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The Role of Personal Identity as a Resource for College Students during COVID-19

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Title: The Role of Personal Identity as a Resource for College Students during COVID-19
Language: English
Authors: Seth J. Schwartz (ORCID 0000-0003-4238-9520), Beyhan Ertanir, Audrey Harkness (ORCID 0000-0003-2290-9904), Byron L. Zamboanga (ORCID 0000-0001-9763-2407), Melissa L. Bessaha, John B. Bartholomew, Alan Meca (ORCID 0000-0002-3272-7701), Minas Michikyan, Maria Duque, Pablo Montero-Zamora, Claudia López-Madrigal, Linda G. Castillo, Miguel Ángel Cano, Kaveri Subrahmanyam, Brandy Piña-Watson (ORCID 0000-0002-1726-3371), Pamela Regan, Lindsay S. Ham (ORCID 0000-0002-2497-9263), Marissa K. Hanson, Charles R. Martinez
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(1):244-254.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: COVID-19, Pandemics, College Students, Self Concept, First Generation College Students, Well Being, Stress Variables, Mental Health, Correlation, Life Satisfaction, Resilience (Psychology), Student Diversity, Depression (Psychology), Psychological Patterns, Emotional Response, Anxiety
Geographic Terms: California, Texas, Florida, New York, Virginia
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale, Satisfaction With Life Scale
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2214244
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: We examined the role of personal identity vis-à-vis COVID-related outcomes among college students from seven U.S. campuses during spring/summer 2021. Participants: The present sample consisted of 1,688 students (74.5% female, age range 18-29). The sample was ethnically diverse, and 57.3% were first-generation students. Procedures: Students completed an online survey assessing personal identity synthesis and confusion, COVID-related worries, general internalizing symptoms, positive adaptation, and general well-being. Results: Personal identity synthesis was negatively related to COVID-related worries and general internalizing symptoms, and positively related to positive adaptation, both directly and indirectly through life satisfaction and psychological well-being. Personal identity confusion evidenced an opposing set of direct and indirect associations with outcome variables. Conclusions: Personal identity may potentially be protective against pandemic-related distress among college students, in part through its association with well-being. Reducing identity confusion and promoting identity synthesis are essential among college students during this and future pandemics.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1456766
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0182090954;acl01jan.25;2025Jan09.01:40;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182090954-1">The role of personal identity as a resource for college students during COVID-19 </title> <p>Objective: We examined the role of personal identity vis-à-vis COVID-related outcomes among college students from seven U.S. campuses during spring/summer 2021. Participants: The present sample consisted of 1,688 students (74.5% female, age range 18-29). The sample was ethnically diverse, and 57.3% were first-generation students. Procedures: Students completed an online survey assessing personal identity synthesis and confusion, COVID-related worries, general internalizing symptoms, positive adaptation, and general well-being. Results: Personal identity synthesis was negatively related to COVID-related worries and general internalizing symptoms, and positively related to positive adaptation, both directly and indirectly through life satisfaction and psychological well-being. Personal identity confusion evidenced an opposing set of direct and indirect associations with outcome variables. Conclusions: Personal identity may potentially be protective against pandemic-related distress among college students, in part through its association with well-being. Reducing identity confusion and promoting identity synthesis are essential among college students during this and future pandemics.</p> <p>Keywords: College students; COVID-19; personal identity; distress; well-being</p> <p>The COVID-19 pandemic and associated mitigation efforts have adversely affected many populations in the United States (U.S.) and elsewhere, including school-age children, working parents, and older adults, and college students, among others.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] The decision to lock down much of the world's economy in March 2020 resulted in educational and business closures, rapid transitions to virtual work and instruction, and greatly limited social contact and face-to-face interactions among individuals not residing in the same household. The mental health impacts of these lockdowns, in terms of symptoms of anxiety, depression, and COVID-related worries, are only beginning to be understood (see[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>])</p> <p>College students are an especially important population in terms of adverse effects of COVID-19 mitigation efforts.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] In the vast majority of U.S. universities, students were abruptly switched from in-person to virtual learning in the middle of the Spring 2020 semester.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] Students residing on campus were either given limited time to leave or asked to not return to campus following spring break leading many students to finish the semester from home. The subsequent 2020-2021 academic year was held either online or hybrid online/in person, with the majority of students taking classes virtually. Many campuses did not reopen for fully in-person learning until the Fall 2021 semester, meaning that the majority of students spent little (or no) time on campus for well over a year. Further, students entering college in Summer or Fall 2020 likely did not have any in-person instruction or "typical" university social experiences until their second year of college.</p> <p>Even before the pandemic, scholars and practitioners were already concerned about mental health issues among college students.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] The pandemic appears to have increased these concerns, as well as to have introduced new fears specifically related to the virus itself (e.g., fear of contracting or spreading the virus).[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>] Mental health issues have been particularly acute vis-à-vis first-generation students[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>] and students from underrepresented ethnic/racial backgrounds.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref9">8</reflink>] First-generation students, as well as ethnic/racial minority students, are not only less likely than their counterparts to seek counseling and mental health services,[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref10">9</reflink>] but often seek counseling and mental health services for different reasons (e.g., conflict between college and family expectations) than other students do.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref11">10</reflink>] As a result, it is quite possible that the pandemic and associated mitigation strategies might have affected students' mental health differently depending on their generational status (first-generation versus continuing generation) and on their ethnic/racial background.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref12">11</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref13">12</reflink>] Although studies have recently begun to document the detrimental mental health of COVID-19 lockdowns and mitigation strategies on college students, limited work has explored developmental assets, such as personal identity, that may serve as resources for students.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-2">The role of personal identity in college student mental health</hd> <p>The emerging adult years, generally regarded as between the ages of 18 and 29, represent a time when young people consider identity issues and progress toward understanding how they fit into various segments of society.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>] The college environment represents a "laboratory" for identity work, in that coursework, exposure to a broad group of peers, and other new experiences help to initiate a period of self-exploration.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref15">14</reflink>] This exploration takes place within a range of general life domains, including career choice, sexuality, and relationships.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref16">15</reflink>] Members of ethnic/racial minority groups are also faced with defining themselves within their cultural identity domain (e.g., race/ethnicity, nationality, and personal values).[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref17">15</reflink>] Presumably, the identity exploration and experimentation that takes place during the college years helps one to establish identity commitments and roles enacted once one has entered full adulthood – for example, one's choice of major during college may predict the types of work in which one will engage following graduation, and relationship experiences during college may foreshadow the types of enduring relationships that students enter into during their adult lives.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref18">15</reflink>] Further, changes in one's major, relationships, or self-presentation, although they may be destabilizing, may lead to an improved fit between one's identity choices and one's imagined or anticipated future.</p> <p>The present work is grounded in the pioneering work of Erikson,[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>] who adopted a developmental approach to identity and situated identity issues as a primary task of adolescence and the transition to adulthood. Unlike social-psychological identity theories such as social identity theory and self-categorization theory,[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref20">17</reflink>] Erikson's work adopts a developmental perspective, focuses on the individual person, and concentrates primarily on the ways in which the social and cultural environment shape young people's identity development. Erikson proposed <emph>synthesis</emph> and <emph>confusion</emph> as the two poles of identity work, where identity synthesis represents a sense of self-knowledge, a feeling of certainty in who one is, and an understanding of how one's various roles and commitments fit together into a coherent whole. Conversely, identity confusion represents a feeling of being lost, a sense of anomie, and a lack of understanding of how one fits into society. Importantly, identity synthesis represents an ability to transact with one's environment in a self-directed way, and without requiring a great deal of help or guidance, whereas confusion implies a lack of direction or a lack of interest in navigating one's way through the world. As a result, we refer to Erikson's conceptualization of identity as <emph>personal identity synthesis</emph> and <emph>confusion.</emph>[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref21">18</reflink>]</p> <p>Erikson suggested that identity synthesis and confusion were not opposites, but rather that one's overall adjustment in adolescence and early adulthood would be determined by the extent to which synthesis predominates over confusion (or vice versa). Erikson's approach therefore suggests that identity synthesis and confusion should be assessed separately – and empirical work[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>] has supported this proposition. It is also possible that identity synthesis and confusion could interact to predict the intervening and outcome variables. Indeed, our prior college student research[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref23">19</reflink>] suggests that identity synthesis and confusion are only modestly intercorrelated and therefore could potentially interact.</p> <p>A key function of personal identity lies in its ability to serve as a resource for young people from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds – specifically to facilitate positive developmental outcomes and to protect against adverse outcomes.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref24">20</reflink>] Especially in post-industrial societies where young people are expected to find their own way into adulthood, consolidating a sense of identity is instrumental in helping college students and other emerging adults to enact and move into adult roles and commitments.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref25">21</reflink>] Specifically, a more synthesized sense of personal identity is likely associated with more favorable psychosocial functioning and mental health,[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>] including dimensions of positive adaptation such as the ability to regulate one's emotions (ability to influence one's own emotional state), to attract and receive support when needed, and to bounce back from setbacks.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref27">23</reflink>]</p> <p>The role of identity in college student mental health may be especially salient during the COVID-19 pandemic. Liu et al.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref28">12</reflink>] highlight the need to focus on "identity-related student assets, strengths, and resilience-promoting factors." The importance of identity for college students may be even greater during (and perhaps after) the pandemic than it was previously as such support may be less available. Given the forced transition to virtual instruction – which demands increased self-reliance and self-directed skills – college students with a more stable sense of personal identity might be better equipped to cope with pandemic related worries and anxieties. That is, individuals with more synthesized identities might be better able to manage virtual instruction and the associated lack of structure (as well as direct effects of the pandemic), whereas individuals with more confused identities may experience more difficulty. There may also be a third possibility, namely that identity synthesis and confusion might interact – such that the beneficial associations of identity synthesis with psychosocial outcomes may emerge primarily for those students whose levels of confusion are low.</p> <p>Indeed, the uncertainty associated with COVID-19 is unprecedented in terms of its effects on young people's mental health and future plans.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref29">24</reflink>] Studies conducted prior to the pandemic suggest that a synthesized sense of personal identity may help to protect against symptoms of anxiety and depression.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref30">25</reflink>] Indeed, a synthesized sense of personal identity provides certainty and a clear sense of direction even in the absence of external structure,[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref31">16</reflink>] which was often not physically available during the pandemic-related campus closures, nor psychologically available given the uncertainty surrounding the pandemic. Although virtual platforms and activities provide opportunities to explore one's personal identity,[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref32">26</reflink>] the isolated and unguided format through which many virtual courses were taught, along with the uncertainties associated with the pandemic itself, may have created difficulties for many students – especially those with less synthesized and more confused personal identities. It stands to reason, then, that within the context of COVID-related campus closures and virtual course instruction, personal identity might also be inversely related to COVID-related worries, anxieties, and loneliness. It is essential to determine the functions of personal identity vis-à-vis COVID-related mental health threats among college students, so that college counselors, administrators, and faculty can create programs and policies to offset the effects of pandemic-related uncertainty among diverse groups of students.</p> <p>Beyond protecting against psychological distress and COVID-related worries, it is also essential to examine the extent to which personal identity is positively related to positive adaptation strategies. Positive adaptation strategies refer to resilience and to the ability to bounce back and cope effectively when one is faced with challenges. Especially given the myriad challenges presented by the pandemic and associated mitigation strategies,[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref33">2</reflink>] positive adaptation represents a key strength during the COVID era – and to the extent to which personal identity is able to facilitate such positive adaptation and general well-being by creating a sense of certainty and direction, it would be essential to create programs and policies to help students to develop a strong sense of personal identity.</p> <p>Prior work suggests that much of the association of personal identity with internalizing symptoms and other negative outcomes may operate indirectly through general well-being,[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref34">27</reflink>] which refers to indicators such as subjective well-being (life satisfaction) and psychological well-being (competence and autonomy)[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref35">28</reflink>] – variables that reflect the extent to which someone is "doing well" in life. A synthesized sense of identity may facilitate well-being, and a confused sense of identity may undermine well-being – and in turn, well-being may protect against internalizing symptoms. It might therefore be possible that, within the context of COVID-19 and associated mitigation strategies, personal identity synthesis may facilitate positive adaptation, and protect against pandemic-related and general distress, through its positive association with well-being. A similar prediction (in the opposite direction) may be advanced vis-à-vis personal identity confusion. Following Waterman,[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref36">28</reflink>] we conceptualize life satisfaction and subjective well-being as related but separate indicators of well-being.</p> <p>As a final note, given the increasing ethnic diversity,[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref37">29</reflink>] as well as the increasing representation of immigrants and first-generation college students, among the college student population, it is essential to examine the extent to which the links from personal identity synthesis and confusion to positive adaptation, general distress, and COVID-related worries (both directly and indirectly through well-being) operate similarly across social-positional variables such as ethnic groups, across student generational status, and across nativity (U.S. born versus foreign-born). Additionally, given that identity issues are often experienced differently between men and women[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>] and between heterosexual and sexual-minority students,[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref39">31</reflink>] it is important to examine the consistency of associations across sex and across sexual orientation. Such analyses are important for ensuring that programs and policies developed for students are likely to work similarly across diverse groups.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-3">The present study</hd> <p>The present study was conducted as part of the COVID-19 University Research on Education and Sustainability (CURES) project, a multisite investigation into the effects of COVID-19 on college students' lives. Nearly 2,000 students were recruited from public universities in California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Virginia between March and August 2021, when most U.S. universities were holding classes virtually or in hybrid form (i.e., a mixture of virtual and in-person instruction). We chose both urban universities and those in "college towns" – and sampled from highly diverse U.S. states – to gather as diverse a sample as possible in terms of ethnic/racial background, student generational status, immigrant background (i.e., sampling students from both immigrant and native-born families), and socioeconomic resources. Students were asked to complete measures of identity; COVID-related worries and anxieties; physical activity and diet; social media use; alcohol and drug use; and overall mental health. The present analyses include only the identity, COVID-related anxiety and worry, well-being, and positive adaptation measures.</p> <p>We advanced four general hypotheses. First, we hypothesized that personal identity synthesis would emerge as positively related to positive adaptation, and as negatively related to general distress and to COVID-related worries and anxieties. Second, we hypothesized that personal identity confusion would emerge as negatively related to positive adaptation, and as positively related to general distress and to COVID-related worries and anxieties. Third, we hypothesized that identity synthesis and confusion would moderate each other's associations with positive adaptation, general distress, and COVID-related worries. Fourth, we hypothesized that each of these associations, including the Synthesis X Confusion interaction effect, would operate both (a) directly and (b) indirectly through well-being. Given the lack of prior literature in this direction, we did not advance specific hypotheses regarding whether our results would be consistent across sex, nativity (U.S.-born versus foreign-born), sexual orientation (heterosexual versus sexual minority), and student generational status. We treated these consistency issues as research questions.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-4">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182090954-5">Sample</hd> <p>The sample for the present study consisted of 1,688 students from seven public universities in California, Texas, Florida, New York, and Virginia. Site 1 (Texas) contributed 348 participants; Site 2 (Virginia) contributed 77 participants; Site 3 (New York) contributed 104 participants; Site 4 (Florida) contributed 323 participants; Site 5 (Texas) contributed 7 participants; Site 6 (Texas) contributed 481 participants; and Site 7 (California) contributed 348 participants. All of the universities in California, Texas, and Florida were Hispanic Serving Institutions. Only participants within the emerging-adult age range (18-29; Arnett, 2007) are included in the present analyses. In terms of sex, the sample was 74.5% female. The majority of students in the sample (57.3%) identified as first-generation, meaning that neither of their parents had completed a bachelor's degree. In terms of ethnic group, 29.2% of participants were non-Hispanic White, 10.6% were non-Hispanic Black, 47.1% were Hispanic, 9.4% were non-Hispanic Asian, and 3.6% were Other (Native American, Middle Eastern, or multiethnic). In terms of sexual orientation, 82.5% of participants identified as heterosexual, 1.7% as gay, 1.3% as lesbian, 8.3% as bisexual, and 6.2% as another sexual orientation.</p> <p>The family income distribution was fairly even: 30.0% of participants reported annual family incomes below $30,000; 24.1% reported annual family incomes between $30,000 and $50,000; 25.3% reported annual family incomes between $50,000 and $100,000; and 20.6% reported annual family incomes above $100,000. The vast majority of participants (84.4%) were born in the U.S., but just over half of participants reported that their mothers (51.9%) and/or fathers (51.7%) were born abroad. In terms of parental education, 17.1% of mothers and 21.1% of fathers did not finish high school, 27.3% of mothers and 26.7% of fathers were high school graduates, 21.1% of mothers and 17.5% of fathers attended college but did not graduate, 20.5% of mothers and 16.6% of fathers were college graduates, and 12.0% of mothers and 11.7% of fathers had received advanced degrees. The remaining participants did not know their mothers' (1.9%) or fathers' (6.3%) educational attainment.</p> <p>Table 1 compares the sample demographics against the U.S. college student population as a whole in terms of sex, ethnic, first-generation status, parents' nativity, and sexual minority status distributions. Using the Cohen's <emph>h</emph> index of effect size for comparing sample versus population proportions, the largest differences emerged for sex, White and Hispanic ethnicity, and parents' nativity. Likely because our sample was gathered primarily from large and diverse states that receive large numbers of immigrants and that are home to large Hispanic populations, our sample was more heavily Hispanic (47.1% versus 19.6%), less heavily non-Hispanic White (29.2% versus 55.8%), and more heavily comprised of individuals from immigrant families (51.8% versus 28.0%) compared to the U.S. college student population as a whole.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref40">32</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref41">33</reflink>] The overrepresentation of women in our sample (74.5%, compared to 58.0% of the U.S. college student population generally[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref42">34</reflink>]) is likely due to our focus on social-science and education classes and participant pools. Interestingly, the representation of first-generation students in our sample (57.3%) was similar to that in the broader U.S. college student population (56.0%[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref43">35</reflink>]) The representation of sexual minorities in our sample (17.5%) was also approximately equal to the corresponding percentage in the national student population (17.0%[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref44">36</reflink>])</p> <p>Table 1. Sample demographics compared to demographics of the US college student population.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Characteristic</td><td>Sample</td><td>Population</td><td><italic>z</italic> value</td><td>Cohen's <italic>h</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Female<sup>a</sup></td><td char=".">74.5%</td><td char=".">58.0%</td><td char=".">14.92***</td><td char=".">.44</td></tr><tr><td>White<sup>b</sup></td><td char=".">29.2%</td><td char=".">55.8%</td><td char=".">23.91***</td><td char=".">.59</td></tr><tr><td>Black<sup>b</sup></td><td char=".">10.6%</td><td char=".">13.5%</td><td char=".">3.79***</td><td char=".">.06</td></tr><tr><td>Hispanic<sup>b</sup></td><td char=".">47.1%</td><td char=".">19.6%</td><td char=".">31.41***</td><td char=".">.58</td></tr><tr><td>Asian<sup>b</sup></td><td char=".">9.4%</td><td char=".">6.7%</td><td char=".">4.61***</td><td char=".">.05</td></tr><tr><td>1<sup>st</sup> Generation<sup>c</sup></td><td char=".">57.3%</td><td char=".">56.0%</td><td char=".">1.17</td><td char=".">.03</td></tr><tr><td>Immigrant Parents<sup>d</sup></td><td char=".">51.8%</td><td char=".">28.0%</td><td char=".">23.66***</td><td char=".">.60</td></tr><tr><td>Sexual Minority<sup>e</sup></td><td char=".">17.5%</td><td char=".">17.0%</td><td char=".">.59</td><td char=".">.01</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>p</emph> <.001.</p> <ulist> <item>2 National Center for Education Statistics.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref45">34</reflink>]</item> <item>3 National Center for Education Statistics.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref46">32</reflink>]</item> <item>4 National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref47">35</reflink>]</item> <item>5 Migration Policy Institute.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref48">33</reflink>]</item> <item>6 Postsecondary National Policy Institute.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref49">36</reflink>]</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182090954-6">Procedures</hd> <p>Participants were recruited <emph>via</emph> online and emailed flyers, social media and web posts, psychology department research pools, and word of mouth. We also recruited students enrolled in classes where the professor agreed to provide course credit for participation. No monetary incentives were provided in exchange for participation. On average, participants took about an hour to complete the survey. Participants consented to participate by visiting the link for the consent form website. The consent form site also asked participants to choose the name of the university they attended, and consenting students were then forwarded to the study website. Data included in the present analyses were collected between March and August 2021. Students who consented were then taken to the website with the survey. Participants recruited from courses and/or psychology subject pools received course credit or credit toward a research requirement in exchange for their participation. The Institutional Review Boards from all participating universities approved all study procedures.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-7">Measures</hd> <p>Note that some of our measures explicitly refer to COVID-19, whereas others were administered as part of a study focusing on COVID-19 but do not mention the pandemic specifically. In this section, we identify those measures that refer to the pandemic by name. For each construct we measure, higher scores indicate greater endorsement of the construct.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-8">Personal identity synthesis and confusion</hd> <p>The 12-item Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref50">37</reflink>] was used to assess identity synthesis and confusion. This instrument consists of six items assessing synthesis (α =.82; sample item is "I've got it together") and six items assessing confusion (α =.79; sample item is "I feel mixed up"). A five-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>), is used to respond to each item.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-9">COVID-related worries</hd> <p>COVID-related worries were assessed using three constructs – anxiety about COVID, obsession with COVID, and COVID-related reassurance seeking. <emph>Anxiety about COVID</emph> was assessed using the 5-item Coronavirus Anxiety Scale (Lee, 2020), a self-report screener for dysfunctional anxiety associated with the coronavirus pandemic over the 2 wk prior to assessment (α =.95; sample item is "I felt dizzy, lightheaded, or faint when I read or listened to news about the coronavirus"). Items are responded to using a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 4 (<emph>nearly every day over the past</emph> 2 wk). Total scores ranged from 0 to 25. Scores of 9 or greater indicate clinical levels of COVID-19 worries (Lee, 2020; Lee et al., 2020).</p> <p> <emph>Obsession with COVID</emph> was assessed using the Obsession with COVID-19 Scale, a 4-item questionnaire assessing the frequency of thoughts concerned with personal effects of the coronavirus (Lee, 2020). Higher scores reflect more obsessive thinking about COVID-19. The measure provided scores with very good internal consistency reliability (α =.88, sample item is "I had disturbing thoughts that I may have caught the coronavirus") in the current sample. This measure uses a five-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>).</p> <p> <emph>COVID-19 reassurance seeking</emph> was measured using the 5-item Coronavirus Reassurance-Seeking Behavior Scale (Lee et al., 2020). This measure was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 4 (<emph>nearly every day over the last two weeks</emph>). Items refer to reassurance-seeking behaviors associated with concerns about COVID-19 infection (α =.92, sample item is "I read information on the internet to see if I had symptoms of the coronavirus disease.").</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-10">Internalizing symptoms during COVID-19</hd> <p>General internalizing symptoms during COVID-19 were assessed using four constructs – depressive symptoms, generalized anxiety symptoms, COVID-related loneliness, and COVID-related student stress. These scales were grouped together because they represent negative affect experienced during the pandemic, but not directly related to the virus itself.</p> <p>Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 10-item Boston form of the Centers for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref51">38</reflink>]) The CES-D-10 items using a four-point scale from 0 (<emph>none of the time</emph>) to 3 (<emph>most of the time</emph>) regarding the frequency of depressive symptoms during the week prior to assessment. The measure includes three items targeting depressed affect (e.g., "I felt lonely"), five items targeting somatic symptoms (e.g., "My sleep was restless"), and two reverse-scored items targeting positive affect (e.g., "I was happy"). The CES-D-10 has been validated for use with college students.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref52">39</reflink>] Internal consistency reliability was α =.77 in the current sample.</p> <p>Generalized anxiety symptoms were assessed using the 7-item GAD-7.[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref53">40</reflink>] Each item asks participants to rate the severity of their symptoms (e.g., "feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge"; "being so restless that it is hard to sit still") over the two weeks prior to assessment. Response options ranged from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 3 (<emph>nearly every day</emph>). Following established scoring guidelines, total GAD-7 scores were computed by calculating a sum of the item responses. Internal consistency reliability was α =.95 in the current sample.</p> <p>The COVID-19 Student Stress Scale[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref54">40</reflink>] is a 7-item, 5-point Likert scale questionnaire assessing students' perceptions of their susceptibility to COVID-19 and to its effects on their academic environments and interpersonal relationships. Participants rate each item (e.g., "How do you perceive the relationships with your classmates during this period of COVID-19 pandemic?") on a response scale ranging from 1 (<emph>not at all stressful</emph>) to 5 (<emph>extremely stressful</emph>). The measure generated scores with high internal consistency reliability (α =.88) in the current sample.</p> <p>Loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic was assessed using a 3-item scale adapted from the R-UCLA Loneliness Scale.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref55">41</reflink>] Items in our adapted version assess effects of social isolation due to the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., "Since the COVID-19 pandemic began, how often do you feel isolated from others?"). The response scale ranged from 1 (<emph>hardly ever</emph>) to 3 (<emph>often</emph>). This measure provided scores with very good internal consistency reliability (α =.85) in the current sample.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-11">Positive adaptation strategies</hd> <p>We operationalized positive adaptation strategies in terms of resilience, emotion regulation, and social support. <emph>Resilience</emph> was assessed using the Brief Resilience Scale.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref56">42</reflink>] This measure consists of six items (e.g., "I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times") indexing the ability to regroup after difficult events. Response options ranged from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). Internal consistency reliability was α =.79.</p> <p> <emph>Emotion regulation</emph> was assessed using a shortened version of the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children.[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref57">43</reflink>] The version we used consists of seven items, including "How well do you succeed in becoming calm again when you are very scared?" The response scale ranges from 1 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 5 (<emph>very well</emph>). This measure provided scores with excellent internal consistency reliability in the present sample (α =.92).</p> <p> <emph>Perceived social support</emph> was measured using the Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Scale.[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref58">44</reflink>] This measure includes eight items, each preceded by the prompt "Please indicate how often each of these supports would be available to you if you needed it." Participants responded to each item (i.e., "Someone to prepare your meals if you were unable to do it yourself.") using a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from 1 (<emph>none of the time</emph>) to 5 (<emph>all of the time</emph>). The measure provided scores with excellent internal consistency reliability (α =.93) in the current sample.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-12">General well-being</hd> <p>General well-being was assessed in terms of life satisfaction and psychological well-being. <emph>Life satisfaction</emph> was measured using the Satisfaction With Life Scale,[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref59">45</reflink>] a 5-item measure tapping into one's overall happiness with one's life. Items include "In most ways, my life is close to my ideal." Participants responded to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). Internal consistency reliability in the present sample was α =.89.</p> <p> <emph>Psychological well-being</emph> was assessed using the 18-item version of the Scales for Psychological Well-Being.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref60">46</reflink>] Sample items include "For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth." Participants responded to each item using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). Internal consistency reliability in the present sample was α =.86.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-13">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182090954-14">Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations</hd> <p>Table 2 provides descriptive statistics, and Table 3 presents bivariate correlations among the study variables.</p> <p>Table 2. Descriptive statistics for study variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td>Mean</td><td>SD</td><td>Skewness</td><td>Kurtosis</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Personal Identity Synthesis</td><td char=".">21.85</td><td char=".">4.41</td><td>−0.29</td><td char=".">0.23</td></tr><tr><td>2. Personal Identity Confusion</td><td char=".">17.62</td><td char=".">4.80</td><td>−0.22</td><td>−0.09</td></tr><tr><td>3. COVID Anxiety</td><td char=".">6.85</td><td char=".">3.69</td><td char=".">2.32</td><td char=".">5.18</td></tr><tr><td>4. Obsession with COVID</td><td char=".">6.27</td><td char=".">3.18</td><td char=".">1.58</td><td char=".">2.10</td></tr><tr><td>5. COVID Reassurance Seeking</td><td char=".">8.29</td><td char=".">4.42</td><td char=".">1.42</td><td char=".">1.42</td></tr><tr><td>6. Generalized Anxiety</td><td char=".">15.56</td><td char=".">6.42</td><td char=".">0.46</td><td>−0.86</td></tr><tr><td>7. Depressive Symptoms</td><td char=".">22.87</td><td char=".">6.77</td><td char=".">0.41</td><td>−0.58</td></tr><tr><td>8. COVID Loneliness</td><td char=".">5.78</td><td char=".">1.86</td><td char=".">0.10</td><td>−0.87</td></tr><tr><td>9. COVID Student Stress</td><td char=".">16.90</td><td char=".">5.44</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td>−0.24</td></tr><tr><td>10. Resilience</td><td char=".">29.57</td><td char=".">6.25</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td char=".">0.31</td></tr><tr><td>11. Emotion Regulation</td><td char=".">22.38</td><td char=".">7.30</td><td char=".">0.21</td><td>−0.33</td></tr><tr><td>12. Social Support</td><td char=".">32.11</td><td char=".">7.76</td><td>−0.59</td><td char=".">0.17</td></tr><tr><td>13. Life Satisfaction</td><td char=".">3.70</td><td char=".">1.17</td><td>−0.24</td><td>−0.41</td></tr><tr><td>14. Psychological Well-Being</td><td char=".">68.43</td><td char=".">11.95</td><td char=".">0.29</td><td>−0.58</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 3. Correlations among study variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variable</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td><td char=".">8</td><td char=".">9</td><td char=".">10</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">12</td><td char=".">13</td><td char=".">14</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Personal Identity Synthesis</td><td><bold>-.49</bold></td><td>−.11</td><td>−.12</td><td>−.06</td><td><bold>-.37</bold></td><td><bold>-.23</bold></td><td><bold>-.22</bold></td><td><bold>-.22</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.51</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.40</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.31</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.44</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.54</bold></td></tr><tr><td>2. Personal Identity Confusion</td><td>-----</td><td char=".">.11</td><td char=".">.15</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char="."><bold>.50</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.42</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.40</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.39</bold></td><td><bold>-.44</bold></td><td><bold>-.32</bold></td><td>−.15</td><td><bold>-.35</bold></td><td><bold>-.45</bold></td></tr><tr><td>3. COVID Anxiety</td><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.67</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.55</bold></td><td char=".">.18</td><td char=".">.18</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.17</td><td>−.10</td><td char=".">.09</td><td>−.10</td><td char=".">.01</td><td><bold>-.24</bold></td></tr><tr><td>4. Obsession with COVID</td><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.57</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.22</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.24</bold></td><td char=".">.11</td><td char="."><bold>.23</bold></td><td>−.12</td><td char=".">.01</td><td>−.10</td><td char=".">.04</td><td>−.18</td></tr><tr><td>5. COVID Reassurance Seeking</td><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char=".">.12</td><td char=".">.14</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.12</td><td>−.05</td><td char=".">.12</td><td>−.04</td><td char=".">.08</td><td>−.19</td></tr><tr><td>6. Generalized Anxiety</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.71</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.51</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.60</bold></td><td><bold>-.48</bold></td><td><bold>-.40</bold></td><td><bold>-.24</bold></td><td><bold>-.38</bold></td><td><bold>-.34</bold></td></tr><tr><td>7. Depressive Symptoms</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.38</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.57</bold></td><td><bold>-.42</bold></td><td><bold>-.39</bold></td><td>−.12</td><td><bold>-.27</bold></td><td><bold>-.24</bold></td></tr><tr><td>8. COVID Loneliness</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.37</bold></td><td><bold>-.31</bold></td><td><bold>-.29</bold></td><td><bold>-.22</bold></td><td><bold>-.24</bold></td><td>−.16</td></tr><tr><td>9. COVID Student Stress</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td><bold>-.34</bold></td><td><bold>-.24</bold></td><td>−.16</td><td><bold>-.29</bold></td><td><bold>-.22</bold></td></tr><tr><td>10. Resilience</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.60</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.27</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.44</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.46</bold></td></tr><tr><td>11. Emotion Regulation</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.31</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.40</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.24</bold></td></tr><tr><td>12. Social Support</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.29</bold></td><td char="."><bold>.30</bold></td></tr><tr><td>13. Life Satisfaction</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td><td char="."><bold>.46</bold></td></tr><tr><td>14. Psychological Well-Being</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>-----</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 <emph>Note</emph>. Correlations greater than |.05| are significant at <emph>p</emph> <.05. Correlations greater than |.20| are bolded.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-15">Measurement models</hd> <p>We next estimated a measurement model, with each latent construct (COVID-related worries, general COVID-19 distress, and positive adaptation) defined by its component indicators. Because only two general well-being measures (i.e., life satisfaction and psychological well-being) were used, and because they were only moderately intercorrelated (<emph>r</emph> =.28), we left these variables as separate indicators rather than attaching them to a latent variable. The personal identity variables were not used as latent variables, because only one indicator was used for each identity construct (personal identity synthesis and personal identity confusion).</p> <p>We evaluated the fit and usefulness of the measurement model using both structural equation modeling fit indices and factor loadings. For a measurement model to be optimally efficient, it must fit the data well and provide strong latent factors (i.e., characterized by high factor loadings).[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref61">47</reflink>] In terms of fit indices, we used the comparative fit index (CFI), which compares the fit of the specified model to the fit of a null model with no paths, covariances, or latent variables; and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), which reflects the extent to which the covariance structure implied by the model deviates from the covariance structure observed in the data.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref62">48</reflink>] Generally, CFI values of.95 or greater, and RMSEA values of.05 or lower, reflect excellent fit; and CFI values above 90, and RMSEA values below.08, suggest adequate fit.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref63">49</reflink>] The chi-square value is reported, but not used to assess model fit, because it tests the null hypothesis of perfect model fit and is overpowered in most models and with moderate to large sample sizes.</p> <p>The measurement model, including latent variables and indicators for COVID-related worries, positive adaptation, and general COVID-related distress, fit the data well, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref64">32</reflink>) = 191.57, <emph>p</emph> <.001; CFI =.956; RMSEA =.058 (90% CI =.050 to.066). All three latent variables were well-defined by their indicators: COVID-related worries, mean λ =.77, range.68 to.83; general COVID-related distress, mean λ =.73, range.54 to.89; COVID-related worries, mean λ =.77, range.68 to.83; positive adaptation, mean λ =.64, range.37 to.79.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-16">Structural model</hd> <p>We then estimated the full structural model (see Figure 1), where personal identity synthesis, confusion, and the Synthesis X Confusion interaction term were allowed to predict latent variables for COVID-related worries, general internalizing symptoms during COVID-19, and resilience, both (a) directly and (b) indirectly through life satisfaction and psychological well-being. We controlled for study site by designating one site as the reference group and entering dummy variables for each of the other sites as predictors of each intervening and outcome variable. This model fit the data well, χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib137" id="ref65">137</reflink>) = 630.58, <emph>p</emph> <.001; CFI =.923; RMSEA =.049 (90% CI =.045 to.053; close fit probability =.621). Standardized parameter estimates are provided in Figure 1.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Hypothesized model. Note. The two predictor variables, the two intervening variables, and all of the dependent variables were allowed to correlate with one another. * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.001.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-17">Associations of personal identity synthesis, confusion, and their interaction with positive a...</hd> <p>Largely supporting Hypothesis 1, personal identity synthesis was positively related to life satisfaction and psychological well-being, as well as directly related to positive adaptation (positively) and general distress (negatively). Largely supporting Hypothesis 2, personal identity confusion was negatively related to both life satisfaction and psychological well-being, as well as negatively related to positive adaptation and positively related to general distress. Neither personal identity synthesis nor personal identity confusion was directly related to COVID-19 worries. Life satisfaction and psychological well-being were both positively related to positive adaptation and negatively related to COVID-19 worries. Psychological well-being, but not life satisfaction, was negatively related to general distress.</p> <p>Supporting Hypothesis 3, the interaction between personal identity synthesis and personal identity confusion was significantly related to life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and COVID-19 worries. To explore these interactions, we used the PROCESS macro (Hayes, 2018). PROCESS examines the predictive effects of one predictor (in this case personal identity confusion) at low (-1 <emph>SD</emph>, medium (mean), and high (+1 <emph>SD</emph>) levels of the other predictor within the interaction term. Here we report the standardized beta coefficients for personal identity confusion at low (-1 <emph>SD</emph>) and high (+1 <emph>SD</emph>) levels of personal identity synthesis.</p> <p>With life satisfaction as an outcome, the beta coefficient for personal identity synthesis was.28 (<emph>p</emph> <.001) at low levels of personal identity confusion and.41 (<emph>p</emph> <.001) at high levels of personal identity confusion. With psychological well-being as an outcome, the beta coefficient for personal identity synthesis was.51 (<emph>p</emph> <.001) at low levels of personal identity confusion and.33 (<emph>p</emph> <.001) at high levels of personal identity confusion. For COVID-related worries, the beta coefficient for personal identity synthesis was −0.15 (<emph>p</emph> <.001) at low levels of personal identity synthesis and.04 (<emph>p</emph> =.35) at high levels of personal identity confusion. It therefore appears that personal identity synthesis may be most effective vis-à-vis life satisfaction when identity confusion is <emph>high</emph>, but may be most effective vis-à-vis psychological well-being and COVID-related worries when identity confusion is <emph>low</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-18">Tests of significant indirect effects</hd> <p>Next, we used the asymmetric distribution of products test[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref66">50</reflink>] to test for significant indirect effects through life satisfaction and psychological well-being. The asymmetric distribution of products test computes the point estimate and standard error for each indirect pathway specified within the analytic model. Pathways for which the 95% confidence interval for the indirect path do not include zero are considered significant.</p> <p>Table 4 presents the 10 significant indirect paths that emerged. Both life satisfaction and psychological well-being served as intervening variables for the links of personal identity synthesis and confusion with COVID-related worries and with positive adaptation. Only life satisfaction served as an intervening variable in the links of identity synthesis and confusion with general distress. These findings provide at least partial support for Hypothesis 4.</p> <p>Table 4. Significant indirect paths.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Predictor</td><td>Intervening variable</td><td>Outcome</td><td>β</td><td>95% CI</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Identity Synthesis</td><td>Psychological Well-Being</td><td>COVID-Related Worries</td><td>−.11***</td><td>−.15 to −.07</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Synthesis</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>COVID-Related Worries</td><td char=".">.09***</td><td char=".">.06 to.12</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Confusion</td><td>Psychological Well-Being</td><td>COVID-Related Worries</td><td char=".">.05**</td><td char=".">.02 to.08</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Confusion</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>COVID-Related Worries</td><td>−.06***</td><td>−.08 to −.03</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Synthesis</td><td>Psychological Well-Being</td><td>Positive Adaptation</td><td char=".">.04*</td><td char=".">.01 to.07</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Synthesis</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>Positive Adaptation</td><td char=".">.12***</td><td char=".">.09 to.16</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Confusion</td><td>Psychological Well-Being</td><td>Positive Adaptation</td><td>−.02*</td><td>−.03 to.00</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Confusion</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>Positive Adaptation</td><td>−.08***</td><td>−.11 to −.05</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Synthesis</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>General Distress</td><td>−.08***</td><td>−.12 to −.05</td></tr><tr><td>Identity Confusion</td><td>Life Satisfaction</td><td>General Distress</td><td char=".">.05***</td><td char=".">.03 to.07</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>8 <emph>Note.</emph> Standardized betas reported.</item> <item>9 <emph>p</emph> <.05.</item> <item>10 <emph>p</emph> <.01.</item> <item>11 <emph>p</emph> <.001.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182090954-19">Invariance across sex, generational status, sexual orientation, and ethnicity/race</hd> <p>As a final step of analysis, we examined the extent to which the associations among (a) identity synthesis and confusion, (b) life satisfaction and subjective well-being, and (c) positive adaptation, general distress, and COVID-related worries would be consistent between men and women, between first-generation and other students, between heterosexual and sexual-minority students, and across the four most prominent ethnic/racial groups in the sample (White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian). To accomplish this objective, we conducted a series of invariance analyses,[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref67">51</reflink>] one for each grouping variable across which we were comparing the fit of the model. The fit of a model with all identity-outcome paths free to vary across groups was compared to the fit of a model with all identity-outcome paths set equal across groups. A nonsignificant difference in model fit between the unconstrained and constrained models would suggest that the structural paths are equivalent across groups. Only the four largest ethnic/racial groups (White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian) were included in the invariance tests across ethnicity/race, because sample sizes for the other groups were too small.</p> <p>Differences in three primary fit indices were used to compare the fit of the unconstrained and constrained models: the chi-square index (Δχ<sups>2</sups>), the comparative fit index (ΔCFI), and the root mean square error of approximation (ΔRMSEA). The null hypothesis of invariance would be rejected if ΔCFI ≥.01 and/or ΔRMSEA ≥.01.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref68">52</reflink>] A significant Δχ<sups>2</sups> value is not necessarily indicative of non-invariance if the differences in the other fit indices are below the.01 threshold – given that the Δχ<sups>2</sups> test evaluates the null hypothesis of exactly equivalent fit between models. Invariance tests indicated that the structural paths were equivalent across sex, Δχ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref69">21</reflink>) = 12.43, <emph>p</emph> =.92; ΔCFI <.001; ΔRMSEA <.001; across student generation, Δχ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref70">21</reflink>) = 12.08, <emph>p</emph> =.94; ΔCFI <.001; ΔRMSEA <.001; across sexual orientation, Δχ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref71">21</reflink>) = 75.89, <emph>p</emph> <.001; ΔCFI =.007; ΔRMSEA <.001, and across ethnicity/race, Δχ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref72">63</reflink>) = 80.67, <emph>p</emph> =.07; ΔCFI =.002; ΔRMSEA =.002.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-20">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study was conducted to ascertain the extent to which personal identity synthesis and confusion would be related to positive adaptation, general distress, and COVID-19 worries – both directly and indirectly through life satisfaction and subjective well-being – among an ethnically and racially diverse sample of college students during the pandemic. The present data were collected during the spring and summer of 2021, when most U.S. universities were holding classes virtually or in hybrid form (i.e., a mixture of virtual and in-person instruction). A number of studies (e.g.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref73">3</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref74">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref75">53</reflink>]) have documented the adverse effects of the pandemic and associated mitigation strategies on students' mental health. However, less is known about promotive mechanisms and strategies that might serve as leverage points within interventions to offset these mental health symptoms and to promote resilience and well-being among students during COVID-19 and subsequent pandemics.</p> <p>Supporting our first and second hypotheses, our results suggest that personal identity synthesis (along with low levels of confusion) may serve as one important intervention target into which college administrators, professors, and counselors can intervene to promote mental health and ameliorate distress among diverse groups of students during the present and future pandemics. Our results suggest that personal identity synthesis, along with low levels of personal identity confusion, are associated with greater life satisfaction, higher psychological well-being, greater positive adaptation, and decreased general distress and COVID-19 worries. Further, supporting our fourth hypothesis, and consistent with earlier work with college student populations,[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref76">27</reflink>] components of well-being – in this case life satisfaction and psychological well-being – appear to serve as potential intervening mechanisms through which personal identity synthesis and confusion are related to positive adaptation and COVID-related worries (only life satisfaction emerged as a significant correlate of general distress). These indirect associations suggest that helping students to synthesize their identities, and reduce confusion, may improve well-being as well as facilitating positive adaptation and helping to prevent or reduce general distress and COVID-related worries. The links between personal identity and COVID-related worries were entirely indirect, suggesting that promoting life satisfaction and psychological well-being likely represent the mechanisms through which personal identity synthesis (and low levels of confusion) may be linked with fewer worries about the pandemic.</p> <p>The interaction effects between personal identity synthesis and confusion support our third hypothesis and suggest important potential nuances in terms of developing interventions to facilitate personal identity synthesis. For students high in personal identity confusion (who may be at risk for poor well-being, internalizing symptoms, and COVID-related worries), promoting personal identity synthesis may facilitate life satisfaction – but for students low in personal identity confusion, promoting personal identity synthesis may be more likely to facilitate psychological well-being and to lower COVID-related worries. Accordingly, the principle of adaptive interventions designed to provide for individualized sequences of intervention[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref77">54</reflink>] might be used to tailor programs based on students' levels of confusion.</p> <p>Our results speak to the importance of personal identity in the lives of college students, particularly during the pandemic and associated campus closures. Indeed, developing a sense of identity is one of the primary developmental tasks of the college years,[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref78">14</reflink>] and its importance might be even more pronounced during pandemics and other emergencies. Further, our results suggest that the developmental functions of personal identity, both directly and through indices of well-being, appear to generalize between men and women, across race/ethnicity and sexual orientation, and between first-generation and continuing-generation students.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref79">55</reflink>] Interventions targeting personal identity, such as identity-based support groups offered by counseling centers and other types of social groups offered by universities (e.g., clubs targeting students pursuing specific majors), might therefore be structured similarly across diverse groups of students. We should note, however, that the overrepresentation of women in our sample (relative to the U.S. college student population generally) might suggest that our findings are more pertinent to women than to men. Although we found that our model was consistent across sex, we do not know the extent to which the implications of our findings for intervention may apply to male students majoring in fields other than the social sciences.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-21">Limitations and future directions</hd> <p>The present results should be interpreted in light of at least four limitations. First, the cross-sectional design that we used does not permit us to draw directional or causal conclusions. Longitudinal and experimental designs are needed to support such conclusions. Second, the present study included only seven universities in five states. States in the Midwest, Plains, and Pacific Northwest were not represented in our sample. However, our data collection focused on the most highly populated and diverse U.S. states. Third, our study did not represent the U.S. college student population – we recruited more Hispanics, fewer Whites, and more participants from immigrant families than would be expected within a population-based U.S. college sample. These differences between the population and our sample likely resulted from our focusing on large, diverse, and immigrant-receiving states. Fourth, our study did not include a qualitative component to help us understand the quantitative findings in greater detail – such as why personal identity synthesis might facilitate well-being or why personal identity confusion might potentiate COVID-related worries. Future studies should adopt a mixed method approach.</p> <p>In conclusion, and despite these and other limitations, the present study has provided much-needed information regarding the role of personal identity, as well as of life satisfaction and psychological well-being, in helping college students to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic and associated mitigation strategies. A synthesized sense of identity may help students to cope with and manage the sudden campus closures, the isolation associated with attending classes virtually, and the uncertainty of when the pandemic would end and how it might reshape students' realities. The functions of identity include providing direction in a complex world – and such functions are needed even more during this uncertain time. We hope that the present study will inspire additional work in this direction.</p> <hd id="AN0182090954-22">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States of America and received approval from the Institutional Review Board at the University of Texas at Austin.</p> <ref id="AN0182090954-23"> <title> Notes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> In this article, we use "first generation" only to refer to college attendance. Individuals born outside the United States are referred to as foreign-born (rather than as first-generation immigrants).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0182090954-24"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Kaiser Family Foundation. 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Martinez Jr</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib137" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref79"></nolink>
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  Data: The Role of Personal Identity as a Resource for College Students during COVID-19
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Seth+J%2E+Schwartz%22">Seth J. Schwartz</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4238-9520">0000-0003-4238-9520</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Beyhan+Ertanir%22">Beyhan Ertanir</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Audrey+Harkness%22">Audrey Harkness</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2290-9904">0000-0003-2290-9904</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Byron+L%2E+Zamboanga%22">Byron L. Zamboanga</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9763-2407">0000-0001-9763-2407</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Melissa+L%2E+Bessaha%22">Melissa L. Bessaha</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22John+B%2E+Bartholomew%22">John B. Bartholomew</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alan+Meca%22">Alan Meca</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3272-7701">0000-0002-3272-7701</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Minas+Michikyan%22">Minas Michikyan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Maria+Duque%22">Maria Duque</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pablo+Montero-Zamora%22">Pablo Montero-Zamora</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Claudia+López-Madrigal%22">Claudia López-Madrigal</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Linda+G%2E+Castillo%22">Linda G. Castillo</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Miguel+Ángel+Cano%22">Miguel Ángel Cano</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kaveri+Subrahmanyam%22">Kaveri Subrahmanyam</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Brandy+Piña-Watson%22">Brandy Piña-Watson</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1726-3371">0000-0002-1726-3371</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pamela+Regan%22">Pamela Regan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lindsay+S%2E+Ham%22">Lindsay S. Ham</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2497-9263">0000-0002-2497-9263</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Marissa+K%2E+Hanson%22">Marissa K. Hanson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Charles+R%2E+Martinez%22">Charles R. Martinez</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22First+Generation+College+Students%22">First Generation College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Well+Being%22">Well Being</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Life+Satisfaction%22">Life Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Resilience+%28Psychology%29%22">Resilience (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Diversity%22">Student Diversity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Response%22">Emotional Response</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22California%22">California</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Texas%22">Texas</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Florida%22">Florida</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22New+York%22">New York</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Virginia%22">Virginia</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Center+for+Epidemiologic+Studies+Depression+Scale%22">Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22UCLA+Loneliness+Scale%22">UCLA Loneliness Scale</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Satisfaction+With+Life+Scale%22">Satisfaction With Life Scale</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2214244
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: We examined the role of personal identity vis-à-vis COVID-related outcomes among college students from seven U.S. campuses during spring/summer 2021. Participants: The present sample consisted of 1,688 students (74.5% female, age range 18-29). The sample was ethnically diverse, and 57.3% were first-generation students. Procedures: Students completed an online survey assessing personal identity synthesis and confusion, COVID-related worries, general internalizing symptoms, positive adaptation, and general well-being. Results: Personal identity synthesis was negatively related to COVID-related worries and general internalizing symptoms, and positively related to positive adaptation, both directly and indirectly through life satisfaction and psychological well-being. Personal identity confusion evidenced an opposing set of direct and indirect associations with outcome variables. Conclusions: Personal identity may potentially be protective against pandemic-related distress among college students, in part through its association with well-being. Reducing identity confusion and promoting identity synthesis are essential among college students during this and future pandemics.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1456766
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1456766
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        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2214244
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 244
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: First Generation College Students
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      – SubjectFull: Well Being
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      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
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      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Life Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Resilience (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Diversity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
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      – SubjectFull: Emotional Response
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      – SubjectFull: Anxiety
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: California
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Texas
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      – SubjectFull: Florida
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: New York
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Virginia
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: UCLA Loneliness Scale
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Satisfaction With Life Scale
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Role of Personal Identity as a Resource for College Students during COVID-19
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            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
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