66, df = 19, <emph>p</emph> <.001; TLI =.54, CFI =.81, RMSEA =.15, SRMR =.07) for psychological aggression. Similarly, the inclusion of cross-domain paths from corporal punishment to RT/ACC and from RT/ACC to externalizing problems, the predicted contributory pathways, resulted in a highly significant improvement in model fit.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-17">Testing for Longitudinal Mediation Model</hd> <p>Our study aimed to test the hypothesis that IIV would mediate the longitudinal relationship between prior exposure to corporal punishment or psychological aggression and later externalizing problems. To test this, we utilized Model 3a, which assessed the indirect effect of corporal punishment at T1 on externalizing problems at T2 through IIV at T2 (first order), corporal punishment at T1 on externalizing problems at T3 through IIV at T3 (first order), and the indirect effect of corporal punishment at T1 on externalizing problems at T3 through IIV at T2 (second-order). As shown in Table 2, the second-order pathway was significant, whereas the first-order indirect pathways were not significant. Our results suggested that corporal punishment at T1 positively predicted children's externalizing problems at T3 through IIV at T2 (βind =.03, <emph>p</emph> =.04, 95% CI [0.001, 0.07]; all cross-domain paths are significant at <emph>p</emph> <.05). Specifically, greater levels of corporal punishment predicted greater IIV over time, which in turn predicted more externalizing problems over time. The mediating effect was 0.03, accounting for 21.21% of the total effect. Figure 2 presents the standardized structural path coefficients for Model 3a. Additionally, we did not find significant mediation effects of mean RT and ACC from corporal punishment to externalizing problems (as shown in Tables 3 and 4, <emph>ps</emph> >.05).</p> <p>Table 2. Mediating effects of IIV on the longitudinal associations between corporal punishment and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.67***</td><td>0.65***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.57***</td><td>0.44***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV↔IIV</td><td>0.25***</td><td>0.28***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→IIV</td><td>0.23**</td><td>0.18**</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV→ EXT</td><td>0.12*</td><td>0.15*</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>0.13*</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 3. Mediating effects of mean reaction time on the longitudinal associations between corporal punishment and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.67***</td><td>0.65***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.58***</td><td>0.48***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT↔RT</td><td>0.53***</td><td>0.60***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→RT</td><td>0.20**</td><td>0.09</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT→ EXT</td><td>0.15*</td><td>0.03</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>0.17*</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, RT = reaction time, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 4. Mediating effects of accuracy on the longitudinal associations between corporal punishment and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.67***</td><td>0.65***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.62***</td><td>0.44***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC↔ACC</td><td>0.39***</td><td>0.54**</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→ACC</td><td>−0.22**</td><td>−0.03</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC→ EXT</td><td>0.04</td><td>−0.19**</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>0.11</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, ACC = accuracy, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>We also tested Model 4a, which assessed the indirect effects of psychological aggression at T1 on externalizing problems at T2 through IIV at T2 (first order), psychological aggression at T1 on externalizing problems at T3 through IIV at T3 (first order), and psychological aggression at T1 on externalizing problems at T3 through IIV at T2 (second-order). However, as shown in Table 5, no significant indirect pathways were found in either the first or second orders (<emph>p</emph> >.05). The standardized structural path coefficients for Model 4a are presented in Figure 3. Additionally, we did not find significant mediation effects of mean RT and ACC from psychological aggression to externalizing problems (as shown in Tables 6 and 7, <emph>ps</emph> >.05).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. longitudinal mediation associations between corporal punishment, IIV and children's externalizing problems (Model 4). PA = psychological aggression, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 5. Mediating effects of IIV on the longitudinal associations between psychological aggression and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.43***</td><td>0.41***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV↔IIV</td><td>0.32***</td><td>0.33***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.57***</td><td>0.45***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→IIV</td><td>−0.01</td><td>−0.04</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV→ EXT</td><td>0.12*</td><td>0.20***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>−0.04</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 6. Mediating effects of mean reaction time on the longitudinal associations between psychological aggression and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.42***</td><td>0.41***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT↔RT</td><td>0.54***</td><td>0.59***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.59***</td><td>0.58***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→RT</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.01</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT→ EXT</td><td>0.15**</td><td>0.02</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>−0.02</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, RT = reaction time, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 7. Mediating effects of accuracy on the longitudinal associations between psychological aggression and externalizing problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.43***</td><td>0.41***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC↔ACC</td><td>0.43***</td><td>0.54***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.62***</td><td>0.45***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→ACC</td><td>0.01</td><td>−0.08</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC→ EXT</td><td>0.04</td><td>−0.23***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA→ EXT</td><td /><td /><td>−0.05</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, ACC = accuracy, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-18">Testing for Bidirectional Associations</hd> <p>When examining longitudinal mediation, it is advisable to examine possible causal paths operating in the opposite direction (Cole & Maxwell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref111">12</reflink>]). We thus tested the Model 5a-5c and the Model 6a-6c, whereby we added cross-mediational paths (from externalizing problems to corporal punishment/psychological aggression via IIV, and the respective direct paths). However, the inclusion of these paths resulted in worse model fits (χ2 = 69.19, df = 19, <emph>p</emph> <.001; TLI =.80, CFI =.91, RMSEA =.11, SRMR =.09; χ2 = 109.41, df = 19, <emph>p</emph> <.001; TLI =.52, CFI =.80, RMSEA =.15, SRMR =.07). The results indicated that the mediation effects of IIV between externalizing problems and corporal punishment and psychological aggression were not significant (ps >.05), as demonstrated in Tables 8 and 9. Additionally, the mediation effects of mean RT and ACC from externalizing problems to corporal punishment and psychological aggression were not significant (<emph>ps</emph> >.05), as depicted in Tables 10–13. The standardized structural path coefficients for model 5 and model 6 are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. Cross-domain longitudinal associations between corporal punishment, children's IIV and externalizing problems (Model 5). CP = corporal punishment, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 5. Cross-domain longitudinal associations between psychological aggression, children's IIV and externalizing problems (Model 6). PA = psychological aggression, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 8. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to corporal punishment.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.53***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV↔IIV</td><td>0.28***</td><td>0.26***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.67***</td><td>0.62***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV→CP</td><td>0.03</td><td>−0.01</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ IIV</td><td>0.14*</td><td>0.15*</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ CP</td><td /><td /><td>0.04</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>8 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 9. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to psychological aggression.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.52***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV↔IIV</td><td>0.28***</td><td>0.26***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.43***</td><td>0.42***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>IIV→PA</td><td>0.01</td><td>−0.12</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ IIV</td><td>0.14*</td><td>0.15*</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ PA</td><td /><td /><td>0.06</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>9 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, IIV = trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 10. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to corporal punishment.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.53***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT↔RT</td><td>0.53***</td><td>0.60***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.68***</td><td>0.64***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT→CP</td><td>−0.07</td><td>−0.01</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ RT</td><td>0.08</td><td>−0.04</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ CP</td><td /><td /><td>0.03</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>10 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, RT = reaction time, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 11. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to corporal punishment.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.53***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC↔ACC</td><td>0.40***</td><td>0.56***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>CP↔CP</td><td>0.67***</td><td>0.65***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC→CP</td><td>−0.06</td><td>0.08</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ ACC</td><td>−0.15*</td><td>0.07</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ CP</td><td /><td /><td>0.04</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>11 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. CP = corporal punishment, ACC = accuracy, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 12. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to psychological aggression.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.52***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT↔RT</td><td>0.53***</td><td>0.60***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.43***</td><td>0.41***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>RT→PA</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.09</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→RT</td><td>0.08</td><td>−0.04</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ PA</td><td /><td /><td>0.03</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>12 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, RT = reaction time, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <p>Table 13. The cross-mediational paths from children's externalizing problems to psychological aggression.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Model parameters</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Stability paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td>Second-order autoregression</td></tr><tr><td>EXT↔ EXT</td><td>0.61***</td><td>0.51***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC↔ACC</td><td>0.40***</td><td>0.59***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>PA↔PA</td><td>0.42***</td><td>0.42***</td><td /></tr><tr><td>Cross-lagged paths</td><td>T1→T2</td><td>T2→T3</td><td /></tr><tr><td>ACC→PA</td><td>−0.05</td><td>0.14*</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ ACC</td><td>−0.15*</td><td>0.06</td><td /></tr><tr><td>EXT→ PA</td><td /><td /><td>0.06</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>13 <emph>*p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01, ***<emph>p</emph> <.001. PA = psychological aggression, ACC = accuracy, EXT = externalizing problems.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-19">Discussion</hd> <p>The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of individual difference in children's IIV in the relationship between parenting behavior and child development over a three -year period in Chinese society. After controlling for continuity in corporal punishment/psychological aggression and children's externalizing problems over time, the present study found IIV during the Go/No-Go task performance partially mediated the longitudinal association between corporal punishment and children's externalizing problems. However, IIV during the Go/No-Go task performance did not significantly mediate the longitudinal association between psychological aggression and children's externalizing problems.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-20">Harsh Discipline and Externalizing Problems</hd> <p>The study found that corporal punishment consistently influences children's externalizing problems, despite their high rank-order stability. Specifically, the present study found that corporal punishment is associated with children's externalizing problems both concurrently and longitudinally, predicting their externalizing problems one year and two years later. While past research suggests that harsh discipline may be perceived as a parental indication of concern, involvement, and love (Chao, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref112">10</reflink>]; Simons et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref113">51</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref114">61</reflink>]) in Chinese traditional culture, the present study adds to a growing body of empirical evidence (M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref115">61</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref116">62</reflink>]) suggesting that corporal punishment is an ineffective parenting behavior management and has a long-term detrimental effect on child development.</p> <p>The present study found that psychological aggression had only a concurrent association with children's externalizing problems and did not predict their future externalizing problems. This finding is consistent with previous studies that found the relationship between psychological aggression and children's externalizing problems to be less consistent and strong (Niu et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref117">41</reflink>]; Straus & Field, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref118">53</reflink>]). Cultural norms have been proposed to shape the relationship between harsh discipline and externalizing problems (Wiggers & Paas, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref119">64</reflink>]). In Chinese society, psychological aggression may be a more prevalent and less severe form of harsh discipline compared to corporal punishment (Liu & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref120">33</reflink>]; M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref121">61</reflink>]). As a result, children may not perceive their mother's psychological aggression as parental rejection and may not experience long-term negative impacts on their development.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-21">The Mediation Effect of IIV</hd> <p>Significantly, the present study found that children's IIV during the Go/No-Go task performance in the second year acted as a mediator between corporal punishment in the first year and children's externalizing problems in the third year. This finding aligned with the neurosequential model of therapeutics (Perry, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref122">43</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref123">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref124">45</reflink>]), as early exposure to more corporal punishment may impede the development of children's PFC, reflecting by greater IIV. Conversely, less corporal punishment may result in r more stable PFC activity, associated with attentional and cognitive control characterized by lower IIV. Additionally, children who exhibit greater IIV during cognitive task may have difficulties in engage attention to regulate negative cognitive, emotional and goal-directed behaviors (Douglas, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref125">14</reflink>]; Stuss et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref126">55</reflink>]; Weissman et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref127">63</reflink>]), contributing to the accumulation of more externalizing problems in the future. In contrast, children who display lower IIV during cognitive tasks may find it easier to shift from dominant reflexive reactions to more intentional, controlled processes and regulate negative emotion and behavior impulses (Posner & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref128">46</reflink>]). Additionally, as expected, the present study found that IIV only partially mediated the longitudinal relationship between harsh discipline on externalizing problems, indicating that other mediating processes may also play a role.</p> <p>Furthermore, the present study found that children's IIV during the Go/No-Go task performance at the second year did not significantly mediate the association between psychological aggression at the first year and children's externalizing problems at the third year. This may suggest that the relationship between harsh discipline (i.e. corporal punishment and psychological aggression) and children adjustment may vary depending on the type of discipline. The present study did not support bidirectional theories of parent-child relationship (A. Sameroff, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref129">49</reflink>]; A. J. Sameroff, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref130">50</reflink>]), however, this result is consistent with previous longitudinal studies that examined longer- term associations between externalizing problems and parenting in both western and Chinese society (M. Wang & Liu, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref131">62</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-22">Implications, Limitations, and Future Directions</hd> <p>The finding of the present study have valuable implications for intervention programs. First, in line with prior research, the present study further highlights early parenting behavior, especially corporal punishment, as a robust predictor of subsequent IIV and externalizing problems while controlling for stability. Thus, intervention aimed at reducing externalizing problems among children should focus on reducing the frequency and intensity of corporal punishment used by parents. While psychological aggression was only found to be associated with children's externalizing problems at the concurrent level in the present study, it is still important to note that reducing the frequency and intensity of psychological aggression used by parents is necessary. Even if the effects of psychological aggression do not seem to be as strong as those of corporal punishment, it can still have negative impacts on children's development and well-being. Therefore, it is crucial for parents to understand the detrimental effects of any form of harsh discipline and learn more positive and constructive ways to communicate with their children.</p> <p>Secondly, the finding demonstrates that IIV acts as a mediating mechanism linking parenting behavior to children's prospective externalizing problems. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing IIV and improving attentional and cognitive control could prove fruitful in reducing risk of externalizing problems. Meditation training has been shown to improve the efficiency of executing attention networks, and reduced IIV during cognitive task (Cubillo et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref132">13</reflink>]; Garrett et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref133">17</reflink>]). Overall, children who experience negative parenting behaviors, and have difficulties in consistency of attentional control or inefficient related prefrontal function, may benefit most from future prevention programs at reducing the hostile and aggressive behavior.</p> <p>The present study contributes to understanding of the influencer and mechanism of the development of children's externalizing problems, but the limitations should be considered when interpreting the current findings. Firstly, IIV was estimated using one cognitive task, which is a common approach in developmental studies (Isbell et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref134">25</reflink>])., but using different tasks could illustrate how task characteristics influence IIV. Secondly, although the present study employed a longitudinal design with three waves of data collection, including more data points would enable better examination of repeated mediation effects during elementary school years. Thirdly, the present study relied on mother's report of harsh discipline, and lacked reports from fathers. Although mothers may serve as children's primary caregivers in Chinese societies, Thirdly, the study only relied on mothers' reports of harsh discipline, and did not include data from fathers. Although mothers often serve as primary caregivers in Chinese societies, fathers are increasingly involved in child-rearing, and collecting both self-report and observational data from both parents could provide a more comprehensive understanding. Lastly, future studies could consider the intergenerational effect by including parents' psychopathology or aggression as control variables.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-23">Conclusions</hd> <p>In conclusion, the present study utilized longitudinal mediation analysis to test a process model of development which proposes that negative parenting interferes with the development of children's IIV, reflecting PFC activity, and subsequently increasing the risk of children's externalizing problems. The findings highlight the complex interplay between parenting behavior, children's cognitive neurofunction and prospective externalizing problems. The present study suggests that the IIV may be an important factor to consider when studying the influence of family relationships on children's development.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-24">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-25">Credit Authorship Contribution Statement</hd> <p>Yuan Liang and Yali Wang carried out data collection, and critical revision of the article. Guangyan Yang carried out data analysis. Yuan Peng carried out conception and design of the study, data analysis and interpretation, drafting of the article, and critical revision of the article. All authors have approved the final article.</p> <hd id="AN0181909715-26">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0181909715-27"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Bulletin, 85 (6), 1275 – 1301. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.6.1275</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref67" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Adamo, N., Hodsoll, J., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J. K., & Kuntsi, J. (2019). 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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Harsh Discipline and the Development of Children's Externalizing Problems: Longitudinal Mediation of Intraindividual Reaction Time Variability
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  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yuan+Peng%22">Yuan Peng</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3077-0922">0000-0003-3077-0922</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yuan+Liang%22">Yuan Liang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yali+Wang%22">Yali Wang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Guangyan+Yang%22">Guangyan Yang</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Early+Education+and+Development%22"><i>Early Education and Development</i></searchLink>. 2025 36(1):186-203.
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 18
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Early+Experience%22">Early Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Trauma%22">Trauma</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Discipline%22">Discipline</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Problems%22">Behavior Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parenting+Styles%22">Parenting Styles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Negative+Reinforcement%22">Negative Reinforcement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reaction+Time%22">Reaction Time</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Brain+Hemisphere+Functions%22">Brain Hemisphere Functions</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Neurological+Impairments%22">Neurological Impairments</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2366697
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1040-9289<br />1556-6935
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Research Findings: The present study aimed to investigate whether the trial-to-trial intraindividual reaction time variability (IIV), which reflects prefrontal cortex activity related to attentional and cognitive control, mediated the longitudinal effects of earlier harsh discipline on children's later externalizing problems. The study involved 235 elementary school children (M[subscript age] = 7.25, 46% female) who underwent up to three repeated assessments. Specifically, the Chinese version of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale and the Child Behavior Checklist were completed by the children's mothers to assess harsh discipline (including corporal punishment and psychological aggression) and the children's externalizing problems at three assessment waves. In addition, the children's IIV was measured using the Go/No-Go task at three assessment waves. The results from structural equation modeling revealed that the longitudinal path between corporal punishment at T1 and externalizing problems at T3 was partially mediated by IIV at T2. This suggested that more corporal punishment children experienced, the greater IIV and the more externalizing problems they will develop at a later stage. Practice or Policy: The findings highlight the proposed process model, which shows that corporal punishment impairs the development of children's prefrontal function as indexed by IIV, ultimately increasing the risk of externalizing problems.
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  Label: Entry Date
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  Data: 2025
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  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1455750
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1455750
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        Value: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2366697
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 186
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Trauma
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Discipline
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      – SubjectFull: Behavior Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parenting Styles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Negative Reinforcement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reaction Time
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Brain Hemisphere Functions
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      – SubjectFull: Neurological Impairments
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      – SubjectFull: China
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      – TitleFull: Harsh Discipline and the Development of Children's Externalizing Problems: Longitudinal Mediation of Intraindividual Reaction Time Variability
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