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Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm?

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Title: Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm?
Language: English
Authors: Leanne Tamm (ORCID 0000-0001-6066-1669), James L. Peugh (ORCID 0000-0002-1134-5667), Nehal A. Parikh (ORCID 0000-0002-1375-1247)
Source: Early Education and Development. 2025 36(2):447-459.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 13
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (DHHS/NIH)
Contract Number: R01NS094200
R01NS096037
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Personality Traits, School Readiness, Premature Infants, Correlation, Infants, Preschool Children, At Risk Persons, Infant Behavior, Toddlers, Individual Characteristics
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Rothbart Infant Behavior Questionnaire, Bracken Basic Concept Scale
DOI: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2404821
ISSN: 1040-9289
1556-6935
Abstract: Research Findings: Temperament, which can be assessed as early as 3 months, is associated with school readiness and later academic achievement in children born full term. Although children born preterm demonstrate a dysregulated temperament and are at significant risk for lower school readiness, we found no studies investigating whether early temperament is associated with school readiness in this at-risk population. Investigating whether temperament is a precursor of academic risk in preterm children can facilitate early identification and possible intervention efforts. We explored the association of negative affect, surgency, and regulation/effortful control temperament ratings collected at 3-months and 3-years corrected ages with school readiness at 3-years corrected age in children born very preterm. Participants included 297 children born very preterm (53.9% male). After controlling for key covariates, Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings at 3-months were significantly associated with the Bracken Basic Concept Scale -- School Readiness composite score, and Effortful Control ratings at 3-years were associated with Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition (ABAS-3) Functional Pre-Academics ratings. Practice or Policy: These findings may enhance the ability to identify premature children at risk for difficulties at school entry early.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1457407
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0182209690;h4j01feb.25;2025Jan16.01:28;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182209690-1">Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm? </title> <p>Research Findings: Temperament, which can be assessed as early as 3 months, is associated with school readiness and later academic achievement in children born full term. Although children born preterm demonstrate a dysregulated temperament and are at significant risk for lower school readiness, we found no studies investigating whether early temperament is associated with school readiness in this at-risk population. Investigating whether temperament is a precursor of academic risk in preterm children can facilitate early identification and possible intervention efforts. We explored the association of negative affect, surgency, and regulation/effortful control temperament ratings collected at 3-months and 3-years corrected ages with school readiness at 3-years corrected age in children born very preterm. Participants included 297 children born very preterm (53.9% male). After controlling for key covariates, Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings at 3-months were significantly associated with the Bracken Basic Concept Scale – School Readiness composite score, and Effortful Control ratings at 3-years were associated with Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition (ABAS-3) Functional Pre-Academics ratings. Practice or Policy: These findings may enhance the ability to identify premature children at risk for difficulties at school entry early.</p> <p>According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 10.4% of all births in the United States in 2022 were preterm. While many children survive prematurity, they are at increased risk for significant negative outcomes across a range of domains including attention problems, internalizing symptoms, learning problems, executive function deficits, lower cognitive scores, motor problems, and adaptive behavior challenges when compared to peers born full-term (Aarnoudse-Moens et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>]; Bhutta et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref2">7</reflink>]; Fjortoft et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref3">19</reflink>]; Morgan et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref4">39</reflink>]; Yaari et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref5">74</reflink>]). As the enduring effects of preterm birth are significant and costly, studying precursors of difficulties can facilitate their early identification and possible intervention and prevention efforts (Yaari et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref6">74</reflink>]). Thus, there has been a burgeoning interest in identifying early markers that could be utilized to predict functional outcomes (Lovato et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref7">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>One such outcome is academic functioning which is frequently impaired in youth born prematurely. Studies show that children born preterm score lower on achievement tests and have higher ratings of special education placement (Taylor et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref8">66</reflink>]). For example, a systematic review and meta-analysis reported that youth born preterm perform more poorly on assessments of reading comprehension and applied mathematical problems than their term born peers (McBryde et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref9">35</reflink>]). Another meta-analysis reported that preterm children scored more than a half a standard deviation below full-term peers on mathematics, reading, and spelling, and were more than 2.85 times more likely to receive special education assistance (Twilhaar et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref10">69</reflink>]). Increased risk for academic problems associated with premature birth is evident quite early in development as reflected in lower rates of school readiness. School readiness is a multidimensional construct with preacademic skills (e.g., knowledge of numbers and letters, basic counting skills, early literacy skills such as print awareness), physical well-being, motor development, behavioral regulation, interest in learning (e.g., curiosity), and language (e.g., vocabulary, ability to speak and listen) all contributing to a child's school readiness (Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref11">72</reflink>]). Children born preterm are less ready for school. A recent large, population-based cohort study reported that children born preterm had significantly lower rates of school readiness, even after adjusting for multiple potentially confounding variables (Louis et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]). In fact, children born very preterm were more than 2.5× more likely to demonstrate delay/impairment in all five readiness domains (i.e., physical well-being/motor development, social/emotional development, approaches to learning, language development, general knowledge/cognition; Pritchard et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref13">51</reflink>]), and another study showed they performed between one half and a full standard deviation below their full-term peers in all domains of school readiness (Roberts et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref14">57</reflink>]). These rates of lower school readiness are observed even in children with intact cognition (i.e., IQ > 85; Agarwal et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref15">2</reflink>]). This is quite concerning since school readiness is clearly linked with later academic achievement (Ricciardi et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref16">55</reflink>]).</p> <p>Temperament is an important aspect of early development linked to various aspects of functioning, including school readiness (Potmesilova & Potmesil, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref17">50</reflink>]) and academic achievement (Hoffmann et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref18">28</reflink>]; Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref19">40</reflink>]). Temperament is defined as individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation that manifest in the domains of emotion, activity, and attention (Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref20">59</reflink>]). Reactivity refers to the arousability of multiple physiological and behavioral systems of the organism and self-regulation refers to processes that act to modulate reactivity, including selective attention, responsiveness to reward and punishment cues, behavioral inhibition to novel or intense stimuli, and effortful control (Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref21">59</reflink>]). In Rothbart's model there are three primary temperament domains that can be reliably measured in infants as young as 3 months of age (Putnam et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref22">53</reflink>]; Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref23">58</reflink>]; Thomas & Chess, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref24">67</reflink>]) and remain relatively stable over time (Planalp & Goldsmith, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref25">47</reflink>]). These include 1) negative emotionality (e.g., proneness to distress), 2) positive emotionality/surgency (e.g., extraversion, sociability, capacity to experience positive emotions), and 3) regulation/effortful control (e.g., persistent orienting of attention, soothability, ability to enjoy low-intensity activities). Inherent to Rothbart's model of temperament is the view that neurobiological systems underlie behavioral regulation development (Posner & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref26">49</reflink>]).</p> <p>Perhaps not surprisingly, given the biological vulnerability conferred by preterm birth affecting development, children born preterm differ temperamentally from their term-born peers early in life (Cassiano et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref27">12</reflink>]). For example, prematurity is associated with increased dysregulation, a higher activity level, and decreased attention span and focus (Cassiano et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref28">12</reflink>]). Challenges regulating emotional arousal responses and allocating and sustaining attention (Witt et al., [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref29">73</reflink>]) and higher rates of negative affect (Barroso et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref30">5</reflink>]) have also been reported for children born preterm. Caregivers rate their preterm children as being less adaptable, predictable, and persistent as well as more intense and having more negative mood at ages 3–6 months than children born full term (Hughes et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref31">29</reflink>]). Another study reported that children born very preterm could be characterized as under-reactive and emotionally passive based on temperament ratings at 3 months corrected age, which was associated with increased brain abnormalities at term (Tamm et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref32">65</reflink>]). Children born preterm have also been rated as having lower levels of effortful control than control children at age 6 (Reyes et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref33">54</reflink>]). It has been hypothesized that the development of temperament is a potential mechanism through which early adversity shapes long-term outcomes (Nigg, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref34">41</reflink>]). Given that children born preterm demonstrate clear temperamental dysregulation as early as 3 months of age, temperament may be a possible risk factor for poor outcomes related to prematurity.</p> <p>One potentially fruitful avenue to explore is the association of temperament with academic school readiness in children born very preterm. Temperament predisposes a child to interact with the environment in a particular manner across contexts (Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref35">40</reflink>]). Specifically, a child's temperament may contribute to their learning abilities and adaptability to classroom context. Both positive and negative affectivity contribute to achievement-related motivational patterns (Rothbart & Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref36">61</reflink>]), and a child's ability to adapt to the school context, expectations of teachers and peers, and master new skills may be facilitated or hindered by their reactive and regulatory temperamental attributes (Gartstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref37">22</reflink>]). For example, those children who are better able to sit still (i.e., activity level), pay attention for longer periods (i.e., attention span), and are not easily distracted and aroused (emotionality), may have temperamental traits that will assist in the acquisition of important cognitive skills (Coplan et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref38">14</reflink>]). Thus, it is perhaps not surprising that in term-born children, temperament ratings completed in early childhood (i.e., under age 5) are associated with later school readiness and pre-academic skills. For example, higher surgency ratings at 4-months are associated with higher school readiness (i.e., color, letter, and number skills) at 4-years in children born full term (Gartstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref39">22</reflink>]). Children with superior behavioral regulation skills perform better on assessments of emergent literacy and numeracy (Chong et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref40">13</reflink>]; McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref41">36</reflink>]), and vocabulary (McClelland et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref42">36</reflink>]), while those with lower negative emotionality demonstrated superior literacy and numeracy skills (Coplan et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref43">14</reflink>]). Children with lower effortful control ratings before kindergarten demonstrated poorer academic performance at the end of kindergarten (Gobeil-Bourdeau et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref44">25</reflink>]), and higher effortful control is associated with greater school readiness (Potmesilova & Potmesil, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref45">50</reflink>]). Importantly, these associations persist into school-age, with temperament ratings associated with academic achievement (Hoffmann et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref46">28</reflink>]; Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref47">40</reflink>]). For example, higher effortful control and lower negative affectivity is associated with increased math and literacy skills (Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref48">40</reflink>]). Much less is known about the association of temperament with school readiness in at risk populations (Gobeil-Bourdeau et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref49">25</reflink>]), and in fact, we did not find any studies exploring the association of temperament with school readiness or academic functioning in children born preterm. Notably, one study showed that higher positive affectivity was beneficial for language in infants born very preterm (Perez-Pereira et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref50">46</reflink>]), supporting our contention that temperament may be important for understanding early academic functioning in preterm children.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-2">The Current Study</hd> <p>The goal for the current study was to explore the association of temperament ratings obtained at 3-months and 3-years corrected ages in children born very preterm (≤32 weeks' gestational age) with academic school readiness at 3-years corrected age. We anticipated an association of temperament ratings at both ages with school readiness in children born very preterm. Specifically, we anticipated that lower negative affect and surgency and higher effortful control would be associated with better school readiness. Having temperament ratings collected at 3-months and 3-years corrected age will allow us to more directly explore whether children born very preterm are vulnerable for lower school readiness on the basis of their temperament. Including infant ratings will allow us to identify which aspects of temperament, if any, contribute to later school readiness which may facilitate early risk detection. The preschool period is an important period during which the basics of socio-emotional competence are established and thus exploring the concurrent association between temperament and school readiness at age 3 is also important to understanding risk for poor academic outcomes in children born very preterm.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-3">Materials and Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-4">Participants</hd> <p>Data for the current study was obtained from a larger, prospective longitudinal cohort study investigating whether cognitive and motor deficits can be predicted using advanced MRI at term-equivalent age in infants born very preterm. Participants were recruited from five level III/IV neonatal intensive care units in the Midwest. Infants (<emph>n</emph> = 297) had a gestational age ≤32 weeks (<emph>M</emph> = 29.39, <emph>SD</emph> = 2.38, range 23.3–32.9) and were on average 40.6 (<emph>SD</emph> = 2.26) months of age (chronological) at the 3-year corrected age assessment timepoint. Approximately half of the participants were male (<emph>n</emph> = 160) and Caucasian (<emph>n</emph> = 181), African American (<emph>n</emph> = 66), mixed race (<emph>n</emph> = 19) or Hispanic (<emph>n</emph> = 18). The average birthweight in grams was 1311.82 (<emph>SD</emph> = 434.1; range 518–2905). Maternal education varied with 22.9% having a high school diploma or less, 49.9% having some college or a college degree, and 19.9% having graduate education or higher (7.4% of the sample declined to answer). Self-report of annual income varied with 33.7% <$30,000, 23.6% $30,000–$59,999, 8.4% $60,000–79,999, 10.1% $80,000-$99,999, and 18.2% >$100,000 (9.1% of the sample declined to answer). Infants with known chromosomal or congenital anomalies affecting the central nervous system or with cyanotic heart disease were excluded.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-5">Design and Procedure</hd> <p>The study was approved by the Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center Institutional Review Board and informed consent was obtained from caregivers. In the larger prospective cohort study from which the data in the current study were derived, caregivers completed ratings at the 3-months corrected age follow-up visit and again at the 3-years corrected age follow-up visit; children were administered the school readiness assessment at the 3-years corrected age visit.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-6">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-7">Temperament</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-8">Infant Behavior Questionnaire – Revised Short Form (IBQ-R-S)</hd> <p>The IBQ-R-S (Putnam et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref51">53</reflink>]) is a parent-report questionnaire for infants ages 3–12 months. Mothers respond to 91 questions about their children's typical behavior on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = <emph>never</emph>, 4 = <emph>about half the time</emph>, and 7 = <emph>always)</emph>. The IBQ-R-S yields 14 scales and 3 subscales (<emph>Positive Affectivity/Surgency, Negative Emotionality</emph>, and <emph>Regulatory Capacity Orienting)</emph>. Composite scale scores were generated by reverse-scoring selected items and computing the average. Reliability and validity of the IBQ-R-S scales have been supported for samples from different cultures, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from 0.77 to 0.96 (Gartstein & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref52">23</reflink>]; Gartstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref53">24</reflink>]). Inter-rater reliability has been demonstrated for mother and father-report (Gartstein & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]; Parade & Leerkes, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref55">45</reflink>]), with validity of this instrument supported by studies incorporating the IBQ-R and laboratory indicators of temperament (Aureli et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref56">4</reflink>]; Gartstein & Marmion, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref57">21</reflink>]; Gartstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref58">20</reflink>]; Parade & Leerkes, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref59">45</reflink>]). In the current study, Cronbach's alphas were good (Surgency α =.89; Negative Affect α =.72; Regulatory Capacity Orienting α =.83).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-9">Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire – Short Form (ECBQ-S)</hd> <p>The ECBQ-S (Putnam et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref60">52</reflink>]) is a parent-report questionnaire for toddlers ages 18–36 months. Mothers respond to 107 questions about their children's typical behavior on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = <emph>never</emph>, 4 = <emph>about half the time</emph>, and 7 = <emph>always)</emph>. The ECBQ-S yields 18 scales and 3 composite scale scores (<emph>Surgency, Negative Affect</emph>, and <emph>Effortful Control)</emph>. Composite scale scores were generated by reverse-scoring selected items and computing the average. Reliability and validity of the ECBQ-S has been supported across multiple samples of children with internal consistency scores ranging from 0.65 to 0.83; inter-rater reliability has been demonstrated for mother and father-report (Putnam et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref61">53</reflink>]). In the current study, Cronbach's alphas were good (Surgency α =.84; Negative Affect α =.88; Effortful Control α =.88).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-10">School Readiness</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-11">Bracken Basic Concept Scale – School Readiness Assessment</hd> <p>The Bracken Basic Concept Scale was designed to assess knowledge of foundational concepts among children between the ages of 2 and 7 (Bracken, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref62">10</reflink>]). The School Readiness component is organized into six sub-areas: Colors, Letters, Numbers/Counting, Sizes, Comparisons, and Shapes. The subtest scores are summed to create the School Readiness Composite, converted to a standard score (<emph>M</emph> = 100; <emph>SD</emph> = 15) with a standard score <85 considered a delay (Bracken, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref63">10</reflink>]). The scale and summary scores have been shown to be highly internally consistent (split-half reliabilities >.86) (Bracken, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref64">10</reflink>]). Further, the Bracken School Readiness Composite has been shown to predict later academic achievement (Panter, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref65">43</reflink>]; Panter & Bracken, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref66">44</reflink>]). A child's pre-academic skills in math (e.g., ability to identify numbers and make comparisons) and reading domains (e.g., ability to identify letters) are strongly predictive of later school math and reading achievement (Duncan et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref67">16</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-12">Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition (ABAS-3) Functional Pre-Academics</hd> <p>The ABAS-3 measures adaptive behavior for children aged 0 to 5 in Conceptual, Practical, and Social domains as assessed by the primary caregiver (Harrison & Oakland, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref68">27</reflink>]). Items are rated as 1 (never), 2 (sometimes), and 3 (always) performs the behavior as needed or as 0 (child is not able to perform the behavior). Adaptive skill areas included on the ABAS include <emph>Communication, Functional Pre-Academics, Self-Direction, Community Use, Home Living, Health and Safety, Self-Care, Social</emph> and <emph>Leisure</emph>. The scores on the adaptive skill areas are scaled scores (<emph>M</emph> = 10, <emph>SD</emph> = 3), and the <emph>Functional Pre-Academics</emph> score (e.g., basic pre-reading, pre-writing, and pre-arithmetic skills such as knowing letters, numbers, and shapes) was used as a measure of caregiver-rated school readiness in the current study. Psychometric properties of the ABAS-3 are strong in the 3:0-3:5 age with internal reliability coefficients ranging from 0.91 to 0.95 for Parent/Primary Caregiver Form); test–retest reliability ranged from.72 to.84 (Harrison & Oakland, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref69">27</reflink>]). In terms of validity, ABAS-3 subtest scores are moderately correlated with other standardized measures of adaptive functioning (Harrison & Oakland, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref70">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-13">Covariates</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-14">Differential Abilities Scale, Second Edition (DAS-II)</hd> <p>The core Early Years subtests include <emph>Verbal Comprehension, Naming Vocabulary, Picture Similarities</emph>, and <emph>Pattern Construction</emph> (Elliott, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref71">17</reflink>]). Together, these subtest scores comprise the General Conceptual Ability (GCA) score which provides an estimate of intellectual functioning. The GCA is a standard score (<emph>M</emph> = 100, <emph>SD</emph> = 15) and was used as a covariate for IQ. The psychometric properties of the DAS-II are strong in the 3:0-3:5 age range, with high internal reliability coefficients and test–retest reliability (Elliott, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref72">17</reflink>]). DAS-II scores are highly consistent with other standardized cognitive measures (Elliott, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref73">17</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-15">Social Risk Score</hd> <p>Caregivers completed a demographic questionnaire at study enrollment. A social risk score (Roberts et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref74">56</reflink>]) comprised of household income (0 = >$100,000, 1 = $40,000–$99,999, 2 = <$40,000), employment status (0 = full-time employment; 1 = part-time employment; 2 = unemployed/pension) and education of primary income earner (0 = tertiary educated; 1 = 11–12 years of formal schooling; 2 = less than 11 years of formal schooling), family structure (0 = two caregivers (nuclear); 1 = separated parents with dual custody, or cared for by other intact family; 2 = single caregiver), languages spoken at home (0 = English only; 1 = some English; 2 = no English) and maternal age at birth (0 = >21 years; 1 = 18–21 years; 2 = less than 18 years) was computed. Each family was scored on the number of risk characteristics with a minimum score of 0 and a maximum score of 12 (<emph>M</emph> = 2.9, <emph>SD</emph> = 2.2).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-16">Statistical Analysis</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics were used to characterize participant's GCA and the frequency of school readiness problems. Pearson correlations were computed to examine the association between temperament ratings (IBQ-R-S and ECBQ-S) and school readiness (Bracken School Readiness Composite standard score and ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics standard score). Multivariate regression was used to evaluate whether temperament ratings at 3-months and 3-years corrected age visits were associated with school readiness after controlling for chronological age, sex, gestational age, GCA, and social risk. The selection of covariates was based on their association with temperament and/or school readiness to allow an assessment of whether temperament adds predictive information about school readiness above and beyond the levels predicted by the covariates. For example, temperament ratings (i.e., surgency and effortful control) differ by sex (Else-Quest et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref75">18</reflink>]), sex differences in school readiness have been reported (Kent & Pitsia, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref76">31</reflink>]), socioeconomic background has been shown to influence temperament development (Bornstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref77">8</reflink>]; Strickhouser & Sutin, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref78">63</reflink>]) and educational functioning (von Stumm et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref79">71</reflink>]), and IQ is associated with long-term learning (Jozsa et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref80">30</reflink>]). The two multivariate regression analyses were performed in MPlus (version 8.10) via 5000 bootstrap replications to obtain empirical rather than estimated standard errors. Missing data was handled via maximum likelihood estimation (Graham, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref81">26</reflink>]). False discovery rate correction (Benjamini & Hochberg, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref82">6</reflink>]) was used.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-17">Results</hd> <p>In terms of cognitive functioning, the average DAS-II GCA score was 92.04 (<emph>SD</emph> = 17.92, range 35–149). As seen in Table 1, children's performance on the Bracken School Readiness Composite and ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics ratings was in the average range, although a wide range of scores indicates significant variability in school readiness. Approximately 23.5% of the sample were delayed or very delayed on the Bracken Basic Concept Scale – School Readiness Assessment, and 17.6% of the sample had a score at least one standard deviation below the mean (i.e., score < 7) on the ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics skill area.</p> <p>Table 1. Inter-correlations and descriptive statistics with school readiness, attention problems, and temperament ratings.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>7</td><td>8</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>School-Readiness Composite</p></list-item></list></td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Functional Pre-Academics</p></list-item></list></td><td>.49**</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>IBQ-R-S Negative Emotionality</p></list-item></list></td><td>−.07</td><td>.07</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency</p></list-item></list></td><td>−.16*</td><td>.09</td><td>.22**</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>IBQ-R-S Regulatory Capacity Orienting</p></list-item></list></td><td>.08</td><td>.06</td><td>−.19**</td><td>.51**</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>ECBQ-S Negative Affect</p></list-item></list></td><td>−.20**</td><td>−.13*</td><td>.20**</td><td>.18**</td><td>−.05</td><td>–</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>ECBQ-S Surgency</p></list-item></list></td><td>.04</td><td>.13*</td><td>.09</td><td>.22**</td><td>.04</td><td>.17**</td><td>–</td><td /></tr><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>ECBQ-S Effortful Control</p></list-item></list></td><td>.34**</td><td>.48**</td><td>−.05</td><td>.04</td><td>.19**</td><td>−.33**</td><td>.17**</td><td>–</td></tr><tr><td> Mean SD Range</td><td>96.97 18.49 35-149</td><td>10.17 4.16 1-19</td><td>3.20 0.78 1.6-5.4</td><td>4.30 0.91 2.1-6.9</td><td>5.19 0.65 3.2-6.8</td><td>3.25 0.73 1.5-5.3</td><td>5.14 0.69 3.0-6.6</td><td>5.02 0.70 2.4-6.9</td></tr><tr><td><italic>n</italic></td><td>281</td><td>293</td><td>260</td><td>260</td><td>260</td><td>297</td><td>297</td><td>297</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 IBQ = Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised Short Form; ECBQ = Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire Short Form.</p> <p>2 *<emph>p</emph> <.05, **<emph>p</emph> <.01.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-18">Correlations</hd> <p>In terms of the infant temperament ratings, IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings were significantly negatively correlated with the Bracken School Readiness Composite score; no other significant associations between IBQ-R-S ratings and school readiness measures emerged (Table 1). With regard to preschool temperament ratings, ECBQ-S Negative Affect ratings were significantly negatively associated and ECBQ-S Effortful Control ratings were significantly positively associated with both measures of school readiness. Additionally, ECBQ-S Surgency ratings were significantly positively associated with ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics ratings. The correlation between Bracken School Readiness Composite score and ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics score was moderate and significant.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-19">Regressions</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182209690-20">Bracken School Readiness Composite</hd> <p>Results of the regression analyses revealed that, after controlling for chronological age, gestational age, sex, GCA, and social risk, lower IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency and higher Regulatory Capacity Orienting ratings were significantly associated with higher Bracken School Readiness Composite Scores; the latter association did not survive false discovery rate correction, however. ECBQ-S scores were not significantly associated with Bracken School Readiness Composite Scores (Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2. Multivariate regressions examining association of temperament with school readiness.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>School Readiness Composite</td><td>Functional Pre-Academics</td></tr><tr><td /><td>Coefficient</td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td>Coefficient</td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>IBQ-R-S Negative Emotionality</td><td>1.370</td><td>1.179</td><td>.245</td><td>0.422</td><td>0.311</td><td>.175</td></tr><tr><td>IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency</td><td><bold>−3.646</bold></td><td><bold>1.118</bold></td><td>.<bold>001</bold></td><td>0.567</td><td>0.308</td><td>.066</td></tr><tr><td>IBQ-R-S Regulatory Capacity Orienting</td><td>3.163</td><td>1.583</td><td>.046<sup>a</sup></td><td>−0.135</td><td>0.435</td><td>.175</td></tr><tr><td>Sex</td><td>0.440</td><td>1.526</td><td>.773</td><td>1.179</td><td>0.435</td><td>.007</td></tr><tr><td>Chronological Age</td><td>0.260</td><td>0.343</td><td>.449</td><td>−0.378</td><td>0.080</td><td><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Gestational Age</td><td>−0.093</td><td>0.052</td><td>.075</td><td>−0.006</td><td>0.015</td><td>.695</td></tr><tr><td>Social Risk Score</td><td>−0.800</td><td>0.369</td><td>.030<sup>a</sup></td><td>−0.143</td><td>0.106</td><td>.180</td></tr><tr><td>DAS-2 General Cognitive Ability</td><td>0.685</td><td>0.042</td><td><.001</td><td>0.095</td><td>0.013</td><td><.001</td></tr><tr><td>ECBQ-S Negative Affect</td><td>−0.277</td><td>1.164</td><td>.812</td><td>0.347</td><td>0.296</td><td>.241</td></tr><tr><td>ECBQ-S Surgency</td><td>−2.073</td><td>1.116</td><td>.063</td><td>−0.074</td><td>0.309</td><td>.811</td></tr><tr><td>ECBQ-S Effortful Control</td><td>2.147</td><td>1.262</td><td>.089</td><td><bold>2.036</bold></td><td><bold>0.330</bold></td><td><bold><.001</bold></td></tr><tr><td>Sex</td><td>−0.204</td><td>1.572</td><td>.897</td><td>0.713</td><td>0.418</td><td>.088</td></tr><tr><td>Chronological Age</td><td>0.205</td><td>0.347</td><td>.556</td><td>−0.318</td><td>0.082</td><td><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Gestational Age</td><td>−0.107</td><td>0.051</td><td>.037<sup>a</sup></td><td>0.003</td><td>0.014</td><td>.840</td></tr><tr><td>Social Risk Score</td><td>−0.821</td><td>0.375</td><td>.029<sup>a</sup></td><td>−0.024</td><td>0.099</td><td>.809</td></tr><tr><td>DAS-2 General Cognitive Ability</td><td>0.684</td><td>0.047</td><td><.001</td><td>0.068</td><td>0.014</td><td><.001</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 IBQ-R-S = Infant Behavior Questionnaire Revised Short Form; ECBQ-S = Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire Short Form. Bolded text reflects significant IBQ-R-S and/or ECBQ-S results surviving correction for multiple comparisons using False Discovery Rate (FDR). <sups>a</sups>No longer significant when correcting for multiple comparisons using FDR.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-21">ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics</hd> <p>Results of the regression analyses revealed that, after controlling for chronological age, gestational age, sex, GCA, and social risk, higher ECBQ-S Effortful Control ratings were associated with higher Functional Pre-Academics Ratings. The remaining IBQ-R-S and ECBQ-S scores were not significantly associated with ABAS-3 Functional Pre-Academics Ratings (Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-22">Discussion</hd> <p>Temperament, which can be assessed as early as 3 months, is associated with school readiness and later academic achievement in children born full term. To our knowledge, no studies have investigated whether early temperament is associated with school readiness in children born very preterm. Studies investigating this possible association may be important given that infants born preterm differ temperamentally from their term-born peers (e.g., higher activity levels, and lower attentional focusing, attention span/persistence; Cassiano et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref83">12</reflink>]) and are less ready for school (Pritchard et al., [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref84">51</reflink>]). Uncovering mechanisms through which early adversity influences children's later functional outcomes is critical to identify risk factors and early interventions. We explored whether temperament ratings obtained at infancy (3-months corrected age) and preschool (3-years corrected age) in children born very preterm were associated with preschool school readiness. Significant strengths of the study include utilizing all three temperament dimensions at two timepoints and including both a performance-based measure and caregiver-ratings of school readiness. Results showed that early reactive temperamental processes (i.e., IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency) were associated with the objective measure of academic school readiness; findings were marginally significant for caregiver academic readiness ratings. In contrast, higher effortful control ratings in preschool were associated with caregiver ratings of school readiness; findings were marginally significant for the objective measure of school readiness.</p> <p>At age 3 months, an infant's behavior patterns indicative of positive emotionality include smiling and vocalization in social contexts and the tendency to approach (e.g., latency to reach for and grasp objects; Rothbart & Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref85">61</reflink>]). Those with strong approach tendencies are engaging in more active explorations of their environment, which leads to becoming familiar with a wider range of people, objects, and events (Rothbart & Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref86">61</reflink>]). Further, individual differences in positive emotionality are related to reward sensitivity, potentially mediating learning conditioned signals of reward (Rothbart & Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref87">61</reflink>]). Thus, it is perhaps unsurprising that early IBQ-R-S Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings significantly predicted Bracken School Readiness Composite scores, particularly as this association has been reported for healthy term-born children (Gartstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref88">22</reflink>]; Potmesilova & Potmesil, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref89">50</reflink>]). In the current study, children born preterm who were rated as more active, more impulsive, and less sociable were those who performed worst on the objective school readiness measure. In contrast to our findings, Gartstein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref90">22</reflink>]) reported a positive association between surgency and school readiness, such that those with higher surgency ratings were those with greater school readiness. The direction of the association between surgency and academic functioning has been mixed with studies reporting both positive and negative links (Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref91">40</reflink>]). It may be important to consider the level of surgency in trying to understand the mixed literature. Gartstein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref92">22</reflink>]) hypothesized that surgent children are those more likely to engage and persist in a wide range of tasks that enhance cognitive development in comparison to those less likely to explore. However, children who are rated as highly emotionally reactive, impulsive, and dysregulated, i.e., extremely surgent, may be at increased risk for poorer school readiness. Certainly, higher surgency ratings have been associated with increased hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms (Nigg, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref93">42</reflink>]) and with behavioral symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (Zastrow et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref94">75</reflink>]) in children born full term, and with increased externalizing problems in children born preterm (Klein et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref95">32</reflink>]); all symptoms which negatively impact a child's school readiness (Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref96">72</reflink>]). Sadly, the IBQ-R-S does not have normative data and there was not a full-term born control group for us to assess whether the premature children in the study were more or less surgent than term-born children. Additional work is needed to disentangle the mixed findings for surgency and academic readiness. Interestingly, ECBQ-S ratings of Surgency at 3-years corrected age were still associated, although not statistically significantly, with the Bracken School Readiness composite scores. While temperament is considered to be relatively stable (Bornstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref97">9</reflink>]), shifts are expected, particularly when measured from an early age (Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref98">60</reflink>]), and maturation may lead to changes in the expression of temperament dimensions (Putnam et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref99">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>In fact, for these very preterm children, it appears that the onset of effortful control process, thought to develop in preschool years (Rothbart & Ahadi, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref100">61</reflink>]), was associated with school readiness, especially as rated by caregivers in our study. Although the dimension of Regulatory Capacity Orienting is theoretically associated with Effortful Control, developmental changes are expected as children are increasingly able to willfully sustain and allocate attention (Rothbart & Posner, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref101">62</reflink>]), likely connected with development of the anterior executive attention system (Posner & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref102">48</reflink>]). Thus, children high in effortful control may be better able to use their attention to inhibit task-irrelevant thoughts, persist in response to failure feedback, and generate possible solutions, which are relevant skills for school readiness. Clearly, regulatory capacities play a key role in the development of school-related competencies. And one of the most consistent findings in the literature is the association of effortful control with academic functioning (Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref103">40</reflink>]). Our findings are particularly compelling given that children born very preterm are rated as having lower effortful control than healthy term-born controls (Reyes et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref104">54</reflink>]). It should also be noted that this association may have been driven by the fact that caregivers completed ratings of both temperament and school readiness at the same time point.</p> <p>While the pattern of findings was quite similar for both performance-based and caregiver-rated measures of school readiness, it is interesting that the association of temperament and school-readiness was stronger for infant temperament ratings and Bracken performance, while the preschool temperament ratings were more strongly associated with caregiver-rated school readiness. A strength of this study was utilizing both an objective, age-normed assessment of school readiness and caregiver ratings of pre-academic skills as children may not always demonstrate their full capabilities in the assessment context (e.g., due to anxiety, behavioral dysregulation, etc.) and caregivers may have a broader understanding of their abilities in multiple contexts. In fact, it has been argued that including both performance-based and caregiver-rated measures of the same constructs provides complementary and meaningful information (Toplak et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref105">68</reflink>]). The current findings suggest that there is a nuanced association between temperament ratings and performance-based and caregiver-rated measures of school readiness, with both contributing meaningfully to the construct of school readiness.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-23">Limitations</hd> <p>These findings must be interpreted in the context of study limitations. First, caregiver ratings were used to assess infant temperament. Although parents have extended experience with their child in multiple contexts, it is possible that they may not be sensitive enough to observe subtle nuances of their child's behavior. Additionally, parental expectations and interactions with their child may also bias their ratings, and there may be informant covariance as the caregiver completed both the temperament ratings and school readiness ratings at the 3-year corrected age assessment. It would have been ideal to combine these ratings with observational measures and/or that of another informant. Gathering teacher ratings of temperament, classroom behaviors and academic skills, may also be an important future direction as significant informant effects have been reported (Al-Hendawi, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref106">3</reflink>], Nasvytiene & Lazdauskas, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref107">40</reflink>]). The lack of a term-born control group and norms on the IBQ-R-S and ECBQ-S precludes the conclusion that these findings are unique to infants born very preterm. Additionally, while we have focused on associations between temperament ratings and outcomes, we are aware that there are other factors not examined in this study that may be influential for school readiness (e.g., environment, parental stress and/or mental health, parenting style, health and physical development). Notably, school readiness is a multidimensional, dynamic process including communication skills, social competence, attention regulation, cognitive skills and general knowledge, approaches to learning, health and physical development, and emotional well-being, amongst other factors, and only one aspect (i.e., pre-academic skills) was captured in the present study. Furthermore, a broader definition of school readiness includes how ready schools, communities, and teachers are ready for children, which was not explored in this study. Finally, the correlations between temperament ratings and school readiness measures were relatively weak and there was inconsistency in the findings obtained at the two time points; thus, replication is warranted.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-24">Conclusions</hd> <p>This investigation explores the relative importance of a child's temperament as a predictor and correlate of early school readiness in children born very preterm. Infant surgency ratings and preschool effortful control ratings were significantly associated with school readiness after controlling for key covariates such as intellectual ability, social risk, sex and age. Since temperament was found to be important in predicting early academic achievement, it may be helpful to utilize infant temperament ratings to identify children at risk for difficulties at school entry, and interventions could be developed to promote effortful control in children born very preterm. And in fact, there are programs that support caregivers and teachers to better understand a child's temperament and the goodness-of-fit in parenting and educational practices (Burns & Rubenstein, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref108">11</reflink>]; McClowry et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref109">37</reflink>]; McCormick et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref110">38</reflink>]), and that focus on improving a child's self-control (Diamond & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref111">15</reflink>]; Tamm & Nakonezny, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref112">64</reflink>]). Interestingly, a program called the Mother-Infant Transaction Program which targets parent perceptions of and responses to their very preterm infant, largely driven by the infant's temperament, resulted in ratings of a more regulated temperament in early childhood and improved cognitive functioning, even at the 9-year follow-up (academic functioning was not reported; Ulvund, [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref113">70</reflink>]). This study provides initial evidence that temperament could be an important early precursor to attaining preacademic skills in children born very preterm.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-25">Acknowledgment</hd> <p>We sincerely thank the Cincinnati Infant Neurodevelopment Early Prediction Study (CINEPS) Investigators: Principal Investigator: Nehal A. Parikh, DO, MS. Collaborators (in alphabetical order): Mekibib Altaye, PhD, Anita Arnsperger, RRT, Traci Beiersdorfer, RN BSN, Kaley Bridgewater, RT(MR) CNMT, Tanya Cahill, MD, Kim Cecil, PhD, Kent Dietrich, RT, Christen Distler, BSN RNC-NIC, Juanita Dudley, RN BSN, Brianne Georg, BS, Cathy Grisby, RN BSN CCRC, Lacey Haas, RT(MR) CNMT, Karen Harpster, PhD, OT/RL, Lili He, PhD, Scott K. Holland, PhD, V.S. Priyanka Illapani, MS, Kristin Kirker, CRC, Julia E. Kline, PhD, Beth M. Kline-Fath, MD, Hailong Li, PhD, Matt Lanier, RT(MR) RT(R), Stephanie L. Merhar, MD MS, Greg Muthig, BS, Brenda B. Poindexter, MD MS, David Russell, JD, Kari Tepe, BSN RNC-NIC, Leanne Tamm, PhD, Julia Thompson, RN BSN, Jean A. Tkach, PhD, Hui Wang, PhD, Jinghua Wang, PhD, Brynne Williams, RT(MR) CNMT, Kelsey Wineland, RT(MR) CNMT, Sandra Wuertz, RN BSN CCRP, Donna Wuest, AS, Weihong Yuan, PhD. We are most thankful for the families that made this research possible.</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-26">Disclosure Statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <hd id="AN0182209690-27">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>Data is available from the third author upon reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0182209690-28"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S., Weisglas-Kuperus, N., van Goudoever, J. B., & Oosterlaan, J. (2009). Meta-analysis of neurobehavioral outcomes in very preterm and/or very low birth weight children. Pediatrics, 124 (2), 717 – 728. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2816</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref15" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Agarwal, P. K., Zheng, Q., Yang, P. H., Shi, L., Rajadurai, V. S., Khoo, P. C., Quek, B. H., & Daniel, L. M. (2021). Academic school readiness in children born very preterm and associated risk factors. 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  Data: Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm?
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  Data: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 13
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (DHHS/NIH)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: R01NS094200<br />R01NS096037
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Readiness%22">School Readiness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Premature+Infants%22">Premature Infants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Infants%22">Infants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Children%22">Preschool Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22At+Risk+Persons%22">At Risk Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Infant+Behavior%22">Infant Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Toddlers%22">Toddlers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individual+Characteristics%22">Individual Characteristics</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Rothbart+Infant+Behavior+Questionnaire%22">Rothbart Infant Behavior Questionnaire</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Bracken+Basic+Concept+Scale%22">Bracken Basic Concept Scale</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2404821
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1040-9289<br />1556-6935
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Research Findings: Temperament, which can be assessed as early as 3 months, is associated with school readiness and later academic achievement in children born full term. Although children born preterm demonstrate a dysregulated temperament and are at significant risk for lower school readiness, we found no studies investigating whether early temperament is associated with school readiness in this at-risk population. Investigating whether temperament is a precursor of academic risk in preterm children can facilitate early identification and possible intervention efforts. We explored the association of negative affect, surgency, and regulation/effortful control temperament ratings collected at 3-months and 3-years corrected ages with school readiness at 3-years corrected age in children born very preterm. Participants included 297 children born very preterm (53.9% male). After controlling for key covariates, Positive Affectivity/Surgency ratings at 3-months were significantly associated with the Bracken Basic Concept Scale -- School Readiness composite score, and Effortful Control ratings at 3-years were associated with Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition (ABAS-3) Functional Pre-Academics ratings. Practice or Policy: These findings may enhance the ability to identify premature children at risk for difficulties at school entry early.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1457407
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1457407
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/10409289.2024.2404821
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 13
        StartPage: 447
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Readiness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Premature Infants
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Infants
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Infant Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Toddlers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individual Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Rothbart Infant Behavior Questionnaire
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Bracken Basic Concept Scale
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Is Temperament Associated with Academic School Readiness in Children Born Very Preterm?
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Leanne Tamm
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: James L. Peugh
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Nehal A. Parikh
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1040-9289
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1556-6935
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 36
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Early Education and Development
              Type: main
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