View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Perspectives from the 'Others': 'Educational Review' and the Underexplored Facets of Modern Transformation of Education in China, 1907-1938

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Perspectives from the 'Others': 'Educational Review' and the Underexplored Facets of Modern Transformation of Education in China, 1907-1938
Language: English
Authors: Qiaohan Wang, Lin Li (ORCID 0000-0001-7780-6625)
Source: History of Education. 2025 54(1):23-55.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 33
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Educational History, Educational Change, Educational Facilities, Social Change, Educational Theories, Periodicals, Christianity, Religious Education, Foreign Nationals, English (Second Language), Teaching Methods
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1080/0046760X.2024.2420348
ISSN: 0046-760X
1464-5130
Abstract: The transition from traditional to modern educational practices in China marks a significant area of interest in educational history. This article focuses on the "Educational Review," an English-language periodical launched and circulated by Christian missionaries in early twentieth-century China. Utilising statistical, classificatory and textual analyses, this study thoroughly examines the "Educational Review's" content and its impact on educational changes in China. It comprehensively assesses the interplay of social, political and economic factors of the era, concluding that the "Educational Review" facilitated to the spread of modern educational theories, the evolution of teaching methods and the introduction and advancement of educational facilities. The "Educational Review" is highlighted as a valuable scholarly resource, providing crucially supplementary insights from the "others" into China's educational evolution during the first half of the twentieth century. It reveals the nuances of modern transformation of education and supports the understanding of societal changes in this transformative period.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1456922
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwE86JlfTQFcR5k6WfW1WDNlAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPrPwZbTbtCmdbgbiQIBEICBmwWP5zJX01e7CQFHqms6z0cHyrk4eJ48KJOY7ypXLuMqvspMHouJUDlZQaiDMOVpJKixV0dHGQ2XNj9Y90kSO3mB4Ptn4-oz6bOWZSvcfQW946Tq8fCXk_AkFvakgzMpZS6R6tYK29bJQktSwLOpJz6eaDyThxdHV8pY0mUGmPun62-2LLNd73AGolJMohciK1M0hSFWpU24L_iW
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0182160351;hed01jan.25;2025Jan13.04:22;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182160351-1">Perspectives from the "Others": Educational Review and the Underexplored Facets of Modern Transformation of Education in China, 1907–1938 </title> <p>The transition from traditional to modern educational practices in China marks a significant area of interest in educational history. This article focuses on the Educational Review, an English-language periodical launched and circulated by Christian missionaries in early twentieth-century China. Utilising statistical, classificatory and textual analyses, this study thoroughly examines the Educational Review's content and its impact on educational changes in China. It comprehensively assesses the interplay of social, political and economic factors of the era, concluding that the Educational Review facilitated to the spread of modern educational theories, the evolution of teaching methods and the introduction and advancement of educational facilities. The Educational Review is highlighted as a valuable scholarly resource, providing crucially supplementary insights from the "others" into China's educational evolution during the first half of the twentieth century. It reveals the nuances of modern transformation of education and supports the understanding of societal changes in this transformative period.</p> <p>Keywords: Modern transformation of China's education; Educational Review; Christian education; China Christian Educational Association; acculturation</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-2">Introduction</hd> <p>In the aftermath of the Opium War, China faced a profound national and social crisis due to mounting internal conflicts and external pressures. Influenced by Western powers and domestic reformists' endeavours to salvage the nation, China embarked on a historic shift towards modernity, gradually diverging from its traditional roots. This transformative period touched all facets of Chinese life, including politics, economy, ideology, culture and social structures. As talents were nurtured through education, these societal changes necessitated comprehensive reforms across all levels and areas of learning.</p> <p>China's sluggish educational reform at the early stage paved the way for Christian education to develop, addressing some educational needs during this period. To a certain extent, it took over some of the educational responsibilities and needs of the transformed society.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] Therefore, modern China developed two distinct education systems: the local Chinese system and the Christian system. Correspondingly, there were two different kinds of "educational associations," one being the representative organisation of Christian education in China called the "China Christian Educational Association," and the other being China's own provincial, county, city, township and village educational associations, as well as the Association of National Education Committee.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] Both systems and their organisations significantly influenced China's educational overhaul, with Christian education challenging traditional norms and, in an auxiliary role, contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese education. Hence, understanding Christian education's role is also important to comprehensively study China's educational evolution.</p> <p>During the late Qing and Republican period, Western missionaries in China launched numerous publications to support Christian education, providing key primary sources for research. Among these, the <emph>Educational Review</emph> (教育季報), a detailed chronicle of Chinese education from 1907 to 1938 by the China Christian Educational Association, stands out. Despite its rich insights, particularly into Christian education, it has been grossly underexplored.</p> <p>In the classical works concerning the general history of education in China, <emph>Educational Review</emph> (教育季報) has not received due attention. Early writings on the <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, edited by Chen Qingzhi, Huang Shaoji and Liu Yizheng, both focus on the development of national education in China, and do not talk about Christian education, and even less about related periodicals.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>]<emph>General History of Educational Activities in China (Volume 6)</emph>, edited by Li Zhong and Yu Ningning, on Christian education, mainly focuses on the educational activities of Christian schools, including daily teaching, daily management, religious education, etc., without mentioning the publishing business.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]<emph>General History of Chinese Education (Volume 4)</emph>, edited by Mao Lirui and Shen Guanqun, mentions the Christian publishing business in the early twentieth century, but only introduces the publication of textbooks and does not mention periodicals.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>]<emph>Chronology of Modern Education in China</emph> by Chen Xuexun contains information on the situation of foreigners running schools in China, some of which comes from periodicals such as <emph>The Eastern Miscellany</emph> (東方雜誌) and <emph>Missionary Magazine</emph> (later renamed <emph>Chinese Recorder</emph>) (傳教士雜誌/教務雜誌), but does not include articles from <emph>Educational Review</emph>.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref6">6</reflink>] Other representative works on the same topic all mention the cultural and educational penetration of missionaries through the organisation of journalism, and one of the main channels for this was through periodicals. However, none of these books deal with <emph>Educational Review</emph>, but mainly introduce <emph>Church News</emph> (later renamed <emph>Multinational Communique</emph>) (教會新報/萬國公報), <emph>Missionary Magazine</emph> (later renamed <emph>Chinese Recorder</emph>), the <emph>Chinese and Foreign Gazette</emph> (中外新報), and <emph>The Chinese Shipping List & Advertiser</emph> (上海新報).[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>]</p> <p>Some other publications briefly note the China Christian Educational Association, the founding body behind <emph>Educational Review</emph>. For example, Sun Peiqing's <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph> and Qu Tiehua's <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph> both describe how "the China Christian Educational Association promotes educational experience through the organisation of magazines and a variety of seminars, exchanges, and lectures."[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>] In addition, Chen Jingpan's <emph>History of Modern Chinese Education</emph> cites some of the articles in <emph>Educational Review</emph> when referring to the China Christian Educational Association.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>]</p> <p>In discussions of modern China's Christian education history, the focus typically leans towards Christian education itself, though often neglecting <emph>Educational Review. Missionaries and Modern China</emph>, by Gu Changsheng, has a chapter on the China Christian Educational Association, which highlights the important aspects of its successive congresses and not on the publishing business.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>] Shi Jinghuan's <emph>Calvin Wilson Mateer and John Leighton Stuart: A Study of the Educational Activities of Western Protestant Missionaries in China</emph>, and Hu Weiqing's <emph>The Challenge of Universalism: A Study of Christian Education in Modern China (1877–1927)</emph>, although they do not mention <emph>Educational Review</emph> in the main text, cite several times from this periodical.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref11">11</reflink>] In addition, <emph>A History of Christian Missions in China</emph>, which has been described as "a pioneering work and a classic in the West's comprehensive study of the history of Christianity's spread in China,"[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref12">12</reflink>] also frequently quotes articles from <emph>Educational Review</emph> to describe missionary education activities in China.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>] The above works all treat <emph>Educational Review</emph> as a literature source, rather than an object of study.</p> <p>Overall, the classic historiographies of China and the West have paid little attention to <emph>Educational Review</emph>. Although with some limited quotations, there is no detailed treatment of it in the existing scholarship. At that time, the China Christian Educational Association was the highest leading organ of Christian education in China and had certain impacts on the development of education in China. <emph>Educational Review</emph> is a specific periodical sponsored by the Association, providing an auxiliary understanding of the modern transformation of Chinese education from the "other's" perspective. This article takes <emph>Educational Review</emph> as the object of study and is able to further explore its value through careful reading and textual processing, while also exploring the research paradigm of using such periodicals. Additionally, it brings attention to the "almost forgotten" periodical and analyses the hidden facets of the modern transformation of Chinese education that it presents. This can contribute to the study of Chinese Christian education and the transformation of modern China.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-3">Imperial China in Transformation</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182160351-4">Setting the Historical Context</hd> <p>Towards the close of the eighteenth century, Christian denominations from Europe and the United States incrementally founded the Missionary Society, tasked with deploying missionaries abroad. In 1807, Robert Morrison of the London Missionary Society reached Guangzhou, marking the new round of missionary presence in China. Concurrently, the Qing dynasty's policies on foreign entities posed significant restrictions to the propagation of missionary expansion.</p> <p>Following the end of the Opium War in 1842, the Qing government's restrictions diminished, gradually permitting missionary activities. A succession of Christian denominations – including Lutheran, Presbyterian, Anglican, Baptist, and others – dispatched missionaries to China. They capitalised on the unequal treaties with the Qing government to construct dwellings, churches, medical facilities, and printing operations. Subsequently, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, smaller sects began establishing their presence, accompanied by an influx of Christian social service entities and charitable organisations.</p> <p>Subsequent to the Second Opium War, the Christian missionary contingent in China witnessed considerable growth, culminating in three national missionary congresses convened in Shanghai in 1877, 1890, and 1904, with attendance from diverse denominational representatives. By this juncture, Shanghai had emerged as the epicentre of missionary activity in China. Concurrently, British and American Christian missions were instrumental in establishing educational institutions and publishing houses, thereby facilitating cultural interchange with the West and underpinning the genesis of Western-style education within China. This process, on the other hand, was accompanied by a partial loss of China's educational sovereignty.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-5">Overview of Christian Schools in Modern China</hd> <p>Initially, foreign missionaries founded Christian schools in China primarily to disseminate Christianity. These institutions fall into two principal categories based on their target enrollees. The first encompasses theological seminaries and universities focused on imparting religious education, aimed at training missionaries and clerics. The second category consists of general educational establishments that admit students irrespective of their religious affiliations.</p> <p>Prior to the Opium War, the advent of Christian education had already been marked in regions such as Nanyang and Macau. In 1815, Robert Morrison established a Chinese College in Malacca, later renamed the Anglo-Chinese College in 1818, signifying the first missionary-led Christian school in Nanyang. The Morrison School, inaugurated in Macau in 1839, was the first of its kind in Western Christian education within China. The post-Opium War era saw the Qing government coerced into ratifying numerous inequitable treaties. These treaties afforded missionaries expanded privileges, including the right to establish schools in the five treaty ports of Guangzhou (Canton), Xiamen (Amoy), Fuzhou (Foochow), Ningbo (Ningpo), and Shanghai, thereby facilitating a more substantial foothold for Christian education.</p> <p>Following the Second Opium War, Western nations secured additional privileges through new or revised unequal treaties with the Qing government, which included unfettered access to China's interior for missionary activities, commerce, and the acquisition of land for church and school construction. Missionaries obtained the right to proselytise inland, leading to a swift proliferation of Christian schools. The establishment of educational institutions thus emerged as a pivotal strategy for the dissemination of Christianity by Western missionaries.</p> <p>After 1860, with the increase in trading ports and the easier access for missionaries to reach the mainland, the number of Christian schools grew rapidly. According to statistics, by the time of the First National Missionary Conference in 1877, there were a total of 462 Christian schools in China, with 8,522 students. By the Second National Missionary Conference in 1890, the number of students in Christian schools across the country had reached 16,836. Following the Hundred Days' Reform, particularly after the Qing government adopted a new educational system and abolished the imperial examinations at the beginning of the twentieth century, both Protestant and Catholic missions expanded their educational programmes in China, resulting in a significant increase in the number of Christian schools and students. By 1912, the number of students enrolled in Protestant Christian schools had reached 138,937, while Catholic schools had around 80,000 students. Collectively, Christian schools in China had enrolled over 200,000 students by 1912.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref14">14</reflink>]</p> <p>Table 1 illustrates the increasing number of students in Christian Church schools in China over the years, as published in <emph>The New Education</emph> in November 1922.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>] The data for the table are sourced from documents such as <emph>The Centenary of the Church, The Minutes of the Church Assembly</emph> of 1890, <emph>The China Mission Year Book</emph>, and <emph>The Christian Occupation of China</emph>. The table also highlights the rapid expansion of Christian education in China from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century.</p> <p>Table 1. Number of students at Christian schools nationwide (1876–1920).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Year</td><td>Number of students</td><td>Source</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1876</td><td>4,909</td><td><italic>The Centenary of the Church</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1889</td><td>16,836</td><td><italic>Minutes of the Church Assembly</italic> (1890)</td></tr><tr><td>1906</td><td>57,683</td><td><italic>The Centenary of the Church</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1912</td><td>138,937</td><td><italic>The China Mission Year Book</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1915</td><td>172,973</td><td><italic>The China Mission Year Book</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1916</td><td>184,646</td><td><italic>The China Mission Year Book</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1917</td><td>194,624</td><td><italic>The China Mission Year Book</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1918–19</td><td>212,819</td><td><italic>The Christian Occupation of China</italic></td></tr><tr><td>1920</td><td>245,049</td><td><italic>The Christian Occupation of China</italic></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>At the dawn of the twentieth century, Christian schools in China witnessed significant expansion across multiple facets. Nonetheless, these developments ignited nationalist alert and resistance amidst the Chinese populace's anti-imperialist and anti-feudal movements. Consequently, the 1920s marked a drastic decline in the fortunes of Christian educational institutions, with missionary numbers dwindling. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the state intensified its oversight of Christian schools. In 1951, schools receiving foreign subsidies were appropriated, educational sovereignty was reclaimed, and a comprehensive nationalisation of all Christian schools on the mainland ensued.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-6">Christian Periodicals Publishing in Modern China</hd> <p>The trajectories of Christian periodical publishing and Christian educational institutions in modern China share a parallel narrative of fluctuating fortunes. Christian periodical publishing commenced in the early nineteenth century with the arrival of Robert Morrison, a missionary representing the London Missionary Society. Under Morrison's active promotion, a series of pioneering Chinese periodicals were established, including <emph>Chinese Monthly Magazine</emph> (察世俗每月統記傳), <emph>A Monthly Record of Important Selections</emph> (特選撮要每月統記傳), <emph>World News</emph> (天下新聞) and <emph>Eastern Western Monthly Magazine</emph> (東西洋考每月統記傳), alongside English publications such as <emph>Chinese Repository</emph> (中國叢報). Initially, these periodicals were steeped in religious content, disseminating Christian doctrines and introducing Western scientific and technological advancements.</p> <p>In the aftermath of the Opium War, the publication of periodicals by foreigners in China moved into a new phase, bolstered by the protections afforded by the unequal treaties. This era saw a rapid proliferation of Western missionary periodicals, with titles such as <emph>Chinese and Foreign Gazette, ShangHae Serial</emph> (六合叢談), <emph>The Chinese Shipping List & Advertiser, Chung Wai Tsa Che</emph> (中外雜誌), <emph>Chinese and Foreign News in Seven Days</emph> (中外新聞七日錄), <emph>Church News</emph> (later renamed <emph>Multinational Communique</emph>) and <emph>Missionary Magazine</emph> (later renamed <emph>Chinese Recorder</emph>) being established. As documented in the <emph>List of Periodicals in the Chinese Language</emph> (中文報刊目錄), an addendum to the "Essay on Periodical Literature" presented by John Marshall Willoughby Farnham at the Second Congress of Missionaries in China, there were 76 Chinese periodicals published from 1815 to 1890 (including <emph>Peking Press</emph>). Of these, 31 were launched between 1868 and 1890, which comprised 15 religious and 16 secular (non-religious) titles.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref16">16</reflink>] During this period, the religious emphasis of periodical content began to wane, giving way to a trend of secularisation and commercialisation.</p> <p>The opening of Shanghai as a treaty port and the introduction of Christianity significantly shaped the city's cultural landscape. Shanghai's advanced level of industrialisation and commerce, coupled with its developed cultural and educational institutions, attracted a substantial number of intellectuals and Western missionaries. Various Christian missions and denominations established their Chinese headquarters in the city, positioning Shanghai as the hub of Christianity in China during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Christian missionaries capitalised on the city's strategic importance and established numerous printing and publishing organisations in Shanghai. Meanwhile, they also founded many periodicals such as <emph>Multinational Communique</emph> (萬國公報), <emph>Chinese Recorder</emph> (教務雜誌), <emph>Sighs of the Times</emph> (時兆月報), <emph>Happy Childhood Magazine</emph> (福幼報), <emph>The Women's Messenger</emph> (女鐸) and <emph>Heavenly Wind</emph> (天風). These publications not only spread religious teachings but also contributed to the cultural and intellectual exchange between China and the West. Shanghai's role as a primary base for the national newspaper industry was solidified through these endeavours.</p> <p>Amidst the expansion of Christian schools and their associated periodical publications, Christian education has emerged as an importantly auxiliary component of modern China's educational framework. The China Christian Educational Association, unparalleled by any other religious entity then, has been enthusiastic in expediting the institutionalisation of Christian education. This fairly influenced the modernisation of the Chinese educational system. Furthermore, the Association's establishment of <emph>Educational Review</emph> has been pivotal in chronicling this transformative journey.</p> <p>Founded in Shanghai in 1907 by the China Christian Educational Association, <emph>Educational Review</emph> initially bore the title "<emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph>." In 1909, it was rechristened as "<emph>Educational Review</emph>." By 1913, the publication transitioned from a monthly to a quarterly periodical, with its Chinese nomenclature adapting to "<emph>jiaoyu jibao</emph>" (教育季報). Confronted with wartime exigencies, <emph>Educational Review</emph> was consolidated with <emph>Chinese Recorder</emph> at the close of 1938 (the covers are all illustrated in Figure 1). Over its 32-year tenure, <emph>Educational Review</emph> disseminated a total of 30 volumes.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1. Covers of this periodical in 1907, 1909 and 1913. Source: Educational Review.</p> <p> <emph>Educational Review</emph> stood as the principal periodical of missionary education in modern China, functioning as a conduit between Western educational ideologies and systems and their Chinese counterparts. This paper will examine the publication's contents, significance and value from multiple perspectives.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-7">Analysis of the Main Contents of Educational Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182160351-8">Content Overview</hd> <p>Each edition of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> is concise, typically under 40 pages, yet it encapsulates a wealth of information on specific facets of modern Chinese education. In the 2013 republication preface, Professor Tao Feiya of Shanghai University delineated the content into five key areas, including educational reviews, current updates, textbook and equipment advertisements and details about the China Christian Educational Association.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref17">17</reflink>]</p> <p>For in-depth analysis, we have exhaustively combed through all the content published in <emph>Educational Review</emph> over more than 30 years, tabulating its 30 volumes with more than 2,300 entries. Each entry in our original database contains the exact volume number, issue number, month and year of publication, item title, category, topic, author, author affiliation, page range, error label and error category of the content. In the process of sorting, we refer to Professor Tao's framework to determine the "category" for the data. At the same time, however, we adapted Professor Tao's framework based on the specific content and distilled the content into four primary categories and nine subcategories (refer to Table 2), which we will expound upon in subsequent sections.</p> <p>Table 2. Classification table of the main contents of the <emph>Educational Review</emph>.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Category</td><td>No. of articles</td><td>Percentage</td></tr><tr><td>Major categories</td><td>Sub-categories</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Review of Education</td><td>Review of Education in China</td><td>1108</td><td>52.9%</td></tr><tr><td>Review of Overseas Education</td><td>38</td><td>1.8%</td></tr><tr><td>Latest News and Government Education</td><td>Latest News and Government Education</td><td>499</td><td>23.8%</td></tr><tr><td>Advertisements</td><td>Advertisements for Textbooks</td><td>93</td><td>4.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Advertisements for Books other than Textbooks</td><td>149</td><td>7.1%</td></tr><tr><td>Advertisements for Educational Equipment</td><td>44</td><td>2.1%</td></tr><tr><td>Advertisements for Household Goods</td><td>28</td><td>1.3%</td></tr><tr><td>Information about the China Christian Educational Association and the Publication of <italic>Educational Review</italic></td><td>Information on the China Christian Educational Association</td><td>93</td><td>4.4%</td></tr><tr><td>Information about the Publication of <italic>Educational Review</italic></td><td>43</td><td>2.1%</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>It is worth noting that all the data presented in this table actually have the potential for further mining and analysis. The content in each category can be compared both vertically in the time dimension and analysed horizontally in the thematic, regional and other dimensions. Figure 2 shows the number of articles published in each category in different years. As can be easily seen, "Review of Education in China" and "Latest News and Government Education" formed the core content of <emph>Educational Review</emph>, and their trends correlate. "Advertisements" and "Information about the China Christian Educational Association and the Publication of <emph>Educational Review</emph>" occupied more space before 1911, but the number decreased and remained stable after 1911. The periodical stopped publishing in 1912 and did not resume until December 1913, and no researcher has systematically investigated why this happened.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 2. Overall number of articles published per year in each subcatogory.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-9">Review of Education</hd> <p>The section of "Review of Education" forms the core of the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, comprising approximately 55% of its content, with over 1,100 articles on Chinese education and an additional nearly 40 on international perspectives.</p> <p>This section is notable for its comprehensive coverage over an extensive period, detailing the educational landscape across China, including missionary schools. It provides a thorough depiction of all educational stages, from pre-school to higher education.</p> <p>The breadth of topics addressed is considerable, encompassing curriculum design, teacher employment, student demographics, learning environments, school holidays, infrastructure, financial management, discipline, health, language and script usage, textbook development, teaching aids, examination syllabuses and various educational sectors such as vocational, industrial, religious, moral and teacher education. The review also touches on the social aspects of education, government collaboration, teacher training, contractual matters and educational assessment, even delving into the specifics of teacher education in certain subjects, such as "How to Improve the Teaching of the Chinese Language and Literature,"[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref18">18</reflink>] "Methods of Teaching History,"[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref19">19</reflink>] and also historical topics, such as "Education in Ancient China."[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>] It also includes elements that are easily overlooked in school education, such as student health screening.</p> <p>The material published is intrinsically linked to Christian education, with the ultimate goal of disseminating Christian values in students and furthering the influence of China through educational undertakings. Concurrently, these publications have partly influenced China's educational reforms, introducing Western administrative systems, innovative curricula, and pedagogical approaches that blend theory with practice. This has modified the traditional Chinese educational paradigm and facilitated the emergence of a modern educational system within the intricate social fabric of the period.</p> <p>In terms of the wide area, "Review of Education in China" mentioned all main regions of China at that time, which truly achieved doing a comprehensive description of China's education. The China Christian Educational Association set up local affiliated educational associations in China, either in a province as a district or by combining several provinces into larger districts.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref21">21</reflink>] In 1915, eight districts were recognised, and by 1918 the China Christian Educational Association had nine local educational branches. By 1925 it had been extended to 10 districts.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref22">22</reflink>] With the exception of the more remote areas such as Xinjiang and Yunnan, these affiliated educational associations covered a large part of China at this time. The articles published in <emph>Educational Review</emph> by the various affiliated associations described in detail the educational situation in different parts of China.</p> <p>The "Review of Education in China" also highlights special educational institutions such as schools for the blind, women's colleges and orphanages (see Figure 3), reflecting a commitment to inclusive and universal education. George B. Fryer, head of the Institution for the Chinese Blind, contributed two significant articles on blind education. The first emphasises the teacher's role in empathising with and understanding the student's perspective,[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref23">23</reflink>] while the second discusses real-world examples of blind education, historical developments abroad and the significance of tactile learning, vocational training, music, physical education and the challenges faced by blind education in China. Fryer advocates for greater government involvement in the education of the blind.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 3. Children at Shanghai industrial orphanage and their handcraft training. Source: Educational Review.</p> <p>"Review of Overseas Education," the second section of "Review of Education," conveys the latest education trends in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Korea, India, Germany, Turkey, Denmark, the Philippines and other countries, including "Some Educational Lessons from India,"[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref25">25</reflink>] "Christian Schools in Korea,"[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>] "The Present Position of Christian Schools and Colleges in Japan,"[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>] "Foreign Schools in the Turkish Republic,"[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref28">28</reflink>] "The Folk Schools of Denmark,"[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref29">29</reflink>] "Private Schools in the Philippine Islands" and more than 30 articles.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref30">30</reflink>] Educational trends in overseas countries came as both a shock and reference to China at the time. Meanwhile, this is also a strategy and means for the Christian Association to promote its educational advancements to the Chinese people on a global scale.</p> <p>For example, the April 1915 issue of "New Educational Movements in America" delineates two significant shifts in American education over the preceding 40 years, both offering valuable insights for China's educational evolution.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref31">31</reflink>] The first, spanning the last quarter of the nineteenth century, was a response to perceived inadequacies in pedagogy, sparking a plethora of educational theories. This era prioritised nurturing students' critical thinking over rote learning. The subsequent movement argued that curriculum content should no longer be more crucial than pedagogical methods. Advocating for child-centred, activity-based learning, it sought to overhaul the archaic educational system. This period focused on fostering creativity, opposed conventional curricula, transformed rigid institutional structures, and championed the unencumbered and holistic growth of students.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-10">Latest News and Government Education</hd> <p>The "Latest News and Government Education" section is the second most substantial category in <emph>Educational Review</emph>, constituting 24% of the content. "Latest News" encapsulates the proceedings of significant meetings pertinent to Christian education in China, such as annual conferences of regional educational associations and resolutions from the Centenary Conference on Educational Subjects. These documents cover a broad spectrum of church and missionary activities, including education, evangelism, women's initiatives, literature, medical services and scriptural work.</p> <p>Additionally, this category includes insightful reports from university leaders and updates on higher education, featuring detailed accounts of the status and progress of prominent institutions like Yenching University, St John's University, and several others. These articles provide a granular view of the contemporary state of China's higher education across various dimensions.</p> <p>Taking the longer ones as examples, "The Shanghai Baptist College" (see Figure 4) introduces the college from the aspects of location, history, plant, statistics, curriculum, business administration, library, museum, athletics, conservation, college spirit, and future.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref32">32</reflink>] It also explains in detail the reasons for choosing the location of the college, the historical development, important buildings, construction funds, the number of schools at all levels, the number of Chinese and foreign teachers, the composition and number of students, the group system of curriculum (language and education, social sciences, natural sciences, religious work), the library and museum's collections, the physical education programme, physical examination, the work of the alumni association, and the college's ideal of "truth, righteousness, diligence and love." The two articles introducing St John's University, one published in April 1917 and the other in January 1933, were both written by the president, Francis Lister Hawks Pott (卜舫濟), provided valuable and detailed information about the University.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref33">33</reflink>]</p> <p>Graph: Figure 4. The Shanghai Baptist College and Seminary. Source: Educational Review.</p> <p>"Latest news" also includes the news about important people and events in education. For example, "In Memoriam: Arthur Sitgreaves Mann, BA, BD" is a tribute to the deceased missionary educator in China.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>] "Editorial Notes" in Volume 1 and Issue 17 mention the deaths of Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi, commenting "The death of an Emperor is at any time a matter of note, and that of HIM Kwang Hsti did not lack in this respect, but that the Dowager-Empress should die almost at the same time gives the double event a tragic and dramatic importance which it would be difficult, if not impossible, to parallel in history."[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref35">35</reflink>] This also reflects the observations and analysis of the Westerners in China regarding the major historical changes occurring at that time.</p> <p>The "Government Education" section, chaired by Dr Fong F. Sec, a Chinese translator and English language expert, has always been concerned with the impact of political trends and social changes on all aspects of education in China. The change of education officials, the impact of political upheaval, the changes in education policy, and the emergence of educational thinking have all been well represented in this column. For example, some articles in 1914 notice Tang Hualong's position as the new Minister of Education,[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>] as well as some of his views and policies, recording that "he expressed the hope that parents would see the necessity of sending their children to school and that gentry would encourage education by establishing many more primary schools" and that "the education of our girls has been neglected," but regrettably they saw women's schooling as an effective tool to cultivate "future mothers of a superior citizenry."[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref37">37</reflink>] It also remarks that "Minister Tang is taking steps to establish a Historical Museum, making use of the Confucian Temple and the Metropolitan College for the purpose in the meantime."[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref38">38</reflink>] In an article published in 1915, Liang Qichao was reported to have submitted two proposals to the State Council, "One was for compulsory service in the army and the other was compulsory education."[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>] After Yuan Shikai's death in June 1916, Chinese politics fell back into chaos and struggled for a time until Li Yuanhong succeeded him as president, then the revolution temporarily ceased. As noted in the fourth issue in 1916, "With the restoration of order in the county, interest in education is being revived."[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref40">40</reflink>] Indeed, the changes in China's political and educational landscape will directly affect the implementation of Christian education in China. Therefore, this periodical also closely monitors significant shifts in China's high-level policies and attitudes.</p> <p>During this period, government education in China evolved amid turmoil. Western educational initiatives were partly absorbed by the Chinese government to propose reforms, yet these were often seen as flawed and mostly impractical. Nevertheless, the government acknowledged the need to revamp China's traditional educational framework, drawing inspiration from new education to enhance local educational competitiveness. Traditional education, as it stood at the close of the Qing dynasty, was reshaped by both external and internal pressures: the introduction of Western concepts and languages marginally expanded traditional teaching, and a deeper understanding of Western educational methods eventually prompted a comprehensive overhaul of the old system.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>] Subsequently, the Chinese government recognised the strategic importance of controlling educational sovereignty. The rise of the non-Christian movement, alongside the resistance and adaptation of Christian church schools, were significant developments noted in the government education narrative.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-11">Advertisements</hd> <p>Advertisements constitute a significant portion of the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, representing around 15% of the content. In general, all types of advertisements are published more often in the first four years of the periodical's creation and, in the later years, space is ceded to other content. These advertisements are not just commercial but educational in nature, promoting textbooks and supplementary reading materials, educational apparatus and, occasionally, household items (refer to Figure 5).</p> <p>Graph: Figure 5. Number of advertisements for different items published in each year.</p> <p>Specifically, the sections on "Advertisements for textbooks" and "Advertisements for books other than textbooks" provide insights into recommended books (see Figure 6), including the rationale for their endorsement and purchasing details. They span a variety of subjects and levels, from elementary to middle school, and often feature illustrations and maps. In addition to textbooks, the <emph>Educational Review</emph> also advertised new books from various publishing houses. These advertisements appear over 240 times in the volumes, with advertisements for books appearing several times in each volume except in 1912, 1913, when the <emph>Educational Review</emph> ceased publication, and towards the end of 1938. These advertisements are usually in both English and Chinese and had clear prices, offering readers a convenient and straightforward way to purchase.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 6. Advertisements for textbooks and other books. Source: Educational Review.</p> <p>The recommended books within <emph>Educational Review</emph> span a comprehensive range of student development areas, including moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetic, and practical skills. These recommendations reflect the changes in textbooks, from which we can get a glimpse of the shifting educational objectives over the decades, the development of various disciplines in China, and an insight into the essence of Christian education in China during that era.</p> <p>Beyond books, <emph>Educational Review</emph> also showcases educational and non-educational products such as stationery, diagnostic mastery chart, prestigious writing instruments, blackboards, artworks, printing devices, study aids, and household items like watches, clothing, health supplements, photographic equipment, security devices, and investment opportunities. These items (see Figure 7), novel to the then-opening Chinese society, not only facilitated modern teaching practices but also symbolised the broader modernisation of Chinese education at a material level. Taking the typewriter as an example, the first typewriters in the world were made in the first half of the nineteenth century and were not introduced to China until the twentieth century. But, due to the peculiarities of Chinese characters, the Chinese had a long and winding road to create and promote Chinese typewriters.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref42">42</reflink>] As scholars discuss, "From the 1920s onwards, with the rise of Western trade in typewriters in China, coupled with the fact that the Shu-style Chinese typewriter of the Commercial Press, which was promoted and manufactured by Zhang Yuanji during the same period, had been improved six times to improve its practical performance, the use of typewriters in the editorial business in modern China gradually increased."[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref43">43</reflink>] However, as early as 1907, in the first volume of the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, the typewriter was introduced and it was shown that missionaries could enjoy a 10% discount, which indicated an earlier contact of the Chinese with the typewriter.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 7. Advertisements for educational equipment. Source: Educational Review.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-12">Information on the China Christian Educational Association</hd> <p>About 6.5% of the content is related to the Chinese Christian Education Association. Some of these sections provide information about the Christian Education Association itself (refer to Table 3), including Introduction and Constitution of the Association, Documents Relating to the Work of the Affiliated Associations, Documents Relating to the National Education Process, List of Members, Recruitment Notice, etc.</p> <p>Table 3. Number of pieces of "Information about the China Christian Educational Association" published in each year.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Year</td><td>Introduction and Constitution of the Association</td><td>Documents Relating to the Work of the Affiliated Associations</td><td>Documents Relating to the National Education Process</td><td>List of Members</td><td>Recruitment Notices</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>1907</td><td>6</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>4</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>1908</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td>1</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>1909</td><td>16</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td>3</td><td>1</td></tr><tr><td>1910</td><td>5</td><td>2</td><td /><td>2</td><td /></tr><tr><td>1911</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1912</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1913</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1914</td><td>2</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1915</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1916</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1917</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1918</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1919</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1920</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1921</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1922</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1923</td><td /><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1924</td><td>3</td><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1925</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1926</td><td>3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1927</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1928</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1929</td><td /><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1930</td><td /><td /><td>4</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1931</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1932</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1933</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1934</td><td>3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1935</td><td>1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1936</td><td /><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1937</td><td /><td /><td>1</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1938</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>46</td><td>15</td><td>13</td><td>10</td><td>9</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Introduction and Constitution of the Association is the most extensive (see Table 3), including the constitution and by-laws of the association, connotation of its name in English and Chinese, the history and purpose of its establishment, its organisational structure and so on. Moreover, "Documents Relating to the Work of the Affiliated and General Associations" describes the work of the association and the results of the work at each stage; "List of Members and Recruitment Notice" presents the association's membership list, recruitment notices, application forms, and so on. These materials are important historical information to understand the history of the Association more comprehensively. For instance, in the <emph>Records of the Triennial Meeting of the Educational Association of China Held at Shanghai, May 2–4</emph>, printed by the American Presbyterian Mission Press in 1893, there are 13 articles of the Association,[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref44">44</reflink>] and article 14 of the by-laws in the <emph>Educational Review</emph> is a supplement to that earlier material:</p> <p>At the triennial meetings of the Association the reports of Officers and Standing Committees shall be distributed in printed form at the first meeting of the Association, at which time they shall be read by title and referred to appropriate committees. Such committees shall return the reports for the action of the Association at the opening of the morning session, from day to day, together with such recommendations as they shall desire to make, and action upon the reports shall then take precedence of all other business.</p> <p>Another section in this category contains information on the publishing of this periodical, in which more than 40 articles were published before 1911, such as the review advertising rates, periodicals interdelivery service, editorial notes, the call for erratum in the periodical, the call for educational information. Such articles contribute to the improvement of the content of this publication and its external distribution, circulation, and impact, which can be analysed from the perspective of communication studies.</p> <p>The section of "Review Advertising Rates" is published 18 times in the periodical. It describes the subscriber base and the cost of placing advertisements in the <emph>Educational Review</emph>. It says that the <emph>Educational Review</emph> is sent regularly to about 450 addresses. Most of the subscribers are engaged in educational work and many are in charge of schools where there is a constant demand for books and school supplies. The cost of advertising varies from format to format and from page to page, with the year rate being cheaper than the ordinary rate and the half page more expensive than the full page. "Periodicals Interdelivery Service" refers to the repeated publication of "Missionaries Savings" by the Methodist Publishing House. "Missionaries Save Postage on Your American Periodicals," stating that "no postage will be charged to subscribers for American Periodicals between America and Shanghai." "Periodicals Interdelivery Service" appears five times in 1907 and three times in 1908, for a total of eight occurrences. The "Editorial Notes," dealing mainly with publication, name changes and section changes, appear six times in total. The "Call for Errors in the Periodical" and the "Call for Educational Information," which ask subscribers to provide needed information, both appear about five times in the volumes. For example, an article in volume I states, "It will be your own fault if your own name and the name of your school are not in the Educational Directory. Publishing houses and dealers in school supplies will use this Directory in sending out their catalogues and sample copies, calendars, etc., and you will be left out."[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref45">45</reflink>] This is indeed a strategy to obtain more extensive mailing information for circulation.</p> <p>In summary, previous sources used by the academia on the China Christian Educational Association are predominantly found in official archives, formal introductory documents, and meeting summaries. However, <emph>Educational Review</emph> provides a unique and meticulous account of the association's activities, which is of much value and irreplaceable.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-13">Hidden Agenda, Development and Circulation of the Educational Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182160351-14">Underlying Motives for Publishing the Educational Review</hd> <p>The first national missionary conference in Shanghai in 1877 highlighted the lack of cohesion and communication among various Christian educational institutions, prompting the formation of the School and Textbook Series Committee (益智書會). This body, established to improve curricula and teaching methods, evolved into the China Christian Educational Association in 1890, focusing on textbook compilation and providing collective support for educational challenges.</p> <p>As early as 1890, when the China Christian Educational Association was founded, Samuel Couling suggested that a periodical be started to promote the association. Then, in November 1891, the China Christian Educational Association held a meeting of its officers at the American Presbyterian Mission Press in Shanghai, where, on the initiative of W. A. T. Barber, the association formally discussed the idea of starting a periodical. However, as the Education Association was in its infancy and lacked funds and staff, it was difficult to get started. The meeting decided to ask <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> to devote one or two pages a month to the publication of educational news. The meeting also appointed John Fryer and W. A. T. Barber to organise an editorial board to write articles on educational activities for <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph>. Their request was accepted by L. N. Wheeler, then editor-in-chief of <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph>.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref46">46</reflink>]</p> <p>Beginning in October 1893, <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> added the "Educational Department," which gradually increased in length from four pages at the beginning to more than ten pages later, reporting not only on the affairs of the China Christian Educational Association, but also on educational activities, teaching methods, new educational concepts, and the latest textbooks from various regions, with the aim of serving all educators in China.[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>]</p> <p>From October 1893 to December 1907, the China Christian Educational Association relied on the Educational Department of <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> to report educational news. However, as <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> was a Christian publication and in English, its audience could only be foreign missionaries and a few English-speaking Chinese assistants, so its influence was limited. Therefore, in 1894, John Fryer suggested that <emph>The Chinese Scientific Magazine</emph> (格致彙編) should be reprinted with more educational columns and news to spread the influence of the new style of education among the intellectuals of the late Qing dynasty.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref48">48</reflink>] However, the idea was abandoned due to the continued suspension of <emph>The Chinese Scientific Magazine</emph>.</p> <p>In 1899, A. P. Parker again proposed that the China Christian Educational Association should start an independent publication, and the idea was accepted. In 1905, Francis Lister Hawks Pott, Chairman of the Publication Committee, pointed out that the few pages of educational content in <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> could no longer satisfy the needs of the association and that the association should have its own publication, so that the missionaries could communicate with each other.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref49">49</reflink>] After the meeting, the association began to raise funds and seek candidates. The China Centenary Missionary Conference held in 1907 proposed to raise at least $10,000 a year to employ two foreign officers, two Chinese assistants, and to publish a magazine in both English and Chinese.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>] In 1907, the association launched the <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph> (中華教育協會月報), later renamed <emph>Educational Review</emph> (教育季報). Thus, the periodical in English was successfully established. As documented below:</p> <p>The number of members was increasing and the missionary work was spreading, so we had to set up an organisation for communication and publicity. Therefore, in 1893, we specially selected editors to use part of the "<emph>Recorder</emph>" of the existing periodical, <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph>, as a centre for the communication of opinions in the educational world. In 1907 a separate <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association</emph> was published, and in 1909 this was changed to <emph>Educational Review</emph>, which was published once a month. Now it is changed to the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, published quarterly, as the official publication of our Association.[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>]</p> <p>The above is the overall process of the establishment of <emph>Educational Review</emph>. The publication of <emph>Educational Review</emph> was driven by several hidden agendas, four of which are central.</p> <p>Firstly, the aftermath of the Opium War, which saw China's doors forced open by Western powers, brought an influx of Christian missionaries whose main aim was proselytisation. The imposition of unequal treaties significantly aided their missionary ambitions. They leveraged this opportunity to deepen and widen their influence, establishing schools, publishing periodicals, and setting up medical centres nationwide, all to further their cause and "win China for God."</p> <p>Secondly, the Qing government's introduction of the Ren-Yin School System and Gui-Mao School System at the dawn of the twentieth century significantly challenged Christian education in China. These systems, which prioritised "traditional Chinese values supplemented by modern Western technology," relegated Western learning to a secondary position, underscoring the shifting dynamics between Chinese and Western education. Moreover, the new regulations imposed stringent constraints on Christian educational institutions, compelling missionaries to rapidly establish an autonomous Christian education system to sustain its growth in China.</p> <p>In response to these challenges, Christian missionaries convened in 1907 to mark a century of missionary efforts in China, calling for robust Anglo-American missionary backing for the expansion of secondary and higher education in the country. As stated,</p> <p>We will seek through the Missionary Society to assist the Mother Church in developing existing schools of secondary and higher education and in opening new schools in areas where they do not yet exist. We ask for more support for our educational endeavours, not only financially, but also in terms of the number of men and women sent to do this work.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>]</p> <p>Thirdly, the necessity for an official organ arose from the China Christian Educational Association's aim to centralise and systematise the disparate efforts of missionary schools across China. In 1907, the association launched the <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph>, later renamed <emph>Educational Review</emph>, to facilitate discussion on school operations, minimise educational conflicts and redundancies and, crucially, to unify Christian schools for a prominent role in China's education landscape. The <emph>Educational Review</emph> thus became the mission-driven publication of this association.</p> <p>Finally, in the early years of the twentieth century, the dispersed nature of educational missionaries across China's urban and rural landscapes, coupled with the era's challenging transportation and communication infrastructure, underscored the acute need for a dedicated communication platform. While <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> served as a primary publication for early missionaries since 1867, its generalist nature meant that it fell short of providing a specialised forum for those in educational missions.</p> <p>The formation of the School and Textbook Series Committee in 1877 initially saw <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> double as a makeshift outlet for educational propaganda. However, as Christian education in China burgeoned and demanded greater professionalism, the imperative for a specialised periodical became clear. Thus, the launch of <emph>Educational Review</emph> was a pivotal step, offering educational missionaries a vital source of information and connection in an era of limited direct interaction.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-15">Development, Editing and Circulation of the Educational Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182160351-16">Names and Stages in Changing</hd> <p>From May 1907, the China Christian Educational Association officially published the <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph>, the first specialist missionary education journal in modern China.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref53">53</reflink>] In the beginning, the journal was called the <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph> and each issue was about 30 pages long, focusing on the activities of the China Christian Educational Association. As the problem of insufficient funds and manpower still existed, in 1909,</p> <p>The Executive Committee has, therefore, decided to make an earnest appeal for help, and is endeavoring to raise a fund sufficient to procure the services of two secretaries —one English and one American —with two competent Chinese assistants. It is also desired to secure rooms for the Association's headquarters at Shanghai and to publish two educational periodicals —one in English and another in Chinese.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref54">54</reflink>]</p> <p>From January 1909, <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph> changed its name to <emph>Educational Review</emph> and was still issued monthly. In terms of content, at the beginning of the <emph>Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China</emph>, the sections "Review of Education" and "Latest News and Government Education" mainly introduced the China Christian Educational Association's organisational structure, list of its members, its meetings and its main work. After the name changed, the journal's horizons broadened, with more and more reports on new education, gradually moving closer to the China Christian Educational Association's vision of serving all educators in China in 1893. As stated in the first issue of the renamed journal:</p> <p>With the enlargement of our monthly periodical and the earnest desire to make it of more general interest and usefulness, we have thought it best to adopt a more suitable name, and we therefore begin the new year with a new title – <emph>THE EDUCATIONAL REVIEW</emph> – a name which seems to express better than the old one the purpose of the Association and of its monthly magazine.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref55">55</reflink>]</p> <p>This indicates a shift in the journal's positioning and perspective: from focusing on the Christian associations itself to concentrating on the overall Christian education and even other educational fields.</p> <p>In December 1913, <emph>Educational Review</emph> was changed from a monthly to a quarterly magazine and bore thus the Chinese title "教育季報," published in January, April, July and October each year, and naturally the length of each issue was expanded. In 1934, the China Christian Educational Association was reorganised. In order to revive the image of the association in the eyes of the public and to strengthen the connection between <emph>Educational Review</emph> and its readers, the China Christian Educational Association decided to issue five issues of <emph>Educational Review</emph> each year, published in January, March, May, September and November.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref56">56</reflink>] However, due to a lack of funds, <emph>Educational Review</emph> reverted to four issues per year after one year.</p> <p>After that, <emph>Educational Review</emph> could no longer operate normally because of the external environment, financial shortcomings and manpower problems during wartime. In order to save resources, <emph>Educational Review</emph> was merged into <emph>The Chinese Recorder</emph> at the end of 1938. The journal thus concluded its four-decade mission and ceased independent publication.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-17">Key Editors and Authors</hd> <p>The address of the journal's editorial office had also been changing in Shanghai, starting at 18 Peking Road, then moving to 29 North Sichuan Road, 5 Kunshan Garden, 23 Yuanmingyuan Road, 169 Yuanmingyuan Road and so on. This also outlines the journey behind the magazine, marked by the continuous migration of its leaders and editorial team as they strive to maintain its existence.</p> <p>The Editor-in-Chief of <emph>Educational Review</emph> has always been an important figure in the China Christian Educational Association, and in fact the authors of most of the articles have come from members of the China Christian Educational Association. To secure the authors' affiliations, we first compared these authors with the list of members of the China Christian Educational Association and found that most of the authors are members of the association.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref57">57</reflink>] In addition, there are also some articles by school teachers or leaders, such as "The Teaching of College English" by A. Brede of University of Nanking,[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref58">58</reflink>] "The Correlation of Middle School and College Chemistry" by A. T. Bawden of Shanghai College[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref59">59</reflink>] and "Scientific Marking and the Term Grade" by A. Heinz of Tsing Hua College.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref60">60</reflink>] These lectures or articles by university practitioners convey the first-hand thinking and situation at the forefront of education.</p> <p>In the approximately 2,300 articles or entries published in the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, excluding texts such as advertisements, around 1,780 articles are attributed to authorship. Among these, the names of authors for 1,226 articles can be identified, representing 68.9%. These 1,226 articles were authored by a total of 654 individual authors, with the highest number at 47 articles. The top 25 authors each contributed more than six articles, collectively accounting for 319 articles, which represents 26.0% of the total attributed works; additionally, 472 authors contributed only a single article each. This indicates a highly concentrated core group of authors and their significant contributions and influence on the journal. Table 4 provides a statistical overview of the names of the top 25 authors, the number of articles they wrote and their main affiliated institutions for clarity.</p> <p>Table 4. Key authors of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> and their contributions.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Name</td><td>Affiliation</td><td>Number of contributions</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Fong F. Sec.</td><td>The Commercial Press; China Public University; Young Men's Christian Association</td><td>47</td></tr><tr><td>T. H. P. Sailer</td><td>China Christian Educational Association; Teachers' College, Columbia University</td><td>24</td></tr><tr><td>Earl Herbert Cressy</td><td>China Christian Educational Association; The University of Nanking</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Edward Wilson Wallace</td><td>China Christian Educational Association</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>F. L. Hawks Pott</td><td>China Christian Educational Association; St John's University, Shanghai</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Chester S. Miao</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>20</td></tr><tr><td>Frank W. Price</td><td>Nanjing Union Theological Seminary</td><td>16</td></tr><tr><td>H. B. Graybill</td><td>China Christian Educational Association; Canton Christian College</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>Edward Evans</td><td>Book Rome and Educational Depository</td><td>13</td></tr><tr><td>P. W. Pitcher</td><td>China Christian Educational Association; Union Middle School</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>H. C. Tsao</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>John Alfred Silsby</td><td>China Christian Educational Association</td><td>9</td></tr><tr><td>Herman C. E. Liu</td><td>Shanghai College</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>A. A. Bullock</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Alice Gregg</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>B. Burgoyne Chapman</td><td>Union Normal School, Wuchang, Central China</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>D. L. Sherertz</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Marjorie Rankin</td><td>Weihsien Le Daoyuan</td><td>8</td></tr><tr><td>Clara Pearl Dyer</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>E. W. Sawdon</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Harold Balme</td><td>Shandong University Cheeloo College of Medicine</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>John Leighton Stuart</td><td>Nanjing UnionTheological Seminary; Yenching University</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Mabel Ruth Nowlin</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>Timothy Tingfang Lew</td><td>Beijing Normal University; Peking University; Yenching University</td><td>7</td></tr><tr><td>W. W. Peter</td><td>Unidentified</td><td>7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Among the known 654 authors, there are some representative ones who have published many articles. For example, Fong F. Sec. (鄺富灼, 1869–1931), a native of Guangdong province. He was an English expert and translator in China. In October 1914, he began to host the "Government Education" column, and published 47 articles on China's education policy. In addition to the articles in this section, he also published "the Cooperation of Chinese and Foreign Educists in the Work of the Association,"[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref61">61</reflink>] "What Chinese Educators Think of the Course of Study of the East China Educational Union"[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref62">62</reflink>] and other articles in other columns.</p> <p>Henry Blair Graybill (1880–1951) was a faculty member of Canton Christian College (the predecessor of Lingnan University) from Virginia, USA, and a missionary in China for many years. Many of his more than 10 articles published in the <emph>Educational Review</emph> were about Christian education in Guangdong province, such as "The Educational Association of Canton,"[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref63">63</reflink>] "The Next Step in Christian Education in Kwangtung"[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref64">64</reflink>] and "Notes from Kwangtung,"[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref65">65</reflink>] and also about language learning, such as "Shall and Will."[<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>] Furthermore, he also wrote the textbook <emph>English Lessons</emph> (英文津逮) in the early Republic of China.</p> <p>Francis Wilson Price (1895–1974) was an American missionary of the Presbyterian Church of the Southern United States, a scholar of Chinese and pastor of the International Chapel in Shanghai. He was an adviser to Chiang Kai-shek during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and was deported in 1951. He has translated the English version of Sun Yat-sen's <emph>Three Principles of the People</emph> (三民主義) and is the author of another book, <emph>The History of Nanjing Union Theological Seminary</emph> (金陵神學院史). He published more than a dozen articles in <emph>Educational Review</emph>, a serialised article "Religion and Character in Christian Middle Schools" with Chester S. Miao,[<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref67">67</reflink>] and individual essays like "The Teaching of San Min Chu Yi in Christian Schools,"[<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref68">68</reflink>] "The Significance for Religious Education of the New Rural Reconstruction Movement in China,"[<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref69">69</reflink>] and "Educational Foundations for World Peace,"[<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref70">70</reflink>] focusing on the church, culture and society in China and their relationship with the West.</p> <p>In addition, there are others such as Earl Herbert Cressy, T. H. P. Saller, F. L. Hawks Pott, Edward Wilson Wallace, etc. who have made very important contributions. These authors are well-known figures in the history of Christian education, and the works published in <emph>Educational Review</emph> are an important yet mostly neglected source of information for the study of these authors.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-18">Pricing and Circulation</hd> <p>At the beginning of its existence in 1907, 1,000 copies were published each month. Almost half of these were distributed free of charge to members of the China Christian Educational Association and foreigners interested in Chinese education, while the rest were sold to the public at 0.5 yuan per copy.[<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref71">71</reflink>] In 1915, the China Christian Educational Association made a new rule: "The membership fee, including the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, shall be $1.00." The association stated that such a rule was not introduced to make money, but rather to better unite the local societies and increase the number of members so that educational services could be better provided.[<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref72">72</reflink>]</p> <p>However, such a decision put more pressure on <emph>Educational Review</emph>'s funding, so in 1919 the association decided to adjust the price of <emph>Educational Review</emph>, "That the special subscription rate of $1 per year for the <emph>EDUCATIONAL REVIEW</emph> be allowed only to members of the Chinese Christian Educational Association and that to all others the price be $2; this ruling to go into effect 1 January 1920."[<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref73">73</reflink>] In 1920–1921, <emph>Educational Review</emph> made a profit for the first time with revenues of $1,243.31 and expenses of $1,179.34.[<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref74">74</reflink>] But during 1922–1923, <emph>Educational Review</emph> once again lost money, with subscriptions and advertisements earning $1,001.90 that year, but spending $1,105.95.[<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref75">75</reflink>]</p> <p>This led to another subscription price increase for <emph>Educational Review</emph> from January 1924, "For some time the <emph>Review</emph> has been published at a financial loss. The Executive Committee early in the fall decided that the time had come when the <emph>Review</emph> should be made to pay its way. It has, therefore, been found necessary to raise the subscription from $1.00 to $2.00 a year."[<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref76">76</reflink>] In 1924, <emph>Educational Review</emph> was once again profitable.[<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref77">77</reflink>] This series of price increases, while saving <emph>Educational Review</emph> from financial difficulties, caused <emph>Educational Review</emph>'s readership to dwindle. In 1927, the journal's circulation was 900. After 1927, hit by the non-Christian movement and the situation, when many missionaries left China, <emph>Educational Review</emph>'s readership became even smaller. In January 1929, the number of people who gave and subscribed to <emph>Educational Review</emph> was 679; by October 1929, the number was only 608.[<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref78">78</reflink>] The sharp decline in readership in turn made the financial pressure on the <emph>Educational Review</emph> once again become greater. After 1930, <emph>Educational Review</emph> business became more and more difficult to operate, and in 1934 the periodical publishing adjustments were not able to bring the expected revenue, in 1938 it officially ceased publication.</p> <p>Although the influence of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> was diminished in its later years by a decline in readership, it still had a certain influence on society at the time, particularly in the education sector. In the first half of the twentieth century, in addition to other publications published by the China Christian Educational Association itself, there were many publications that quoted and reprinted articles from the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, such as <emph>Shun Pao</emph> (申報), <emph>The China Press</emph> (大陸報), <emph>The North-China Daily News</emph>, <emph>Tsinghua Weekly</emph> (清華週刊), <emph>The North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette</emph> (字林星期週刊), <emph>Chinese Women</emph> (中華婦女界), <emph>Jiaoyu Yiwen Lu</emph> (教育益聞錄), <emph>Secondary Education</emph> and so on. The rise and fall of <emph>Educational Review</emph> also reflects the unique interactions between this English publication founded by Westerners in China and the country's history, society and other media.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-19">Editorial Features, Contributions and Values of the Educational Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182160351-20">Editorial Features</hd> <p>The <emph>Educational Review</emph> was thoughtfully designed to align with the mission of the China Christian Educational Association, providing a specialised communication channel and resource for educational missionaries and those interested in Christian education in China. Its structure was intended to facilitate the dissemination of information, ideas and resources pertinent to the field of Christian education. Each section of the periodical served a specific purpose:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> Contents </bold> : This section allowed readers to quickly locate articles of interest, offering a summary of what was available in each issue, including the titles, authors, and page numbers.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Editorial Notes </bold> : This segment functioned as a conduit for dialogue within the editorial team and between the editors and the readers. It was used to solicit educational news, present the association's activities, clarify the themes of current issues and address other relevant topics.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Articles </bold> : Serving as the core of the periodical, this section provided in-depth educational analysis and news. It featured assessments of Christian education across different regions, discussions on specific educational challenges, and updates on the latest developments in the Christian education sector worldwide.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Advertisements </bold> : Positioned strategically within the periodical, the advertisements were related to educational materials, such as textbooks and classroom supplies, reflecting the periodical's educational focus and providing a service to its readers by informing them of available resources.</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> Book Reviews </bold> : This area was dedicated to the introduction and recommendation of educational literature, serving as a guide for readers seeking quality educational materials.</item> </ulist> <p>Overall, the column setting of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> was deliberately crafted to support the periodical's purpose, ensuring that the content remained focused on Christian education and that it provided valuable, relevant information to its audience.</p> <p>The <emph>Educational Review</emph> was established to support the China Christian Educational Association's endeavours, offering a platform for Christian educational missionaries in China and advancing Christian teachings to bolster Christian education in the region. Its content was meticulously curated to concentrate mainly on Christian educational matters, with commercial adverts tailored to endorse educational materials, thereby serving the sector's needs.</p> <p>Over its four decades of publication, the <emph>Review</emph>'s content evolved to reflect changes in distribution and objectives. Initially, there was an emphasis on "Editorial Notes" and "Advertisements" to recruit for the association and fundraise through the promotion of educational resources, essential for material transformation in education. Post-1910, the periodical pivoted towards in-depth articles and book critiques, though it consistently maintained the integrity of its five principal columns throughout its 30 volumes, ensuring both stability and continuity.</p> <p>As for its layout design, Japanese design theorist and educator Nagi Tano articulated the objectives of layout design succinctly: to arrange elements for optimal visibility; to craft text configuration and dimensions for readability; and to unify the image, creating an aesthetically pleasing composition.[<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref79">79</reflink>] The <emph>Educational Review</emph>'s external design mirrors its internal ethos, embodying simplicity and consistency while adapting to the content it presents. Within its pages, articles are sequentially numbered and prominently positioned beneath the journal's basic information, enclosed by a bold line to signify their importance and facilitate reader navigation. This section is purely textual, eschewing extraneous imagery or tables, and maintains uniformity in the font and size of the "Contents" heading, aligning with the title and article typography.</p> <p>In the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, key advertisements employ enlarged and bold fonts to highlight salient points and showcase product features, further enhanced by clear, intuitive diagrams. These advertisements are framed by thick, straight or wavy lines to distinguish them visually. The articles and book reviews predominantly feature text, occasionally interspersed with illustrations, tables or musical scores to augment readability and aid comprehension. Each page is thoughtfully composed with adequate white space tailored to the content at hand.</p> <p>The layout design across the periodical adheres to a coherent style with nuanced variations, ensuring an overall appearance that is both stately and welcoming. This design strategy achieves a harmonious balance, presenting content with clarity and a crisp aesthetic.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-21">Historical Contributions and Limitations</hd> <p>First comes the intellectual influence. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, Western educational theories, with its emphasis on natural sciences and the humanities, played a crucial role in nurturing a modern national consciousness and transforming schools into hubs for disseminating scientific and cultural knowledge, thereby bolstering societal productive forces.[<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref80">80</reflink>] Contrastingly, during this period, China's educational system remained entrenched in traditional scholarship, lagging behind global educational advancements.</p> <p>Along with China's internal educational reforms, The <emph>Educational Review</emph> meticulously documented the Western educational model implemented in Christian schools during the early twentieth century, introducing new knowledge and pedagogical philosophies. It advocated a new education movement, promoting the development of individuality, practical learning and holistic qualities, thereby influencing China's traditional educational ethos and shaping modern educational thought. The periodical also advanced the principles of progressive education, underscoring the nurturing of creative thinking, practical abilities and personal interests, marking a departure from the then-prevailing Chinese focus on discipline and collectivism. Additionally, it promoted the notion of universal education, aiming to extend educational access across broader social classes and to women, challenging the existing feudal and stratified societal structure. These progressive educational ideas had a tangible impact on China's educational system, inciting scholarly debate and exploration into the modern transformation of education.</p> <p>Then we present the pedagogical contribution. The dissemination of innovative pedagogical methods through the <emph>Educational Review</emph> has been instrumental in shaping the evolution of educational practices in modern China. A growing number of educators have championed a holistic approach to quality education, one that fosters comprehensive development in students, encompassing intellectual, moral, and physical growth. To test these new educational theories and practices, several experimental schools were established in China. These institutions endeavoured to reform the Chinese education system by trialling teaching methods designed to nurture more inventive and practically skilled students.</p> <p>Furthermore, some schools have taken inspiration from Christian educational models, placing an emphasis on practical education. This approach enhances students' hands-on abilities through experiential learning and field internships, better preparing them for societal demands. The contribution of various educational tools and publications featured in the <emph>Educational Review</emph> has also been significant in advancing and reforming China's educational methodologies. These resources have influenced the transition towards more progressive and effective teaching practices.</p> <p>Finally, the academic aspect. The <emph>Educational Review</emph> has partly contributed to China's educational scholarship by integrating Western pedagogical theories, which has been useful in crafting China's unique educational research framework, spanning methodology, psychology, and management. This assimilation has spurred an intellectual fusion, prompting the evolution of Chinese educational thought to connect more with the international academia while maintaining cultural integrity.</p> <p>Of course, it should also be noted that, due to the influence of the modern situation and the limitations of resources, coupled with the fact that the publication is issued in English, this journal's distribution and circulation were restricted. Furthermore, since the publication primarily focused on missionary education and its authors are mainly foreigh missionaries, scholars, and domestic individuals associated with Christian education, there might inevitably be neglect, bias, or even misunderstanding regarding the broader and more challenging realm of general education in China. This should be taken into account and approached with caution in today's citations and analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-22">Academic Values</hd> <p>The <emph>Educational Review</emph>, a principal journal amongst missionaries and a specialised periodical for those in the educational mission field, meticulously chronicled the extensive scope of missionary education in China in the first half of the twentieth century. It captured the multifaceted nature of Christian education through descriptive prose, illustrative imagery and diverse formats, bequeathing an invaluable trove of primary data pertaining to the philosophies and methodologies of educational missionaries, as well as the contemporaneous state of Chinese education.</p> <p>Furthermore, this publication furnishes novel insights for comprehending the educational campaigns spearheaded by Christian missionaries in China. It serves as a pivotal resource for scholars investigating the nuances and trajectory of China's modern transformation of education from the waning years of the Qing dynasty through to the Republican era. In addition, it sheds light on the individuals who played instrumental roles in this transformative period. The <emph>Educational Review</emph> thus stands as an indispensable archival asset for academic enquiry into the historical evolution of education in China, offering a window into the interplay between missionary endeavours and the indigenous educational landscape during a time of significant social and cultural metamorphosis.</p> <p>The <emph>Educational Review</emph> also provides a comprehensive overview of pre-school, primary, secondary, tertiary, and other educational levels, bridging a gap in the historical record of Christian basic education and offering a rich resource for academic investigation. It features contributions from over 600 authors, including numerous distinguished scholars, rendering their published works a valuable resource for scholarly study. Moreover, the frequency of topics addressed in the <emph>Review</emph> mirrors the shifts within modern Chinese society. As a publication spanning several decades, it reflects societal changes, such as the marked decline in Christian education post-1920s due to rising nationalism, with articles post-1925 frequently discussing the interplay between Christianity and governance, e.g. "Christian Schools under the Nationalist Government,"[<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref81">81</reflink>] "A Proposal to Abolish the Slogan 'Down with Religion,'"[<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref82">82</reflink>] "Whither Christian education?,"[<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref83">83</reflink>] "Christian Education and the National Crisis,"[<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref84">84</reflink>] etc.</p> <p>Overall, the <emph>Educational Review</emph> has played a role in the introducation of modern educational ideologies, the evolution of pedagogical techniques and the advancement of educational academia. Moreover, the periodical offers a unique perspective that is invaluable for current research into China's educational landscape during the first half of the twentieth century. It serves to bridge gaps in historical documentation and provides empirical evidence of the societal transformations of that era. The historical significance of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> cannot be overstated; it stands as a vital repository of knowledge, chronicling a transformative period in Chinese education and offering insights into the interplay between education and broader social developments during a time of profound change in China.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-23">Conclusion and Discussion</hd> <p>In summary, the dynamic shifts within the political and economic landscapes of modern China have indeed been accompanied by a movement towards modernisation in the educational sector, with Christian education playing an importantly auxiliary, if not always uncontroversial, role. The <emph>Educational Review</emph>, as the first specialist periodical on education published by Western missionaries, serves as a detailed record of educational efforts both within China and abroad, reflecting certain advancements in Chinese educational development at the time. It provides insights into the operations of the China Christian Educational Association, the activities of Western educational missionaries, and the dissemination of Christian educational materials and pedagogical aids. This periodical stands as a repository of historical research, one that has yet to be exhaustively explored within scholarly discourse.</p> <p>While the <emph>Educational Review</emph>, along with other periodicals produced by Western missionaries in China, acted as instruments of public opinion, facilitating Western influence on Chinese education and thought, they also provided a platform for exchanging information about social dynamics in China. The primary aim behind the establishment of the <emph>Educational Review</emph> was the propagation of the Christian gospel, actively seeking to integrate Christian education into the national educational framework. However, this integration raises concerns about "cultural invasion." The promotion of Christian values often overshadowed traditional Chinese educational philosophies, framing Western methods as superior. This could foster a narrative of cultural imperialism, where indigenous practices were devalued or marginalised. Thus, while the publication contributed to educational discourse, it is essential to critically examine its potential role in promoting foreign ideologies at the expense of indigenous perspectives.</p> <p>Therefore, the journal's influence, though significant, must be understood within the context of a broader pattern of cultural and ideological dominance. This recognition of potential ideological dominance invites a more nuanced investigation into the complexities of educational transformation in China – one that honours both the contributions of foreign influences and the resilience and value of local educational traditions. It is through this critical lens that we can better understand the multi-faceted interactions between Western and Chinese educational practices during this transformative era.</p> <hd id="AN0182160351-24">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0182160351-25"> <title> Notes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Yu, "The Educational Needs," 21–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Sun, "Study of Educational Associations."</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref3" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Chen, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>; Huang and Liu, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref4" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Li and Yu, <emph>General History of Educational Activities</emph>, 188.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref5" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Mao and Shen, <emph>General History of Chinese Education</emph>, 362.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref6" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Chen, <emph>Chronology of Modern Education</emph>, 69.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref7" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Tian, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, 262, 279; Guo, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, 438; Zhao, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, 398.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref8" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Sun, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, 310; Qu, <emph>History of Chinese Education</emph>, 179.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref9" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Chen, <emph>History of Modern Chinese Education</emph>, 72.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gu, <emph>Missionaries and Modern China</emph>, 238–43.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shi, <emph>Educational Activities</emph>, 123–8; Hu, <emph>The Challenge of Universalism</emph>, 463.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sun, "A Study in the United States," 154–66.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Latourette, <emph>A History of Christian Missions</emph>, 448–9, 429, 643, 782.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Xiong, <emph>Shanghai General History</emph>, 214.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Students in Christian Schools," 863.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wang, "Historical Periodization."</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> China Christian Educational Association, <emph>Educational Review</emph>. Reprint with preface by Tao Feiya.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Davis, "How to Improve Teaching," 37–45.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hall, "Methods of Teaching History," 49–55.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hodous, "Education in Ancient China," 26–33.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fryer, "The Education of the Blind," 40–1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 74–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Molony, "Educational Lessons from India," 5–10.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wasson, "Christian Schools in Korea," 11.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bates, "Present Position in Japan," 39–44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Reed, "Schools in Turkish Republic," 47–53.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vautrin, "Folk Schools of Denmark," 11–16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Laubach, "Schools in Philippine Islands," 18–21.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Espey, "Educational Movements in America," 56–65.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mabee, "Shanghai Baptist College," 50–63.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pott, "St John's University," 59–74; Pott, "St John's University," 59–60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cooper, "In Memoriam," 1–3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Editorial Notes," 1–2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, "Government Education," 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liu, "Rise of Women's Schooling," 89–117.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, "Government Education," 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 94–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang and Zhang, <emph>Changes and Developments</emph>, 23.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> For recent authoritative discussions on this topic, see Mullaney, <emph>The Chinese Typewriter</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Luo and Zhang, "Republican Editorial Business," 79–88.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> <emph>Records of Triennial Meeting</emph>, 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Your Own Fault," 2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Educational Association of China," 34–5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fryer, "Educational Department," 480.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ibid., 449.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pott.<emph>Report of Publication Committee</emph>, 44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Supplementary Resolutions," 758.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cheng, "Establishment of Association."</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gu, <emph>Missionaries and Modern China</emph>, 344.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, "Association and <emph>Educational Review</emph>," 36–40.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Education Association of China," 1–4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "The Educational Review," 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Editorials," 1–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "List of Members," 5–14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brede, "Teaching of College English," 83–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bawden, "The Correlation," 86–96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heinz, "Scientific Marking and Term Grade," 62–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, "Cooperation of Educists," 1–6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, "What Chinese Educators Think," 87–91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, "Educational Association of Canton," 37–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, "Christian Education in Kwangtung," 4–16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miao and Graybill, "Notes from Kwangtung," 87–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, "Shall and Will," 48–53.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miao and Price, "Religion and Character," 10–119.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, "Teaching of San Min Chu Yi," 9–24.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, "Significance for Religious Education," 23–35.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, "Educational Foundations," 25–32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Notice," 1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Report of Annual Meeting," 14–67.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Editorial Notes," 1–4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Walker. "China Christian Educational Association," 4–16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Eighth Meeting of Council," 46–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Editorial Notes," 1–8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Ninth Meeting of Council," 67–96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, "Association and <emph>Educational Review</emph>," 36–40.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hu, "Layout Design," 38–9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Li, <emph>History of Education</emph>, 25.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Christian Schools," 50–80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> "Abolish the Slogan," 84.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chao, "Whither Christian education?" 35–7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liu, "National Crisis," 19–20.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0182160351-26"> <title> Bibliography </title> <blist> <bibtext> Bates, C. J. L. " The Present Position of Christian Schools and Colleges in Japan." Educational Review 17, no. 2 (1925): 39 – 44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Bawden, A. T. " The Correlation of Middle School and College Chemistry." Educational Review 22, no. 2 (1930): 86 – 96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brede, A. " The Teaching of College English." Educational Review 18, no. 1 (1926): 83 – 9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chao, T. C. " Whither Christian Education?." Educational Review 23, no. 3 (1931): 35 – 7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chen, J.-P. History of Modern Chinese Education. Beijing : People's Education Press, 1963.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chen, Q.-Z. History of Chinese Education. Beijing : China Social Sciences Press, 2009.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chen, X.-X. Chronology of Modern Education in China. Shanghai : Shanghai Education Press, 1981.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cheng, X.-F. " The Establishment of the China Christian Educational Association." Chinese Christian Education Quarterly 1, no. 1 (1925): 36–42.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> China Christian Educational Association. Educational Review. 30 vols. 1907-1938. Reprint with preface by Tao Feiya. Beijing : National Library of China Publishing House, 2013.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Christian Schools under the Nationalist Government." Educational Review 19, no. 2 (1927): 50 – 80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cooper, F. C. " In Memoriam: Arthur Sitgreaves Mann, B.A. B.D." Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China 1, no. 5 (1907): 1 – 3.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Davis, L. " How to Improve the Teaching of the Chinese Language and Literature." Educational Review 8, no. 3 (1916): 37 – 45.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Editorial Notes." Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China 1, no. 17 (1908): 1 – 2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Editorial Notes." Educational Review 11, no. 3 (1919): 1 – 4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Editorial Notes." Educational Review 16, no. 1 (1924): 1 – 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Editorials." Educational Review 26, no. 4 (1934): 1 – 6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " The Education Association of China." Educational Review 2, no. 1 (1909): 1 – 4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Educational Association of China." The Chinese Recorder 23, no. 1 (1892): 34 – 5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " The Educational Review." Educational Review 2, no. 1 (1909): 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Eighth Meeting of the Advisory Council." Educational Review 15, no. 3 (1923): 46 – 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Espey, J. M. " New Educational Movements in America." Educational Review 7, no. 2 (1915): 56 – 65.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " The Cooperation of Chinese and Foreign Educists in the Work of the Association." Educational Review 2, no. 7 (1909): 1 – 6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " Government Education." Educational Review 6, no. 3 (1914): 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " Government Education." Educational Review 6, no. 4 (1914): 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " Government Education." Educational Review 7, no. 1 (1915): 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " What Chinese Educators Think of the Course of Study of the East China Educational Union." Educational Review 7, no. 3 (1915): 87 – 91.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fong, F. S. " Government Education." Educational Review 8, no. 4 (1916): 94 – 5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fryer, G. B. " The Education of the Blind." Educational Review 7, no. 3 (1915): 40 – 1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fryer, G. B. " The Education of the Blind." Educational Review 23, no. 2 (1931): 74 – 80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fryer, J. " Educational Department." The Chinese Recorder 24, no. 10 (1893): 449 – 80.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, H. B. " The Educational Association of Canton." Educational Review 2, no. 5 (1909): 37 – 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, H. B. " The Next Step in Christian Education in Kwangtung." Educational Review 8, no. 4 (1916): 4 – 16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Graybill, H. B. " Shall and Will." Educational Review 14, no. 4 (1922): 48 – 53.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gu, C.-S. Missionaries and Modern China. Shanghai : Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1981.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Guo, Q.-J. History of Chinese Education (Volume 2). Beijing : People's Education Press, 2015.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hall, W. J. " Methods of Teaching History." Educational Review 17, no. 4 (1925): 49 – 55.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Heinz, A. " Scientific Marking and the Term Grade." Educational Review 17, no. 1 (1925): 62 – 6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hodous, L. " Education in Ancient China." Educational Review 8, no. 4 (1916): 26 – 33.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hu, G.-Z. " A Study on the Cultural and Aesthetic Characteristics of Layout Design." Journalism Lover 8 (2003): 38 – 9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hu, W.-Q. The Challenge of Universalism: A Study of Christian Education in Modern China (1877–1927). Shanghai : Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2000.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Huang, S.-J., and Y.-Z. Liu. History of Chinese Education. Fuzhou : Fujian Education Press, 2011.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " It Will Be Your Own Fault." Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China 1, no. 5 (1907): 2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Latourette, K. S. A History of Christian Missions in China. New York : The Macmillan Company, 1929.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Laubach, F. C. " Private Schools in the Philippine Islands." Educational Review 18, no. 4 (1926): 18 – 21.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Li, H.-X. History of Education in the Republic of China. Shanghai : Shanghai Educational Publishing House, 1997.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Li, Z., and -N.-N. Yu. General History of Educational Activities in China (Volume 6). Jinan : Shandong Education Press, 2017.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " List of Members of the Educational Association." Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China 1, no. 3 (1907): 5 – 14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liu, H. C. E. " Christian Education and the National Crisis." Educational Review 24, no. 3 (1932): 19 – 20.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liu, X.-Y. " The Rise of Women's Modern Schooling in Late Qing China (1840–1911)." Education Journal 37, no. 1–2 (2009): 89 – 117.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Luo, Z., and T.-T. Zhang. " The Typewriter and the Modern Transformation of the Republican Editorial Business." Modern Publishing 6 (2023): 79 – 88.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mabee, F. C. " The Shanghai Baptist College." Educational Review 8, no. 3 (1916): 50 – 63.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mao, L.-R., and G.-Q. Shen. General History of Chinese Education (Volume 4). Jinan : Shandong Education Press, 1988.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miao, C. S., and H. B. Graybill. " Notes from Kwangtung." Educational Review 11, no. 2 (1919): 87 – 9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miao, C. S., and F. W. Price. " Religion and Character in Christian Middle Schools." Educational Review 21, no. 4 (1929): 11 – 13; 22, no. 1 (1930): 10-119.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Molony, H. J. " Some Educational Lessons from India." Educational Review 8, no. 2 (1916): 5 – 10.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mullaney, T. S. The Chinese Typewriter: A History. Cambridge, Mass : MIT Press, 2017.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Ninth Meeting of the Advisory Council." Educational Review 16, no. 3 (1924): 67 – 96.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Notice." Monthly Bulletin of the Educational Association of China 1, no. 1 (1907): 1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pott, F. L. H. Report of Publication Committee. Records of the Fifth Triennial Meeting of the Educational Association of China, 1905 : 44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pott, F. L. H. " St John's University." Educational Review 9, no. 2 (1917): 59 – 74.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pott, F. L. H. " St John's University." Educational Review 25, no. 1 (1933): 59 – 60.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, F. W. " The Teaching of San Min Chu Yi in Christian Schools." Educational Review 20, no. 1 (1928): 9 – 24.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, F. W. " Educational Foundations for World Peace." Educational Review 25, no. 2 (1933): 25 – 32.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Price, F. W. " The Significance for Religious Education of the New Rural Reconstruction Movement in China." Educational Review 27, no. 1 (1935): 23 – 35.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " A Proposal to Abolish the Slogan 'Down with Religion' " Educational Review 20, no. 2 (1928): 84.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Qu, T.-H. History of Chinese Education. Wuhan : Wuhan University Press, 2011.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Records of the Triennial Meeting of the Educational Association of China Held at Shanghai, May 2-4. Shanghai : The American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1893.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Reed, C. A. " Foreign Schools in the Turkish Republic." Educational Review 19, no. 4 (1927): 47 – 53.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Report of the Second Annual Meeting." Educational Review 7, no. 3 (1915): 14 – 67.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shi, J.-H. Calvin Wilson Mateer and John Leighton Stuart: A Study of the Educational Activities of Western Protestant Missionaries in China. Taipei : Wenjin Publishing House, 1991.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sun, B.-H. " A Study of the History of Chinese Church Education in the United States." International Sinology 1 (2009): 154 – 66.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sun, G.-Y. " The Study of Educational Associations in the Changing Modern China." PhD diss., Central China Normal University, 2006.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sun, P.-Q. History of Chinese Education. Shanghai : East China Normal University Press, 2019.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Supplementary Resolutions." Paper presented at the China Centenary Missionary Conference, Shanghai, April 5th to May 8th, 1907 : 758.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> " Survey Statistics: Historical Growth of Students in the Christian Church Schools in China (1876–1920)." The New Education 5, no. 4 (1922): 863.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tian, Z.-P. Studies on the History of Chinese Education (Modern Volume). Shanghai : East China Normal University Press, 2009.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Vautrin, M. E. " The Folk Schools of Denmark." Educational Review 29, no. 2 (1937): 11 – 16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Walker, M. P. " China Christian Educational Association." Educational Review 13, no. 3 (1921): 4 – 16.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wang, H. " Historical Periodization of Foreign Mission Press in China." Journal of Henan University (Social Science) 1 (2012): 118–26.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wasson, A. W. " Christian Schools in Korea." Educational Review 17, no. 4 (1925): 11.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Xiong, Y.-Z. Shanghai General History. Shanghai : Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1999.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yu, Z.-X. " The Educational Needs of Social Transformation and the Evolution of Christian Education in the Late Qing Dynasty." Journal of Central China Normal University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) 3 (1997): 21 – 7.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, L.-P. " The China Christian Educational Association and Educational Review." Educational Review 7 (2015): 36 – 40.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, X.-W., and Y.-F. Zhang. Thematic History of the Republic of China: Changes and Developments in Education. Nanjing : Nanjing University Press, 2015.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhao, G.-Q. History of Chinese Education. Zhengzhou : Henan University Press, 2014.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Qiaohan Wang and Lin Li</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Wang Qiaohan is a postgraduate student at the Department of Education, East China Normal University. Her main academic interest covers history and the culture of education in China.</p> <p>Li Lin is a professor of educational history at the Department of Education. He also serves as a research fellow at the National Institute of Schooling Reform and Development, East China Normal University.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref74"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref76"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref77"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl73" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl74" bibid="bib83" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl75" bibid="bib84" firstref="ref84"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1456922
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Perspectives from the 'Others': 'Educational Review' and the Underexplored Facets of Modern Transformation of Education in China, 1907-1938
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Qiaohan+Wang%22">Qiaohan Wang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lin+Li%22">Lin Li</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7780-6625">0000-0001-7780-6625</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22History+of+Education%22"><i>History of Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 54(1):23-55.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 33
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+History%22">Educational History</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Change%22">Educational Change</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Facilities%22">Educational Facilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Change%22">Social Change</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Theories%22">Educational Theories</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Periodicals%22">Periodicals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Christianity%22">Christianity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Education%22">Religious Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Nationals%22">Foreign Nationals</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teaching+Methods%22">Teaching Methods</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/0046760X.2024.2420348
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0046-760X<br />1464-5130
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The transition from traditional to modern educational practices in China marks a significant area of interest in educational history. This article focuses on the "Educational Review," an English-language periodical launched and circulated by Christian missionaries in early twentieth-century China. Utilising statistical, classificatory and textual analyses, this study thoroughly examines the "Educational Review's" content and its impact on educational changes in China. It comprehensively assesses the interplay of social, political and economic factors of the era, concluding that the "Educational Review" facilitated to the spread of modern educational theories, the evolution of teaching methods and the introduction and advancement of educational facilities. The "Educational Review" is highlighted as a valuable scholarly resource, providing crucially supplementary insights from the "others" into China's educational evolution during the first half of the twentieth century. It reveals the nuances of modern transformation of education and supports the understanding of societal changes in this transformative period.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1456922
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1456922
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/0046760X.2024.2420348
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 33
        StartPage: 23
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational History
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Change
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Facilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Change
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Theories
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Periodicals
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Christianity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Religious Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Nationals
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: English (Second Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teaching Methods
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Perspectives from the 'Others': 'Educational Review' and the Underexplored Facets of Modern Transformation of Education in China, 1907-1938
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Qiaohan Wang
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lin Li
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0046-760X
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1464-5130
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 54
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: History of Education
              Type: main
ResultId 1