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Effects of Visualization Format and Time of Day on Immediate Recall of Tactical Behaviors

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Title: Effects of Visualization Format and Time of Day on Immediate Recall of Tactical Behaviors
Language: English
Authors: Ghazi Rekik (ORCID 0000-0003-2293-048X), Yosra Belkhir (ORCID 0000-0002-7043-1004), Ghada Jouira (ORCID 0000-0003-1311-7497), Mohamed Jarraya (ORCID 0009-0004-6866-0731), Cheng-Deng Kuo (ORCID 0000-0002-3989-1950), Yung-Sheng Chen (ORCID 0000-0002-1013-3822)
Source: Journal of Motor Learning and Development. 2024 12(3):534-554.
Availability: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2024
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Recall (Psychology), Psychomotor Skills, Visualization, College Freshmen, Time Factors (Learning), Public Colleges, Physiology, Performance Factors, Physical Education, Athletics, Student Attitudes, Memory, Team Sports, Games
DOI: 10.1123/jmld.2024-0008
ISSN: 2325-3193
2325-3215
Abstract: This study examined the effect of time of day on immediate recall of motor skills (i.e., tactical behaviors in basketball) from different external visualizations. First-year students from a public university in sports science (novice practitioners, 18.96 ± 0.57 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: video modeling by experts, a sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures, or a sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures. Morning and late afternoon sessions were conducted involving study phases and immediate-recall tests (i.e., comprehension and game performance tests). Oral temperature and mood states were also measured at both times of day. The results revealed that participants exhibited better recall performances in the morning, irrespective of the visualization format used. At both time of day, tactical behaviors were better recalled from video modeling rather than the two sequential presentations of pictures. In addition, providing the learner with a permanent visual trace of the previous states improves the immediate recall of tactical skills from a sequential presentation of pictures, at both time of day. Furthermore, morning sessions resulted in lower oral temperature, lower negative mood, and higher positive mood, compared with afternoon sessions. Implications for using external visualizations aimed at the acquisition of motor skills, particularly tactical behaviors, are discussed.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1456173
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0181087341;[fqbl]01dec.24;2024Nov27.02:08;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0181087341-1">Effects of Visualization Format and Time of Day on Immediate Recall of Tactical Behaviors </title> <p>This study examined the effect of time of day on immediate recall of motor skills (i.e., tactical behaviors in basketball) from different external visualizations. First-year students from a public university in sports science (novice practitioners, 18.96 ± 0.57 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: video modeling by experts, a sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures, or a sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures. Morning and late afternoon sessions were conducted involving study phases and immediate-recall tests (i.e., comprehension and game performance tests). Oral temperature and mood states were also measured at both times of day. The results revealed that participants exhibited better recall performances in the morning, irrespective of the visualization format used. At both time of day, tactical behaviors were better recalled from video modeling rather than the two sequential presentations of pictures. In addition, providing the learner with a permanent visual trace of the previous states improves the immediate recall of tactical skills from a sequential presentation of pictures, at both time of day. Furthermore, morning sessions resulted in lower oral temperature, lower negative mood, and higher positive mood, compared with afternoon sessions. Implications for using external visualizations aimed at the acquisition of motor skills, particularly tactical behaviors, are discussed.</p> <p>Keywords: diurnal variation; short-term retention; basketball; human movement effect</p> <p>Given the current availability of information and communication technology tools (e.g., computers, laptops, data projectors) in educational institutions, many teachers rely heavily on external visual mediums to present and explain new skills. In this context, video modeling by experts are rapidly gaining popularity in various computer-based learning environments, and these presentation formats are proving to be particularly effective for motor knowledge and action understanding ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref1">40</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref2">61</reflink>]). This is probably because (a) they are capable of conveying information about how to perform a motor skill ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref3">42</reflink>]) and (b) they are often seen as attractive to students, which can improve their motivation, and facilitate knowledge construction ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref4">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, according to the cognitive load theory ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref5">73</reflink>],[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref6">74</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref7">72</reflink>]), dynamic visualizations (e.g., digital videos and animations) often impose high cognitive demands (i.e., extraneous cognitive load resources) on learners' working memory due to their transient nature (<emph>the transient information effect</emph>; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref8">47</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref9">77</reflink>]). The transient information effect occurs with dynamic visualizations that present a continuous flow of perceptual information without keeping it visible on the screen for an extended period ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref10">70</reflink>]). Dealing with such visual tools requires learners to retain information from earlier frames in working memory to connect it with the information presented in later frame, in order to build a coherent internal representation of the content-based instruction ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref11">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref12">65</reflink>]). These cognitive operations can overload working memory and thereby negatively affect learning performance ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref13">15</reflink>]). Otherwise, teaching with dynamic visualizations may promote passive (i.e., without engaging in relevant cognitive activities) rather than active learning ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref14">38</reflink>]) and therefore mislead learners into the illusion of understanding ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref15">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Replacing dynamic visualizations with nontransitory pictures that represents specific steps/events of the system or procedure may reduce the increased extraneous cognitive load caused by the negative transient information effect ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]). Studying these static displays requires a process of internal visualization (i.e., in the human mind) and therefore relies more on the ability to infer and imagine the changes that occur in each picture in order to understand the whole procedure/system. Compared with a transient video, presenting a series of static pictures enables learners to have sufficient time to detect and process crucial information and effectively integrate it in long-term memory ([<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref18">70</reflink>]). Additionally, using a static, rather than a dynamic, visualization enables learners to review and compare different sections of the display as frequently as desired, thus stimulating learners to engage in relevant cognitive activities and enhancing germane cognitive resources relevant for learning ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref19">12</reflink>]). In team-sport domains, static visualizations constitute the most common instructional method used by teachers and coaches to explain several properties of offensive/defensive playing systems ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref20">62</reflink>]). These visual supports are usually characterized by a successive/sequential display of the steps of play and can be presented to learners in (a) a sequential-with-tracing fashion or (b) a sequential-without-tracing fashion ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref21">44</reflink>]). In the first version, a new picture appears on the screen while the previous picture remains available. This type of presentation provides the learner with a permanent visual trace of the previous states. In the second version, a novel picture appears on the screen while the previous one vanishes. Such presentation may break the perception of continuity of the system since previous information is not available. In this framework, H'mida et al. ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref22">36</reflink>]) observed that sequential-permanent pictures presentation was more effective than sequential-transient pictures for intrinsic motivation, and immediate recall of a motor skill in novice practitioners. Based on cognitive load theory, Khacharem et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref23">44</reflink>]) argued that the mental comparison (i.e., when processing a sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures) is likely to be a more challenging task than the visual comparison (i.e., when processing a sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures).</p> <p>Much research effort has been devoted to testing the effectiveness of instructional videos against static graphics. A meta-analysis of 26 studies conducted by Höffler and Leutner ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref24">39</reflink>]) demonstrated that dynamic visualizations were more efficient than static approaches, when motor skills were depicted as to-be-learned content. Additional quantitative reviews ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref25">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref26">57</reflink>]) have emerged to support the idea that dynamic visual supports are superior to their static counterparts, provided they are realistic and involve procedural-motor knowledge. Interestingly, previous studies have demonstrated that videos possess a clear advantage over diverse sequential presentations of pictures in terms of immediate recall of motor skills ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref27">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref28">30</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref30">36</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref31">70</reflink>]). For example, participants exposed to a video demonstration achieved better immediate construction of nautical knots than those engaging with a sequential-with-tracing presentation of photographs ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref32">11</reflink>]). In a physical education setting, it was found that learners who received a model-based video outperformed those who received a sequential presentation of still pictures (whether with or without tracing fashion), with regard to immediate recall of a Judo gesture ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref33">36</reflink>]). The superiority of dynamic visual support over its static counterpart when acquiring such kind of knowledge (i.e., motor skills) has been referred to as <emph>the human movement effect</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref34">53</reflink>]). This effect has frequently been associated with the existence of an effective mirror neuron system, which is automatically activated when an individual observes another person performing the same motor skill ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref35">67</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref36">64</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref37">76</reflink>]). Accordingly, this underlying architecture is responsible for the human ability to learn human movements through imitation and direct observation. Indeed, it has been shown that observing an individual executing a dance choreography induced high levels of activation within the mirror neuron system ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref38">14</reflink>]). Consequently, processing instructional videos portraying human motor skills does not require excessive cognitive resources and can be effective for acquisition, even if the information is transient.</p> <p>Certainly, the incorporation of computers and/or tablets in educational settings encourages teachers to communicate various skills via dynamic and/or static visualizations throughout the day. The question that arises, however, is whether varied time of day (TOD) could affect the acquisition of motor knowledge from these external visualizations. In surveying the literature on the effect of videos versus static pictures on motor skill acquisition, we noticed that the authors often overlooked answering this question. However, filling this knowledge gap is important for research on learning and instruction, since it has been shown that performances on tasks involving short-term recall of information can vary throughout the day (studies on human memory; [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref40">23</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref41">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref42">69</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref43">78</reflink>]). Evidence of such circadian variation has been reported since Ebbinghaus ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref44">22</reflink>]) found that the number of trials required for participants to immediately recall serial lists of nonsense syllables increased dramatically from late morning to early evening. These findings are supported by Folkard et al. ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref45">27</reflink>]) who found that immediate retention of a sound-recorded story was better among children who heard it at 09:00 hr than among those who heard it at 15:00 hr. Furthermore, Gunter et al. ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref46">34</reflink>]) investigated the effects of three TOD (09:30, 13:30, and 16:30 hr) on instant free recall, cued recall, and recognition of a televised news. They found a significant TOD effect, with memory performance significantly declining over the day. Similarly, Furnham and Gunter ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref47">28</reflink>]) demonstrated that the immediate recall of violent and nonviolent news stories from diverse presentation formats (i.e., audio-visual format, audio-only format, or in print) was highest in the morning and lowest in the evening. At first, Ebbinghaus ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref48">22</reflink>]) assumed that immediate-recall performances (IRPs) tend to be better in the morning hours because <emph>in the later hours of the day mental vigor and receptivity are less</emph>. Likewise, Gates ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref49">31</reflink>]) suggested that the morning is the optimal period to retain contents for a short time, and the afternoon drop in performance is due to mental fatigue. Subsequently, another theoretical interpretation has emerged assuming that the intraday variation of IRPs is related to a change in basal arousal level (usually operationalized in terms of body temperature) over the day. Indeed, it is well known that arousal rises from a relatively low level in the early morning to reach a maximum at about 20:00 hr, with a slight dip in the early afternoon, thus to parallel the circadian rhythm in body temperature ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref50">18</reflink>]). The diurnal variation of basal arousal level (or body temperature) led the authors of several previous studies to predict that the morning superiority in the immediate retention of new information is linked to low arousal circumstances ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref52">21</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref53">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref54">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref55">46</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref56">50</reflink>]). The arousal-related speculation seems to be supported by Blake ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref57">10</reflink>]), who showed that immediate memory of digit numbers decreased throughout the day as the subject's arousal level increased, suggesting a negative relationship between IRPs and basal arousal level.</p> <p>The current study was designed to extend previous investigations on diurnal variation of short-term learning, by exploring how varied TOD (i.e., morning between 08:00 and 09:00 hr vs. late afternoon between 16:00 and 17:00 hr) could affect comprehension and game performance resulting from studying tactical behaviors of team play through different types of instructional media (i.e., video modeling by experts vs. sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures vs. sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures). No previous research has investigated this issue in computer-based learning environments, which is a significant contribution of the current study.</p> <p>Based on the literature reviewed previously, it was predicted that the morning presentation of the three external visualizations will lead to superior IRPs (i.e., higher comprehension and higher game performance) compared with the late afternoon. It was also predicted that instructional video will lead to superior IRPs compared with the two sequential presentations of pictures, at both TOD. Finally, it was predicted that the sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures will lead to superior IRPs compared with the sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures, at both TOD.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0181087341-3">Participants</hd> <p>The required sample size was based on a priori power analysis using G*Power (version 3.1.9.7; [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref58">24</reflink>]). The effect size was set to 0.25, based on the results of a previous study that examined the effect of video versus static pictures on immediate recall of motor skills among first-year physical education students aged between 18 and 20 years (see [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref59">70</reflink>]). Moreover, based on previous recommendations for studies with repeated measures ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref60">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref61">35</reflink>]), we used an α error probability of.05, a power (1 − β error probability) of 90%, a correlation among repeated measures of.5, and an nonsphericity correction of 1. The estimation used an <emph>F</emph> test: repeated-measures analysis of variance within-between interaction, in which condition (i.e., three visualization formats) was a between-subjects factor and TOD (i.e., two sessions: morning and afternoon) was within-subjects factor. The analysis indicated that at minimum 54 participants should be recruited in the present study.</p> <p>The recruitment strategy consisted of three-step screening process to select the study sample. In the first step, we screened 95 students from the database of a public university of physical education and sports. In the second step, 86 of the screened participants who met the particular inclusion criteria were selected. The inclusion criteria were as follow: first-year students aged between 18 and 20 years, participants with normal or corrected to normal eyesight, participants without current muscular injuries, and right-handed students (as the viewed models in the instructional materials). Handedness was determined using the shorter 10-item version of the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref62">52</reflink>]). In the third step, 20 of the 86 selected participants were excluded from the study. The exclusion criteria were as follows: participants classified as "definitely or moderately morning type" and "definitely or moderately evening type" according to their responses to the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref63">41</reflink>]); participants with previous experience in playing or watching basketball competitions; and work-shift participants. During the experimental procedure, participants who reveal a nap activity before afternoon sessions, a lack of sleep the night before, or a sleepless night and participants with drug, alcohol, nicotine, energy drinks, or caffeine consummation were also excluded. Consequently, 66 participants took part in the current study. The participants had a mean age was 18.96 ± 0.57 years, and the majority were females (<emph>n</emph> = 48). All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. They were also informed about their right to withdraw from the study without any penalty. The study protocol was approved by the local committee of protection of persons (C.P.P.SUD: 0489/2023) and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, with its later amendment.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-4">Experimental Procedure</hd> <p>The study period was conducted from February 18 to March 2, 2023, following regular school daily schedules. One week before the experiment, all the participants attended an introductory session to be familiarized with the experimenters, materials/devices, and tests. Subsequently, the experiment was conducted in groups of five participants (except for the last group, which consisted of six participants) during sessions of approximately 60 min. In each group, participants individually participated in two sessions, with only one session per day, following a quasi-random order. One session took place in the morning (between 08:00 and 09:00 hr) and the other session occurred in the late afternoon (between 16:00 and 17:00 hr). These sessions were conducted under one of the three experimental conditions: (a) video modeling by experts (<emph>n</emph> = 22, 16 females), (b) sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures (STP-P; <emph>n</emph> = 22, 16 females), and (c) sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures (SWTP-P; <emph>n</emph> = 22, 16 females). Note that (a) the playing system presented in the morning differed from the one presented in the late afternoon, although they had a similar level of complexity, (b) the order of the three experimental conditions was counterbalanced within participants, and (c) precautions were taken to verify any potential masking effects by the napping, strenuous mental and/or physical activity, and consumption of drug, alcohol, nicotine, energy drinks, or coffee, prior testing ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref64">4</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref65">5</reflink>]).</p> <p>Ten minutes prior to each session, all participants came to the university laboratory, which maintained a stable mean ambient temperature (21.1 ± 1.1 °C) and relative humidity (44.3 ± 7.6%). Afterward, the participants proceeded individually to an experimental box, which contained an Acer aspire E15 Laptop positioned on an empty desk with a chair. At this moment, oral temperature was measured using a calibrated digital clinical thermometer (Omron; accuracy ± 0.05 °C) inserted sublingually for a minimum 3 min while the participant remained seated in a resting position. Then, the participant was given 5 min to complete the French version of the Profile of Mood States questionnaire (POMS-f; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref66">16</reflink>]). The POMS-f is composed of 65 words/adjectives and assesses seven emotional states. Participants responded to each word/adjective on a 5-point scale (0 = <emph>not at all</emph> to 4 = <emph>very strong</emph>) with higher scores indicating a more negative mood. The reliability coefficient obtained by Cronbach alpha was.88 for the anxiety,.91 for the depression,.84 for the anger,.76 for the confusion,.80 for the vigor,.77 for the fatigue, and.81 for the friendship. The total mood disturbance was calculated by summing the scores of all items, except interpersonal relationships, using the following formula: total mood disturbance = (anxiety + depression + anger + fatigue + confusion) − vigor. After completing these two measurements, the participants studied the instructional materials twice (depending on visualization format) and were instructed to memorize as precisely as possible the functioning of the playing system (<emph>study phase</emph>). Note that participants in the static presentation conditions were initially provided with information about the functions of the arrows before watching the playing system. Immediately after the study phase, the participant was given 2 min to complete the comprehension test in a sheet of paper that included three schematic pictures of an empty basketball half‐court representing the main steps of the playing system. For each picture, the participant was instructed to accurately reproduce the location of the players (by indicating their numbers) in relation to the ball already placed in its correct position. The participant was also instructed to use the adequate arrow symbols (provided in the caption below the schematic pictures) to indicate the actions of play. Each correct response yielded 1 point; otherwise, participants received 0 points. The scores could therefore range from 0 to 18. Finally, accompanied by a co-investigator, the student moved to a basketball court (20 m away from the laboratory) to perform the game performance test for 1 min. For this task, the participant was instructed to reproduce as accurately as possible, on a basketball half-court, the actions performed by a randomly chosen player from the computer-based video (i.e., playmaker, pivot, or winger). The test was conducted with two professional basketball players (used as teammates) who already knew the functioning of the playing system. To ensure the smooth running of the test, one of the basketball players was instructed to provide verbal corrective feedback whenever the participant performed a wrong action. The recall performances were recorded through a digital camera. Each correct position/action yielded 1 point; otherwise, participants received 0 points. The scores could range from 0 to 6. The game comprehension and a game performance tests are immediate-recall tests based on the reconstruction paradigm for the experimental analysis of the perceptual factors in cognitive processing ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref67">17</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-5">Apparatus and Stimulus Information</hd> <p>The stimuli were presented on a 32 × 20‐cm screen from an Acer aspire E15 Laptop placed at a distance of 30 cm from the participant, with approximately 45° viewing angle. The stimuli were delivered as Microsoft Power Point presentations.</p> <p>The computer-based learning materials consisted of two offensive playing systems in basketball, with similar levels of complexity. These game situations were designed in cooperation with two experienced basketball coaches/teachers (mean age = 43.1 years, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.84; mean experience = 11.25 years). The term "complexity" refers to the internal complexity of the game situation, that is, the intrinsic cognitive load associated with it ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref68">58</reflink>]). For our purposes, both playing systems must include the same number of players and exhibit the same movements/behaviors, to guarantee equivalent complexity levels ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref69">59</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref70">62</reflink>]). Each playing system contained three basketball players (a playmaker ①, a pivot ④, and a winger ③) who carried out a coherent zone attack consisting of nine different actions of play (pass, screening, movements, and layup).</p> <p>First, these games were executed by three expert basketball players (aged between 20 and 22 years), serving as models, and were filmed using a Samsung Galaxy Tab 3 SM-T211 camera placed in an elevated position above, approximately 2.5 m high, at the center of the field. The recording position was set to film the entire field of play and all players' actions. The recorded videos (8 s) were transferred via a USB connector and saved onto the computer. They were resized to 820 × 972 pixels using Apowersoft Convertisseur Video software.</p> <p>Subsequently, three key frames derived from each video were selected to create the two sequential-pictures presentations. According to the same experts who initially designed the game situations, each pass corresponded to a new step made up of multiple offensive actions achieved by the players. The photographs were captured using FastStone Capture 6.7 software, and actions of play were indicated by yellow numbered arrow-symbols using Microsoft Paint. A dotted arrow refers to a simple pass, a solid arrow refers to a play movement, a double solid arrow refers to a layup, and a short perpendicular line at the end of a movement line refers to a screen. In the STP-P, the images appear still consecutively until the end of scrolling through the three pictures during 8 s (Figure 1). In the SWTP-P, the images appear and disappear consecutively until the end of scrolling through the three pictures during 8 s (Figure 1).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1 —The sequential-with-tracing (top) and sequential-without-tracing (bottom) presentations of the second step of the two designed basketball plays.</p> <p>Note that all the computer-based materials were system‐paced and purely visual to avoid the potential benefits of interactivity ([<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref71">79</reflink>]) as well as the possible occurrence of the modality, redundancy, or temporal continuity effects associated with the simultaneous use of visual and verbal information ([<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref72">43</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-6">DataAnalysis</hd> <p>Statistical analysis was processed using the Statistica software (version10, StataCorp LLC). The normal distribution of the study variables was evaluated using the Shapiro–Wilk test. As all study variables were found to be nonnormally distributed, nonparametric tests were used for data analysis (i.e., game performance, comprehension, oral temperature, and mood states). The Wilcoxon rank (<emph>W</emph>) test was performed to identify differences between the morning and late-afternoon sessions. The effect size (<emph>r</emph>) for the <emph>W</emph> test was calculated by dividing the test statistic (i.e., <emph>Z</emph> value) by the square root of the number of observations, with.1 = small effect,.3 = medium effect, and.5 = large effect ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref73">56</reflink>]). The Kruskal–Wallis (<emph>H</emph>) test and the χ<sups>2</sups> median test were performed to detect differences between experimental conditions (i.e., visualization formats) during either the morning or the late-afternoon hours. The effect size for the <emph>H</emph> test was expressed as eta-squared: η<sups>2</sups> = (<emph>H</emph> − <emph>k</emph> + 1)/(<emph>n</emph> − <emph>k</emph>), where <emph>H</emph> is the value obtained in the Kruskal–Wallis test, <emph>k</emph> is the number of groups, and <emph>n</emph> is the total number of observations ([<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref74">75</reflink>]). The values of.01,.06, and.14 represented small, moderate, and large effect sizes, respectively ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref75">66</reflink>]). The sum of the ranks and mean rank analyses in relation to the <emph>H</emph> test were also presented to offer insights into the distribution and central tendency of the ranked data. The change score (Δ) for all parameters was calculated as follow: Δ = afternoon values − morning values. For all analyses throughout this study, we used <emph>p</emph> <.05 as the criterion for significance. Exact <emph>p</emph> values were reported, except when alpha level was <.001.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-7">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0181087341-8">Game Performance</hd> <p>The <emph>W</emph> test revealed a significant main effect of TOD. As shown in Figure 2, participants achieved better game performance in the morning compared with the afternoon, with video modeling by experts (VM-E) (<emph>Z</emph> = 3.41, <emph>p</emph> =.001, <emph>r</emph> =.73 [large], Δ = +1.18), STP-P (<emph>Z</emph> = 2.89, <emph>p</emph> =.004, <emph>r</emph> =.61 [large], Δ = +1.41), and SWTP-P (Z = 2.89, <emph>p</emph> =.004, <emph>r</emph> =.62 [large], Δ = +1.23).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2 —Mean scores and SD s for the game performance recorded in the morning and afternoon with VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P. Note. VM-E = video modeling by experts; STP-P = sequential-with-tracing of pictures; SWTP-P = sequential-without-tracing pictures. *** p <.001. ** p <.005. * p <.05.</p> <p>The <emph>H</emph> test showed a significant main effect of condition in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref76">2</reflink>) = 35.02, <emph>p</emph> <.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.52 (large) (sum of the ranks: respectively, VM-E = 1,110.00, STP-P = 718.00, SWTP-P = 383.00, and mean rank: respectively, VM-E = 50.45, STP-P = 32.64, SWTP-P = 17.41), and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref77">2</reflink>) = 30.54, <emph>p</emph> <.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.52 (large) (sum of the ranks: respectively, VM-E = 1,086.00, STP-P = 724.50, SWTP-P = 400.50, and mean rank: respectively, VM-E = 49.36, STP-P = 32.93, SWTP-P = 18.20). The significant main effect of condition was also confirmed by the χ<sups>2</sups> Median tests in the morning (<emph>df</emph> = 2) = 27.46, <emph>p</emph> <.001, and in the afternoon (<emph>df</emph> = 2) = 26.40, <emph>p</emph> <.001. As illustrated Figure 2, participants exposed to VM-E performed better than those exposed to STP-P in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>) = 35.01, <emph>z</emph> = 3.08, <emph>p</emph> =.006, Δ = +1.14, and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>) = 30.54, <emph>z</emph> = 2.84, <emph>p</emph> =.014, Δ = +1.36. In addition, participants exposed to VM-E performed better than those exposed to SWTP-P in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref80">2</reflink>) = 35.01, <emph>z</emph> = 5.71, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ = +2.50, and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref81">2</reflink>) = 30.54, <emph>z</emph> = 5.38, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ = +2.55. Furthermore, participants exposed to STP-P performed better than those exposed to SWTP-P in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>) = 35.01, <emph>z</emph> = 2.63, <emph>p</emph> =.026, Δ = +1.36, and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>) = 30.54, <emph>z</emph> = 2.54, <emph>p</emph> =.033, Δ = +1.18.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-9">Comprehension</hd> <p>The <emph>W</emph> test revealed a significant main effect of TOD. As shown in Figure 3, participants achieved better comprehension in the morning compared with the afternoon, with VM-E (<emph>Z</emph> = 3.571, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.76 [large], Δ = +2.82); STP-P (<emph>Z</emph> = 3,309, <emph>p</emph> =.001, <emph>r</emph> =.71 [large], Δ = +2.27); and SWTP-P (<emph>Z</emph> = 3.621, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.77 [large], Δ = +2.77).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3 —Mean scores and SD s for the comprehension recorded in the morning and afternoon with VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P. Note. VM-E = video modeling by experts; STP-P = sequential-with-tracing of pictures; SWTP-P = sequential-without-tracing pictures; *** p <.001; ** p <.005; * p <.05.</p> <p>The <emph>H</emph> test showed a significant main effect of condition in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref84">2</reflink>) = 39.09, <emph>p</emph> <.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.52 (large) (sum of the ranks: respectively, VM-E = 1,157.00, STP-P = 677.50, SWTP-P = 376.50, and mean rank: respectively, VM-E = 52.59, STP-P = 30.79, SWTP-P = 17.11), and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref85">2</reflink>) = 27.37, <emph>p</emph> <.001, η<sups>2</sups> =.52 (large) (sum of the ranks: respectively, VM-E = 1,053.00, STP-P = 758.50, SWTP-P = 399.50, and mean rank: respectively, VM-E = 47.86, STP-P = 34.47, SWTP-P = 18.16). The significant main effect of condition was also confirmed by the χ<sups>2</sups> median test in the morning (<emph>df</emph> = 2) = 36. 48, <emph>p</emph> <.001, and in the afternoon (<emph>df</emph> = 2) = 24.32, <emph>p</emph> <.001. As shown in Figure 3, participants exposed to VM-E achieved better comprehension than those exposed to STP-P in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref86">2</reflink>) = 39.09, <emph>z</emph> = 3.76, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ = +2.32. In addition, participants exposed to VM-E achieved better comprehension than those exposed to SWTP-P in the morning, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref87">2</reflink>) = 39.09, <emph>z</emph> = 6.13, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ = +3.95, and in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref88">2</reflink>) = 27.37, <emph>z</emph> = 5.13, <emph>p</emph> <.001, Δ = +3.91. Furthermore, participants exposed to STP-P achieved better comprehension than those exposed to SWTP-P in the afternoon, <emph>H</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref89">2</reflink>) = 27.37, <emph>z</emph> = 2.82, <emph>p</emph> =.014, Δ = +2.14. No statistical differences were found in other comparisons (<emph>p</emph> >.05).</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-10">Oral Temperature and Mood States</hd> <p>Table 1 shows the results for the POMS-f questionnaire and oral temperature (in degree Celsius). The <emph>W</emph> test revealed a significant main effect of TOD on oral temperature, with higher values in the afternoon compared with the morning (<emph>Z</emph> = 6.7, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.85 [large]). The <emph>W</emph> test also demonstrated a significant main effect of TOD on all mood parameters. The students reported lower value of vigor (<emph>Z</emph> = 5.79, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.5 [large]), and higher values of anxiety (<emph>Z</emph> = 6.67, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.58 [large]), fatigue (<emph>Z</emph> = 6.9, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.6 [large]), anger (<emph>Z</emph> = 6.88, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.59 [large]), depression (<emph>Z</emph> = 4.21, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.37 [medium]), confusion (<emph>Z</emph> = 5.79, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.5 [large]), friendship (<emph>Z</emph> = 2.39, <emph>p</emph> =.017, <emph>r</emph> =.21 [small]), and total mood disturbance (<emph>Z</emph> = 7.05, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>r</emph> =.61 [large]), in the afternoon compared with the morning.</p> <p>Table 1 Mean Scores ± SD s and Change Scores (Δ) for Oral Temperature and Mood States, as a Function of Time of Day</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup span="1"><col align="left" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /><col align="center" span="1" /></colgroup><thead><tr><th rowspan="1" colspan="1" /><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Morning</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Afternoon</th><th rowspan="1" colspan="1">Δ </th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Oral temperature (°C)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">35.67 ± 0.7</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">36.84 ± 0.57</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+1.18</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Vigor (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">17.20 ± 2.73</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.45 ± 2.74</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">−3.74</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anxiety (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.09 ± 1.85</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">16.92 ± 1.22</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+3.83</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Depression (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">11 ± 5.29</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">15.02 ± 4.86</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+4.02</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Fatigue (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">5.83 ± 2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">10.11 ± 2.2</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+4.27</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Anger (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">12.15 ± 1.56</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">16.89 ± 2.15</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+4.74</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Confusion (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">6.38 ± 2.28</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">9.36 ± 2.45</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+2.98</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Friendship (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">16.27 ± 6.24</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">13.92 ± 6.13</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">−2.35</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">Total mood disturbance (a.u.)</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">31.26 ± 9.46</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">54.85 ± 7.92</td><td rowspan="1" colspan="1">+23.59</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note.</emph> a.u., arbitrary unit.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-11">Discussion</hd> <p>The study highlights the morning's superiority in the immediate recall of motor skills from external visualizations. Moreover, the study demonstrated the advantage of videos over different sequential presentations of pictures in learning motor skills at different TOD (i.e., morning and late afternoon).</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-12">Diurnal Variations With All Visualization Formats</hd> <p>The first hypothesis predicted that short-term learning outcomes would decrease throughout the day, regardless of the visualization format used. This prediction was accepted. The results showed that participants who completed the game performance task in the morning demonstrated mean scores of 5.77 ± 0.42, 4.64 ± 1.15, and 3.27 ± 1.35 for the VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P conditions, respectively (Figure 2). In contrast, participants who completed the task in the afternoon showed mean scores of 4.59 ± 1.07, 3.23 ± 1.17, and 2.05 ± 1.07 for the VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P conditions, respectively (Figure 2). On the other hand, participants who completed the comprehension task in the morning demonstrated mean scores of 16.91 ± 0.95, 14.59 ± 1.72, and 12.95 ± 1.58 for the VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P conditions, respectively (Figure 3). In contrast, those who completed the task in the afternoon showed mean scores of 14.09 ± 1.9, 12.32 ± 2.24, and 10.18 ± 1.67 for the VM-E, STP-P, and SWTP-P conditions, respectively (Figure 3). To contextualize these findings, effect sizes for the comparisons between morning and afternoon sessions indicate large differences in immediate recall of tactical behaviors, with participants performing slightly better in the morning sessions across all conditions. These findings align with earlier studies on human memory (outside of computer-assisted motor learning environments), which have demonstrated that IRPs varies as a function of TOD, with superior performance observed in the morning compared with the afternoon/evening. Indeed, the results of the current study were previously observed when learners were asked to immediately recall serial lists of nonsense syllables ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref90">22</reflink>]), digit sequences ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref91">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref92">9</reflink>]), and news stories ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref93">27</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref94">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref95">34</reflink>]). Several studies have argued that such diurnal variation is attributed to an increase in basal arousal level over the day ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref96">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref97">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref98">20</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref99">25</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref100">28</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref101">50</reflink>]). According to Folkard and Monk ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref102">26</reflink>]), IRPs mirrors, rather than parallels. the arousal circadian rhythm. In fact, the processing of new information becomes less efficient in the afternoon compared with the morning, as an optimal level of excitation is exceeded ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref103">46</reflink>]). The arousal-related explanation was effectively supported by Blake ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref104">10</reflink>]) who observed that immediate retention of digit numbers decreased throughout the day as the subject's level of arousal increased. As mentioned in the methods section, oral temperature was monitored at both TOD in our study. This physiological measure taken as an indicator of arousal ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref105">51</reflink>]) was lower in the morning than in the late afternoon (large effect; Table 1). Consequently, the morning advantage in the immediate recall of tactical skills (regardless of the visualization format) could be attributed to lower arousal. Another possibility for the diurnal variation of IRPs could be attributed to the changes in mood states. The results of the present study indicated that participants reported higher positive mood (i.e., vigor) and lower negative moods (e.g., anxiety, fatigue, anger, and confusion) in the morning compared with late afternoon. Effect sizes indicate moderate to large effects (see Table 1). The morning positivity effect, characterized by higher positive affect and greater emotional well-being in the morning hours compared with later in the day, has been previously observed among younger adults ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref106">8</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref107">37</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref108">45</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref109">49</reflink>]). In this context, and according to Pageaux and Lepers ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref110">55</reflink>]), perturbations in mood states are considered an indication of mental fatigue (see also [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref111">68</reflink>]). Therefore, it is plausible to predict that the morning's superiority in the acquisition of tactical behaviors from dynamic and/or static visualizations resulted from a heightened mental fatigue in the late afternoon after a busy school schedule. Ebbinghaus ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref112">22</reflink>]) and Gates ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref113">31</reflink>]) supported this explanation, suggesting that the afternoon decline in immediate retention of information is due to a mental fatigue, and typically, the morning is the optimal period to retain contents for a short time.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-13">Diurnal Variations With Video Versus Sequential-Pictures Presentations</hd> <p>The second hypothesis predicted that instructional video would result in superior short-term learning compared with the two types of sequential-pictures presentations, at both TOD. This prediction was confirmed. For the game performance task, participants who were exposed to VM-E demonstrated a mean improvement of 1.14 points in the morning and 1.36 points in the afternoon, compared with those who received STP-P (Figure 2). Additionally, they exhibited a mean improvement of 2.5 points in the morning and 2.55 points in the afternoon, compared with those who received SWTP-P (Figure 2). For the comprehension task, participants who were exposed to VM-E demonstrated a mean improvement of 2.32 points in the morning, compared with those who received STP-P (Figure 3). Additionally, they exhibited a mean improvement of 3.95 points in the morning and 3.91 points in the afternoon, compared with those who received SWTP-P (Figure 3). Effect sizes for the comparisons between the three conditions (for both tasks at the two TOD) indicate large effects. This suggests that video modeling examples are more effective than different sequential presentation of pictures for enhancing tactical learning among novice practitioners, in the morning and in the late afternoon. These findings are interesting as they provide new insights into the existing literature on motor skill acquisition from videos and sequential-pictures presentations, as the possible effect of TOD on the immediate recall of such knowledge from these visualization formats has not yet been explored. Consequently, the present study results showed that the human movement effect ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref114">53</reflink>]) remains valid in the morning and late afternoon, despite the decrease in learning over the day. Thus, the instructional videos were appropriate to participants' cognitive resources and were not too complex to become subject to the transient information effect ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref115">73</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref116">77</reflink>]), even when learner control or other compensatory strategies (e.g., video-assisted segmentation) were not used. Evidently, the results of this experiment are in line with the meta-analysis by Höffler and Leutner ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref117">39</reflink>]), which suggest that video modeling examples can be more effective than a series of static pictures, particularly when they are realistic and involve procedural-motor knowledge (see also [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref118">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref119">57</reflink>]). The results are also consistent with a considerable amount of previous studies showing the superiority of videos over a sequential presentation of static pictures (either with or without tracing fashion) in the immediate recall of various motor skills involving the entire body ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref120">36</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref121">70</reflink>]), or only hands (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref122">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref123">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref124">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref125">30</reflink>]). Despite its speculative nature (as we did not report any neurophysiological data in the "Results" section), the automatic activation of the mirror neuron system appears to be a plausible explanation for the results obtained in our study. In fact, researchers in this field have commonly relied on the MNS hypothesis to argue the superiority of model-based videos over static pictures when learning about motor knowledge. According to Rajmohan and Mohandas ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref126">60</reflink>]), the MNS is a group of specific neurons that mirrors the actions and behavior of others. In other words, the MNS is responsible for the human ability to acquire motor skills through imitation ([<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref127">67</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref128">76</reflink>]). Consequently, observing models (i.e., basketball players), who perform a playing system composed of different motor behaviors (pass, screening, lateral movements, layup, etc.) activated the cortical circuits associated with performing these game actions. This assisted learners to deal with the transient nature of information and, as results, benefited from the instructional videos.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-14">Diurnal Variations With Sequential-Pictures Presentations</hd> <p>The third hypothesis predicted that STP-P would lead to superior IRPs when compared with the SWTP-P, at both TOD. This prediction was totally confirmed. In the morning, our study showed that participants who were exposed to STP-P demonstrated a mean improvement of 1.36 points during the game performance task, compared with those who received SWTP-P. In the afternoon, our experiment revealed that participants who were exposed to STP-P demonstrated a mean improvement of 1.18 points during the game performance task and 2.14 points during the comprehension task, compared with those who received SWTP-P. Effect sizes for the comparisons between the three conditions (for both tasks at the two TOD) indicate large effects. This suggests that the positive effect of tracing on the acquisition of tactical behaviors from a sequential presentation of pictures was maintained at different TOD (i.e., morning and afternoon). In the STWP-P, when "step n°2" of the playing system appears on the screen, the picture showing "step n°1" disappears. Under such circumstances, the learners have to mentally keep spatiotemporal information (from step n°2) active in working memory, integrate it with previous information (from step n°1), and carry out mental comparisons to understand the functioning of the whole playing system. This format looks like a video or an animation since the alteration of the previous picture by the newest one may break the perception of continuity of the playing system. From a cognitive load perspective, the mental comparison increases the likelihood of cognitive overload and makes the learning process more challenging. Otherwise, in the STP-P, when displaying "step n°2" of the playing system on the screen, the picture showing "step n°1" can still be seen, and is thus permanently accessible. Under such circumstances, the demands on working memory resources could be reduced because the learners do not have to temporarily store spatiotemporal information about the prior steps of play until they are compared and integrated. According to the CLT, a visual comparison is likely to be a less demanding process than a mental comparison (i.e., when processing STWP-P), because the information in sequentially presented independent pictures remains available. Consequently, a sequential-with-tracing presentation of a series of pictures may facilitate mental animation of a dynamic system ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref129">36</reflink>]). These arguments could be supported by previous research findings that highlighted the advantages of tracing when processing a series of static pictures (without taking into consideration the possible TOD effect on acquisition process). For example, Boucheix and Schneider ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref130">12</reflink>]) showed that displaying a series of photographs in a sequential-with-tracing manner was more effective than a sequential-without-tracing one, in the acquisition of mechanical systems. H'mida et al. ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref131">36</reflink>]) also demonstrated that sequential-permanent pictures presentation was more effective than static sequential-transient pictures, concerning immediate recall of a complex judo technique (<emph>Ippon-Seoi-Nage</emph>). Concerning tactical knowledge development, the results patterns of our investigation may expand those reported by Khacharem et al. ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref132">44</reflink>]) who revealed the benefits of using a sequential with-tracing presentation (compared with a without-tracing one), when teaching soccer drills via static diagrams to novice players.</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-15">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>The present study's limitations were fivefold: (a) the current study lacks an understanding of the mechanisms by which the activation of the MNS leads to enhanced short-term learning of motor skills from instructional videos. Further research should utilize objective measures capable of explaining this finding. Techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging can be utilized for this purpose ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref133">32</reflink>]); (b) this study did not directly assess other mechanisms that could explain the observed results. Prospective studies need to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the potential impact of mental fatigue on study outcomes using electroencephalography ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref134">13</reflink>]) or functional magnetic resonance imaging ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref135">33</reflink>]); (c) daily school schedules of the students were not uniform in the current experiment. Although strenuous physical and/or mental activities that could influence the result patterns were monitored prior to testing, it is recommended for future projects to involve participants with the same daily school schedules; (d) findings remain valid only for learners with limited prior knowledge. It is unclear whether the current results would be replicated with more knowledgeable learners, as the amount of the learner prior knowledge in the domain is a crucial part of tactical learning from dynamic and static visualizations ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref136">63</reflink>]); (e) in the present study, participants performed only two test sessions (between 08:00 and 09:00 hr vs. between 16:00 and 17:00 hr). Further studies are needed to replicate the current study protocol, incorporating additional testing sessions during both morning and afternoon hours, and several days later (to measure long-term learning).</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-16">Conclusions</hd> <p>Based on the retention time, learning process is typically classified into (a) short-term learning or acquisition assessed by immediate tests and (b) long-term learning assessed after a notable delay of days and/or weeks ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref137">71</reflink>]), or after performing a set of interfering tasks ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref138">48</reflink>]). The main findings of the present study were that (a) the immediate recall of tactical behaviors from video and different sequential-pictures presentations decreases across the day, to be better in the morning rather than in the late afternoon, (b) the video modeling lead to better immediate recall of tactical knowledge when compared with both sequential presentation of pictures (either with tracing or without tracing), at both TOD, and (c) providing the learner with a permanent visual trace of the previous states improves the immediate recall of tactical skills from a series static pictures, at both TOD.</p> <p>This study has both practical and theoretical implications. From a practical point of view, the findings encourage physical education teachers to use video modeling, particularly in the morning, when teaching tactical knowledge in basketball. From a theoretical point of view, the study (a) extends the research-based examination of the diurnal variation of human memory, indicating the morning superiority in the acquisition of motor skills from different instructional medias, due to positive mood states and low arousal circumstances; and (b) contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the human movement effect, while indicating its stability at different TOD.</p> <p>Belkhir https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7043-1004</p> <p>Jouira https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1311-7497</p> <p>Jarraya https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6866-0731</p> <p>Kuo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3989-1950</p> <p>Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1013-3822</p> <p>Rekik (ghazi.rekik@isseps.usf.tn) is corresponding author, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2293-048X</p> <hd id="AN0181087341-17">Acknowledgment</hd> <p>The authors would like to thank the students involved for their efforts, commitment, and enthusiasm throughout the study.</p> <ref id="AN0181087341-18"> <title> REFERENCES </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref16" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Arguel, A., & Jamet, E. 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Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1456173
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
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IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Effects of Visualization Format and Time of Day on Immediate Recall of Tactical Behaviors
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ghazi+Rekik%22">Ghazi Rekik</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2293-048X">0000-0003-2293-048X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yosra+Belkhir%22">Yosra Belkhir</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7043-1004">0000-0002-7043-1004</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ghada+Jouira%22">Ghada Jouira</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1311-7497">0000-0003-1311-7497</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mohamed+Jarraya%22">Mohamed Jarraya</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6866-0731">0009-0004-6866-0731</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cheng-Deng+Kuo%22">Cheng-Deng Kuo</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3989-1950">0000-0002-3989-1950</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yung-Sheng+Chen%22">Yung-Sheng Chen</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1013-3822">0000-0002-1013-3822</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Motor+Learning+and+Development%22"><i>Journal of Motor Learning and Development</i></searchLink>. 2024 12(3):534-554.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Human Kinetics, Inc. 1607 North Market Street, Champaign, IL 61820. Tel: 800-474-4457; Fax: 217-351-1549; e-mail: info@hkusa.com; Web site: https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jmld/jmld-overview.xml
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2024
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Recall+%28Psychology%29%22">Recall (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychomotor+Skills%22">Psychomotor Skills</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Visualization%22">Visualization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Freshmen%22">College Freshmen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Time+Factors+%28Learning%29%22">Time Factors (Learning)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Public+Colleges%22">Public Colleges</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physiology%22">Physiology</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Performance+Factors%22">Performance Factors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Education%22">Physical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Athletics%22">Athletics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Memory%22">Memory</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Team+Sports%22">Team Sports</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Games%22">Games</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1123/jmld.2024-0008
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 2325-3193<br />2325-3215
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examined the effect of time of day on immediate recall of motor skills (i.e., tactical behaviors in basketball) from different external visualizations. First-year students from a public university in sports science (novice practitioners, 18.96 ± 0.57 years) were quasi-randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: video modeling by experts, a sequential-with-tracing presentation of pictures, or a sequential-without-tracing presentation of pictures. Morning and late afternoon sessions were conducted involving study phases and immediate-recall tests (i.e., comprehension and game performance tests). Oral temperature and mood states were also measured at both times of day. The results revealed that participants exhibited better recall performances in the morning, irrespective of the visualization format used. At both time of day, tactical behaviors were better recalled from video modeling rather than the two sequential presentations of pictures. In addition, providing the learner with a permanent visual trace of the previous states improves the immediate recall of tactical skills from a sequential presentation of pictures, at both time of day. Furthermore, morning sessions resulted in lower oral temperature, lower negative mood, and higher positive mood, compared with afternoon sessions. Implications for using external visualizations aimed at the acquisition of motor skills, particularly tactical behaviors, are discussed.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1456173
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1456173
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1123/jmld.2024-0008
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 534
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Recall (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychomotor Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Visualization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Freshmen
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Time Factors (Learning)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Public Colleges
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physiology
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Performance Factors
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Athletics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Memory
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Team Sports
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Games
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Effects of Visualization Format and Time of Day on Immediate Recall of Tactical Behaviors
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ghazi Rekik
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Yosra Belkhir
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          Name:
            NameFull: Ghada Jouira
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Mohamed Jarraya
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cheng-Deng Kuo
      – PersonEntity:
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            NameFull: Yung-Sheng Chen
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2024
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 2325-3193
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 2325-3215
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 12
            – Type: issue
              Value: 3
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Motor Learning and Development
              Type: main
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