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School Middle Leaders' Personality Traits and Collective Teachers' Efficacy: The Moderating Role of Resource Support

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Title: School Middle Leaders' Personality Traits and Collective Teachers' Efficacy: The Moderating Role of Resource Support
Language: English
Authors: Ayala Zadok, Pascale Benoliel (ORCID 0000-0001-8896-7889), Chen Schechter
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2025 28(1).
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Personality Traits, Collectivism, Middle School Teachers, Self Efficacy, Teacher Attitudes, Foreign Countries, Extraversion Introversion, Hebrew, Religious Schools, Arabic, Secondary Schools, Judaism, Role of Religion, Resource Allocation, Educational Resources, Achievement Need, Teacher Characteristics, Self Control, Productivity
Geographic Terms: Israel
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-024-09982-4
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: Drawing upon trait-activation-theory, this study explores the moderating role of resource support in the relationship of middle-leaders' personality traits, namely extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to collective teacher efficacy. The study used a two-source survey design with data from 609 participants: middle-leaders and teachers in 103 secondary schools in Israel. The findings reveal that resource support served as a moderator in the relationship of the personality traits of extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy. Specifically, when resource support was low, negative correlations between middle-leaders' extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy were found. However, no correlations were found when resource support was high. No significant influence of resource support was found on the relationship of conscientiousness to collective teacher efficacy. This study adds and deepen our understanding regarding the complex interplay among middle-leaders' personality traits, school resources support and collective teacher efficacy, emphasising the need for adequate resource support to maximise middle-leader traits' influences and to promote collective teacher efficacy. These findings have significant practical implications for teacher and teaching education, teacher development programmes and practices, resource allocation decisions, and professional development initiatives.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1458317
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0182421365;luo01feb.25;2025Jan29.13:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182421365-1">School middle leaders' personality traits and collective teachers' efficacy: the moderating role of resource support </title> <sbt id="AN0182421365-2">Introduction</sbt> <p>Drawing upon trait-activation-theory, this study explores the moderating role of resource support in the relationship of middle-leaders' personality traits, namely extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to collective teacher efficacy. The study used a two-source survey design with data from 609 participants: middle-leaders and teachers in 103 secondary schools in Israel. The findings reveal that resource support served as a moderator in the relationship of the personality traits of extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy. Specifically, when resource support was low, negative correlations between middle-leaders' extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy were found. However, no correlations were found when resource support was high. No significant influence of resource support was found on the relationship of conscientiousness to collective teacher efficacy. This study adds and deepen our understanding regarding the complex interplay among middle-leaders' personality traits, school resources support and collective teacher efficacy, emphasising the need for adequate resource support to maximise middle-leader traits' influences and to promote collective teacher efficacy. These findings have significant practical implications for teacher and teaching education, teacher development programmes and practices, resource allocation decisions, and professional development initiatives.</p> <p>As the educational workforce navigates the current age, characterised by rapid technological advancements, evolving societal demands, and changing economic landscapes, the practise of supporting teaching resources for teachers has become more crucial than ever (Tavares et al., [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref1">75</reflink>]). Teaching resources, such as instructional materials, technical tools, and professional development opportunities, provide teachers with the necessary resources and support to effectively implement innovative instructional strategies. This is important for the following reasons: First, teacher resources foster creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills among students (Haug & Mork, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref2">35</reflink>]). Second, these resources enable teachers to keep up with the evolving needs of their students, engage them in relevant and meaningful learning experiences, and prepare them for the complexities of the modern world (Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref3">77</reflink>]). Finally, teachers who have access to adequate resources feel empowered and motivated, leading to increased job satisfaction and retention (Ahrari et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref4">2</reflink>]). Accordingly, this study focuses on school Resource Support (RS) and its implication for collective teacher efficacy (CTE).</p> <p>The goal of this study is to highlight the moderating role of RS as a possible factor explaining the effect of middle-leaders' personality-traits from the Big-Five typology on CTE. Educational studies worldwide have recognised the significant role of middle-leaders, who hold formal organisational responsibilities, in the accomplishments of their schools in pedagogy and academic achievements (Benoliel et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref5">17</reflink>]; Liu & Hallinger, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref6">52</reflink>]). Drawing upon Trait Activation Theory -TAT (Tett et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref7">76</reflink>]), which explains that personality-traits are activated in certain situations, the present study suggests that the positive and negative influences of middle-leaders' personality trait on CTE depend on school RS. As for 'Big-Five' personality model, we focus on extraversion, openness to experience, and conscientiousness, because research indicates that these traits are associated with leaders' attitudes and behaviours (Breevaart & Vries, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref8">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>This investigation can make several important contributions to the teacher research literature. First, despite the educational field's growing complexities, which call for systematic perspectives in promoting teaching and learning, existing research on the relationships of middle-leaders' personality-traits to the behaviors of teachers working under their leadership remain limited (Do & Minbashian, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref9">27</reflink>]). Second, despite the increasing contribution of middle-leaders in improving teacher outcomes (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref10">14</reflink>]), only a few studies have examined the implications for CTE (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref11">50</reflink>]). Also, studies on the relationship between middle-leaders' personality traits and CTE are scarce, particularly in relation to schools' middle-level leaders (Liu, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref12">51</reflink>]). However, focusing on the relationships between middle-leaders and teachers is essential because middle-leaders facilitate the ability of teachers to accomplish their roles, and are therefore crucial to healthy work environments in schools (Mazerolle et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref13">55</reflink>]). Finally, focusing on RS as an aspect of a positive school environment can contribute to our understanding of the factors that can promote or hinder the positive influence of middle-leaders' personality-traits on CTE (Breevaart & Vries, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref14">20</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-3">Literature review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-4">Theoretical background and hypothesis</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-5">The relationship of middle-leaders' personality-trait to CTE</hd> <p>Middle-leaders are teachers with leadership responsibilities, serving as intermediaries between senior administration and teaching staff (De Nobile, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref15">24</reflink>]). Their primary objective is to bolster the professional efficacy of their colleagues, fostering an environment of constructive influence (Harris & Jones, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref16">34</reflink>]). They are accountable for various roles, involving the promotion of pedagogical practises and student outcomes. They make decisions aimed at optimising teaching methodologies and learning experiences (Leithwood, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref17">46</reflink>]). Their responsibilities include curriculum development, teacher development, student welfare, and more (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref18">50</reflink>]). The present study focuses on the influences of middle-leaders' personality traits.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-6">Personality traits: extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience</hd> <p>Personality traits are generally considered to be stable and enduring characteristics that influence an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours (Deinert et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref19">25</reflink>]). This research will focus on three personality-traits from the Big-Five Typology: extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. This is because research has shown they are relevant to leadership and associated with leaders' attitudes and the resulting teachers' behaviours and attitudes toward their work (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref20">13</reflink>]; Breevaart & Vries, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref21">20</reflink>]). The Big-Five traits have been correlated to leadership behaviours in the domain of task and relational leadership orientation (Simic et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref22">72</reflink>]). <emph>Extraversion</emph> is associated with being outgoing, assertive, and sociable. This trait has been consistently linked to leadership emergence and effectiveness (Karlsen & Langvik, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref23">44</reflink>]). In educational contexts, principals high in extraversion tend to be more visible, engage more frequently with staff, and create a more positive school climate (Shakeel et al., [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref24">70</reflink>]). <emph>Conscientiousness</emph> reflects being organised, responsible, and dependable (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]). This trait is strongly associated with job performance across various occupations, including leadership roles (Saleh et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref26">64</reflink>]; Sari et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref27">65</reflink>]). In school settings, conscientiousness leaders are more likely to set clear goals, maintain high standards, and persist in the face of challenges (Da'as et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref28">23</reflink>]). <emph>Openness to experience</emph> involves being imaginative, curious, and open to new ideas and experiences (Shrestha & Dangol, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref29">71</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref30">81</reflink>]). This trait is particularly relevant in educational contexts due to its association with creativity, adaptability, and receptiveness to new ideas (McCrae & Costa, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref31">22</reflink>]). School leaders high in openness are more likely to embrace educational innovations and foster a culture of continuous improvement (Shahzad et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref32">68</reflink>]). These characteristics can influence middle-leaders' ability to effectively communicate with teachers, provide support, and foster a positive school culture (Lebin et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref33">45</reflink>]; Simic et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref34">72</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-7">Collective teacher efficacy (CTE)</hd> <p>Bandura ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref35">9</reflink>]) defined collective efficacy, as 'a shared belief of a group about organising and managing action phases needed for producing skills at certain levels' (p. 477). Bandura's social cognitive theory ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref36">10</reflink>]) suggests that human behaviour is influenced by interaction involving personal variables, environmental factors, and behaviour. Collective efficacy views are built upon this theory. Hoy and Miskel ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref37">38</reflink>]) define CTE as 'the shared perception of teachers in a school that the efforts of the faculty as a whole will have a positive effect on students' (p. 189). The development of CTE is influenced by effort and persistence that teachers put into their group to overcome challenges and achieve common goals (Getachew & Zhou, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref38">31</reflink>]). This reciprocal process fosters a climate where beliefs and actions reinforce each other. Previous research has shown that CTE is essential for improving student academic achievement and requires collaborative effort (Benoliel & Schechter, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref39">16</reflink>]; Liu, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref40">51</reflink>]). Another factor related to CTE is teachers' perception of school leaders. The study of Özdemir et al. ([<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref41">58</reflink>]) suggests that when school leaders exhibit strong instructional leadership, it positively influences teachers' self-efficacy perceptions, which in turn can contribute to the development of collective efficacy among the teaching staff. This connection implies that principals may foster an environment where teachers collectively believe in their ability to impact student outcomes, thus linking leadership perceptions to CTE.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-8">Trait activation theory (TAT)</hd> <p>Trait Activation Theory (TAT) (Tett et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref42">76</reflink>]), which was developed from an initial interactionist perspective, views personality traits as latent capacities to act (think, feel) in recognizable ways (i.e., as indicative of one trait against another) in reaction to trait-relevant situational signals (Allport, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref43">4</reflink>]; Lewin, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref44">49</reflink>]). When the correct kind of situation arises, qualities are used. For example, a person with great sociability only exhibits sociable behavior when there are other individuals around to interact with. A situation is pertinent to a trait to the extent that it provides room for that trait's expression which explains that personality-traits are activated in certain situations. Situations that are trait-relevant frequently have a major impact on behavior (e.g., socially stimulating events frequently lead to an increase in friendly conduct across all participants).</p> <p>Accordingly, the study's main argument is that emergence and influences of middle-leaders' personal traits may be contingent upon the teaching RS environment. Specifically, when middle-leaders operate in a resource-rich environment, their teachers are better equipped to design and deliver instruction that engages students and promotes learning. As a result, higher levels of middle-leader extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience will correlate to greater levels of CTE (Highfield & Rubie-Davies, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref45">37</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-9">The moderating role of RS in the relationship of middle-leaders' personality-traits and CTE</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-10">Resource support (RS) in schools</hd> <p>Resource support (RS) is one of seven components of organisational health referring to school climate (Hoy et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref46">40</reflink>]). It represents perceptions of critical characteristics of the school (Begum & Thomas, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]). RS in a school context refers to the availability and accessibility of physical and human resources supporting the educational process. Specifically, it entails the provision of adequate classroom supplies, instructional materials, and technology facilitating effective teaching and learning. Additionally, it involves ensuring resources are regularly replenished, and additional resources are readily available upon request. RS encompasses the training and professional development of teachers and staff to enhance their capacity to effectively utilise resources at their disposal (Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref48">77</reflink>]). Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref49">62</reflink>]) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis that highlighted the significant role of strategic resourcing by school leaders in improving student achievement. Their research demonstrated that when principals align resource allocation with pedagogical goals, there is a direct positive effect on student learning outcomes. As Robinson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref50">62</reflink>]) explain, "Leaders in higher-performing schools are distinguished from their counterparts in otherwise similar lower-performing schools by their personal involvement in planning, coordinating, and evaluating teaching and teachers" (p. 39). The current study posits that RS is a significant factor in explaining the relationship between middle-leaders' personality-traits of extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience and CTE.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-11">RS and extraversion</hd> <p>Extraversion includes a range of characteristics, such as enthusiasm, ambition, sociability, assertiveness, action, loquaciousness, and sensitivity to rewards (Pickett et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref51">59</reflink>]). Highly extraverted individuals tend to be doers, organisers, typically have an optimistic outlook, and enjoy socialising (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref52">63</reflink>]). In contrast, those low in extraversion are usually more independent and prefer solitude (Abad et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>]). They often seek tasks involving minimal noise and stimulus and find comfort in solitary activities (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref54">63</reflink>]).</p> <p>Extraverted leaders are more likely to engage in frequent and positive interactions with teachers, which can foster a sense of collective capability (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref55">63</reflink>]; Tschannen-Moran & Barr, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref56">78</reflink>]). These interactions provide opportunities for vicarious experiences and verbal persuasion, two key sources of efficacy beliefs identified by Bandura ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref57">9</reflink>]). Additionally, the enthusiasm and optimism associated with extraversion can be contagious, potentially elevating the collective mood and confidence of the teaching staff (Hu & Lin, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref58">41</reflink>]). This emotional contagion can contribute to a more positive school climate, which is closely associated with higher levels of CTE (Goddard et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref59">32</reflink>]). The sociability aspect of extraversion may also facilitate the development of strong professional learning communities, which have been shown to positively influence CTE (Voelkel & Chrispeels, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref60">79</reflink>]).</p> <p>Schools with high levels of RS offer more opportunities to middle-leaders to effectively communicate and collaborate with teachers (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref61">50</reflink>]), enabling them to leverage their extraversion. According to a study by Zhang et al. ([<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref62">81</reflink>]), leaders with high levels of extraversion are more effective in creating a positive culture and improving team performance, promoting CTE. Thus, in schools with high RS, extraversion may positively impact CTE. However, in schools with lower RS, middle-leaders may be constrained in their ability to communicate and collaborate with teachers, limiting the positive impact of their extraversion on CTE (Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref63">77</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref64">81</reflink>]). Therefore,</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-12">Hypothesis 1</hd> <p>RS will moderate the positive relationship between extraversion and CTE, such that the relationship between the two constructs will be stronger under high rather than low RS.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-13">RS and conscientiousness</hd> <p>Conscientiousness refers to the degree of orderliness, hard work, trustworthiness, purposefulness, ambition, and determination individuals possess to attain their goals (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref65">15</reflink>]). People high in conscientiousness tend to exhibit self-control and have a clear sense of direction (Abad et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref66">1</reflink>]). Conversely, those low in conscientiousness are typically viewed as irresponsible, undisciplined, and untrustworthy (Antonakis & Day, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref67">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conscientious leaders are known for their strong organizational and planning skills, which are crucial for creating structured and supportive school environments (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref68">15</reflink>]). These environments enable teachers to focus on instructional tasks without the distraction of disorganization or lack of resources, thereby enhancing their CTE (Tschannen-Moran & Barr, [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref69">78</reflink>]). Additionally, the reliability and dependability associated with conscientiousness foster trust and respect among staff, which are essential components of a cohesive and effective teaching team (Hoy & Tarter, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref70">39</reflink>]). Trust in leadership has been shown to significantly impact teachers' perceptions of their collective capability (Goddard et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref71">32</reflink>]). Moreover, conscientious leaders' goal-oriented nature aligns with the pursuit of high academic standards and continuous improvement, which are key elements of CTE (Schechter & Tschannen-Moran, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref72">66</reflink>]). Their ability to set clear expectations and follow through on commitments provides a stable and predictable environment, further reinforcing teachers' beliefs in their collective ability to achieve educational goals (Bandura, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref73">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>Middle-leaders in schools with high levels of RS as perceived by teaching staff have more opportunities to organise and structure teachers' work (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref74">50</reflink>]), amplifying the positive effects of their conscientiousness on CTE. This finding is supported by Shrestha and Dangol's ([<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref75">71</reflink>]) study, finding that conscientious leaders' organisation and planning skills positively impact teacher performance and student outcomes. Thus, in high RS schools, middle-leaders' conscientiousness may positively impact CTE. However, in low RS schools, middle-leaders may have to prioritise responsibilities like finding resources or managing student behaviour, which may detract from expressing their conscientiousness (Shrestha & Dangol, [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref76">71</reflink>]; Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref77">77</reflink>]). This situation could induce frustration, given their goal-oriented nature, and their inability to fulfil responsibilities adequately. Moreover, low RS may contribute to higher teacher stress levels and burnout, potentially affecting their CTE (Getachew & Zhou, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref78">31</reflink>]). Middle-leaders with high conscientiousness may better support teachers in low RS contexts. Still, the impact of their conscientiousness may be limited by the overall lack of resources (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref79">50</reflink>]) because conscientiousness prompts leaders to set high standards (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref80">15</reflink>]). Therefore,</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-14">Hypothesis 2</hd> <p>RS will moderate the positive relationship between conscientiousness and CTE, such that the relationship between the two constructs will be stronger under high rather than low RS.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-15">RS and openness to experience</hd> <p>Openness to experience characterises imaginative individuals seeking new experiences (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref81">22</reflink>]). Those high in openness to experience tend to experience emotions deeply, both positive and negative (Schultz & Schultz, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref82">67</reflink>]). They have unconventional values, embrace new ethical and social ideas, and enjoy various routines (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref83">63</reflink>]). Conversely, individuals low in openness typically behave conventionally and hold conservative views, preferring familiar over unknown and seeking comfort in routine (Abad et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref84">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Openness to experience is associated with creativity and innovation, which are essential for developing and implementing new teaching strategies and educational practices (Leithwood et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref85">47</reflink>]). Leaders who are open to new experiences are more likely to experiment with novel approaches and encourage their staff to do the same, fostering an environment of continuous improvement and learning (Pont, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref86">61</reflink>]). Moreover, openness to experience is linked to cognitive flexibility and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances, which is crucial in dynamic educational settings (Mammadov, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref87">53</reflink>]). This adaptability can help middle-leaders effectively respond to challenges and support their teachers in doing so, thereby enhancing CTE (Voelkel & Chrispeels, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref88">79</reflink>]). Furthermore, leaders high in openness to experience are more likely to value and integrate diverse perspectives, promoting a culture of inclusivity and collaboration (Hoy & Tarter, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref89">39</reflink>]). This inclusive culture can strengthen the collective efficacy of the teaching staff by ensuring that all voices are heard and valued (Goddard et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref90">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Schools with high RS provide middle-leaders a greater capacity to implement and sustain innovative learning environments (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref91">50</reflink>]). Moreover, open middle-leaders are likely to introduce practises improving student outcomes (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref92">50</reflink>]; Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref93">63</reflink>]). Thus, in schools with high RS, openness of middle-leaders may positively impact CTE. However, in low RS schools, middle-leaders' expressions of openness may be constrained by a lack of funding, staff, or time to implement innovative ideas and practises (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref94">43</reflink>]), impacting negatively CTE. Similarly, low RS may also limit a middle-leader's access to professional development opportunities or other resources that could help them to develop new knowledge and skills (Lipscombe et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref95">50</reflink>]). Therefore,</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-16">Hypothesis 3</hd> <p>RS will moderate the positive relationship between openness to experience and CTE, such that the relationship between the two constructs will be stronger with high rather than low RS.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-17">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-18">Research context</hd> <p>Israel's education system encompasses over two million learners across approximately 5000 K-12 institutions, with Hebrew-sector schools accommodating roughly 73% and Arabic-sector schools serving about 27% of the student population. The Israeli educational system is highly centralized. The Ministry of Education is responsible for setting national goals and objectives, managing budget allocations, overseeing student performance through standardized national tests, establishing the national curriculum, and hiring teachers. The system is organized into three main stages: (a) Elementary school (grades 1–6); (b) Intermediate school (grades 7–9); and (c) Upper secondary school (grades 10–12). While adhering to core national guidelines, schools retain some autonomy to offer specialized programs within ministerial parameters. Recent policy shifts have eased urban enrollment restrictions, fostering increased competition among city schools, while their suburban and rural counterparts continue operating in a less competitive milieu. The current study focuses on responses from Jewish educators working in state-secular and state-religious schools, which are the two largest segments of the Israeli educational system.</p> <p>In Israeli educational institutions, the staff structure includes teachers who assume additional managerial responsibilities, typically functioning as department heads or team leaders. These middle leaders play a crucial role in translating the school's vision into practice by guiding educators and influencing instructional methodologies (Harris & Jones, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref96">34</reflink>]). Their responsibilities encompass resource management, facilitation of professional development, and ensuring alignment between teaching practices and institutional objectives (Tang et al., [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref97">74</reflink>]). Middle leaders' roles, recognized globally, are particularly significant within Israel's diverse educational landscape, necessitating tailored approaches to address the unique needs of various student populations (Shaked et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref98">69</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-19">Participants and procedure</hd> <p>The study included 609 participants, comprising 103 middle-leaders and 506 teachers who worked under their leadership in 103 secondary schools that were randomly selected from across Israel. To avoid any issues related to same-source bias, the researchers collected data from three different sources, including both self-report and non-self-report data, as recommended by Avolio et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref99">8</reflink>]). On average, each school had approximately six teachers per middle-leader, with a mean of 6.16 (<emph>SD</emph> = 2.95). The size of the schools ranged from small to large, with an average of 674.21 students (<emph>SD</emph> = 471.18) per school based on the number of enrolled students.</p> <p>Of the teachers (<emph>N</emph> = 506), 69.4% were women, with a mean age of 42.06 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.49) and mean tenure in the profession of 13.69 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 10.39). Regarding their education, 41.88% held a bachelor's degree, 56.98% held a master's degree and 1.1% held a PhD degree. Of the middle-leaders (<emph>N</emph> = 103), 75.7% were women, with a mean tenure in the present school of 15.75 years (<emph>SD</emph> = 9.97) and at least a bachelor's degree (26.92%), with 73.07% holding a master's degree.</p> <p>Data collection was completed in several steps. After the research project was accepted by the Ministry of Education, schools were randomly chosen. We first communicated to the principal, explained the study's purpose, ensured anonymity, and highlighted the importance of candid answers. Following the principal's agreement to have their schools participate, middle-leaders and teachers in the school participated voluntarily through survey questionnaires. To distinguish a middle-leader and his/her team from other schools, each middle-leader was given a random number unique to his/her school. Middle-leaders answered the Big-Five questionnaire and teachers completed the CTE questionnaire. Both middle-leaders and teachers completed questionnaires on RS and provided demographic information.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-20">Measures</hd> <p> <bold>Middle leaders' personality-traits.</bold> Middle-leaders answered the abbreviated version of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory Form S, which is the abbreviated version of the NEO-PI (NEO-FFI: Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref100">21</reflink>]). This form measures the following personality aspects: Extraversion ('I laugh easily', 7 items, α = 0.70); Conscientiousness ('I keep my belongings neat and clean', 6 items, α = 0.75); Openness to experience ('I have a lot of intellectual curiosity', 6 items, α = 0.73). Response choices ranged from (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref101">1</reflink>) <emph>Strongly disagree</emph> to (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref102">5</reflink>) <emph>Strongly agree</emph>.</p> <p> <bold>CTE.</bold> was measured using the Tschannen-Moran and Barr's ([<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref103">78</reflink>]) 12-item Collective Teachers' Beliefs Scale (Hebrew adaptation: Schechter & Tschannen-Moran, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref104">66</reflink>]). This scale assesses teachers' perceptions of their team's collective efficacy. Two sub-dimensions were measured: instructional strategies (6 items) (e.g., 'How much can teachers in your school do to produce meaningful student learning') (α =.89) and student discipline (6 items) (e.g., 'To what extent can teachers in your school make expectations clear about appropriate student behavior') (α = =.88). Teachers rated items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from <emph>Never</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref105">1</reflink>) to <emph>Always</emph> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref106">5</reflink>).</p> <p> <bold>Resource Support (RS).</bold> RS was measured by a subscale adapted from The Organisational Health Inventory-Secondary form (Hoy et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref107">40</reflink>]), which consists of 5 items (e.g., 'Teachers are provided with adequate materials for their classrooms.') (α = 0.90). Middle-leaders and teachers rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from <emph>Never</emph> (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref108">1</reflink>) to <emph>Always</emph> (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref109">5</reflink>).</p> <p> <bold>Control variables</bold>. The school SES was determined using the Nurturing Index (NI) provided by the Chief Scientist of the Israeli Ministry of Education. This index considers various socio-economic, familial, and demographic risk factors that characterise the student body of each school as a whole. The school's student body SES is calculated by the ministry in order to allocate budgets to schools based on the SES of their students. A higher school's student body SES score indicates that the school serves students from lower SES backgrounds and receives larger budget allocations. In the current study, the average school SES score was 4.48 (<emph>SD</emph> = 2.58), with scores ranging from 1 to 10.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-21">Level of analysis</hd> <p>In the research hypotheses the school is identified as the unit of analysis. Therefore, the middle-leader personality-traits from the Big-Five Typology (independent variable), were measured at the school level by surveying the middle-leader. RS, (the moderator), was an aggregate of the responses of individual middle-leaders' and teachers' ratings. CTE (the outcome variable) was an aggregate of the responses of individual teachers' ratings. In both cases, RS and CTE, the group and/or the school is the referent and not the teacher individual. Thus, teachers in the same school are theoretically interchangeable (Morin et al., [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref110">57</reflink>]) and rate the proposed constructs, directly. In that sense, aggregated school-level variables assume that scores for all teachers in the same school reflect the same construct. From a statistical perspective, a good agreement among participants within the same school suggests that the proposed constructs are reliable (Lenzi et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref111">48</reflink>]). In school-level analyses, the aggregation of individual responses into a school score treats middle-leaders and teachers as judges rating their environment. Therefore, they must also be shown to 'agree' before one can claim that a construct is a team-level variable (Bliese, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref112">19</reflink>]). To statistically justify aggregation, we calculated <emph>rWG values - Within-Group Interrater Reliability</emph> (Dunlap et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref113">29</reflink>]), which indicate the degree of agreement among school teachers and the <emph>Intraclass Correlation Coefficient</emph> – <emph>ICC(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref114">1</reflink>)</emph> and <emph>ICC(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref115">2</reflink>)</emph>. A <emph>rWG value of.70</emph> or greater is suggested as a 'good' amount of intra-team agreement (James et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref116">42</reflink>]). <emph>ICC(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref117">1</reflink>)</emph> reflects the extent of within- vs between-group variability, and <emph>ICC(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref118">2</reflink>)</emph> provides an estimate of the reliability of the group means (Bliese, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref119">19</reflink>]). As indicated by Bliese ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref120">18</reflink>]), <emph>ICC(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref121">1</reflink>)</emph> usually ranges from 0 to 0.50 with a median of 0.12. As shown in Table 1 there was sufficient statistical justification for aggregating participants' individual perceptions of RS and CTE at the school level of analysis.</p> <p>Table 1 Means, standard deviations, rWG, ICC(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref122">1</reflink>) and ICC(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref123">2</reflink>) and correlation matrix of study's variables (N = 103)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>M</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD</p></th><th align="left"><p>rWG</p></th><th align="left"><p>ICC(1)</p></th><th align="left"><p>ICC(2)</p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>(1). Extraversion</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.85</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.59</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(2). Conscientiousness</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.53</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.20*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(3). Openness to experience</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>3.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.63</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.14</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(4). Resource Support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.48</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.41</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.15</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(5). Collective Teachers Efficacy</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.94</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.37</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.94</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.50</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.17*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>(6). School SES</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.60</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>: ICC: intra-class correlation; rWG: interrater agreement. *<emph>p</emph> <.05</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-22">Data analysis</hd> <p>In order to explore the extent to which RS moderates the relationships between Big-Five personality-traits and CTE, <emph>Hierarchical regression analyses</emph> using the <emph>PROCESS macro (SPSS 22.0) (Model 1)</emph> (Hayes, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref124">36</reflink>]) were conducted with each regression analysis including RS as the moderator variable, and each sub-dimensions of the Big-Five as the independent variable, and CTE as a dependant variable, controlling for the school SES. We then plotted the significant interaction in accordance with the recommendations of Aiken and West ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref125">3</reflink>]) for reducing biases by evaluating high and low levels of a continuous variable as 1 <emph>SD</emph> above and below the mean of that variable.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-23">Results</hd> <p>Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, intercorrelations matrix, rWG, and ICC for all key variables.</p> <p> <emph>Hypothesis tests</emph> </p> <p>Hypotheses 1–3 concerned the moderating role of RS in the relationship of Big-Five traits of extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience to CTE. Regarding the interaction of <emph>extraversion</emph> and RS on CTE, results indicated that the interaction was significant (β = 0.29, <emph>p</emph> <.05) (see Table 2). When the RS of the school was low, CTE level was higher with low <emph>extraversion</emph> than high <emph>extraversion</emph> (dashed line; β = − 0.27, <emph>t</emph> = -1.90, <emph>p</emph> <.05). However, when the RS of the school was high, no difference was found between low versus high <emph>extraversion</emph> levels (solid line; β = 0.17, <emph>t</emph> = 1.13, <emph>p</emph> =.26) (see Fig. 1).</p> <p>Table 2 Moderating effect of resource support on the relation between extraversion and collective teachers efficacy</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>β(SE)</p></th><th align="left"><p>BootLLCI</p></th><th align="left"><p>BootULCI</p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></p></th><th align="left"><p>F-value</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>Dependent variable: CTE</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Predictors</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.98+</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.04(.<italic>07</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>28.06***</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School SES</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02(.<italic>01</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>-1.63+</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Extraversion</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03(.<italic>06</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.14</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.49</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Resource support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.02(.<italic>08</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.16</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.24</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Resource support*extraversion</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.29(.<italic>14</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.03*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.11*</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>: CTE = <emph>Collective Teachers Efficacy. N</emph> = 103. Bootstrap sample size = 5000, LL low limit, CI confidence interval, UL upper limit +<emph>p</emph> <.10; *<emph>p</emph> <.05; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; ***p <. 001</p> <p>Regarding the interaction of <emph>conscientiousness</emph> and RS on CTE, results indicated that no significant interactions were found (<emph>p</emph> =.07).</p> <p>Regarding the interaction of <emph>openness to experience</emph> and RS on CTE, results indicated that the interaction was significant (β = 0.33, <emph>p</emph> <.01) (see Table 3). When the RS of the school was low, the CTE level was higher with low <emph>openness to experience</emph> than high <emph>openness to experience</emph> (dashed line; β = − 0.33, <emph>t</emph> = -2.22, <emph>p</emph> <.05). However, when the RS of the school was high, no difference was found between low versus high <emph>Openness to experience</emph> levels (solid line; β = 0.20, <emph>t</emph> = 1.44, <emph>p</emph> =.13) (see Fig. 2).</p> <p>Table 3 Moderating effect of resource support on the relation between openness to experience and collective teachers efficacy</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left"><p>β(SE)</p></th><th align="left"><p>BootLLCI</p></th><th align="left"><p>BootULCI</p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></p></th><th align="left"><p>F-value</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>Dependent variable: CTE</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Predictors</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.48*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Constant</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.02(<italic>0.07</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.89</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>27.77***</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>School SES</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02(<italic>0.01</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>-1.28</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Openness to experience</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04(.<italic>06</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.71</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Resource Support</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.02(.<italic>08</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.32</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Resource Support*Openness to experience</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.33(.<italic>13</italic>)</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.50**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.24**</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph>: CTE = <emph>Collective Teachers Efficacy. N</emph> = 103. Bootstrap sample size = 5000, LL low limit, CI confidence interval, UL upper limit +<emph>p</emph> <.10; *<emph>p</emph> <.05; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; ***<emph>p</emph> <.001</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-24">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-25">Overview of findings</hd> <p>The present study focused on middle-leaders' personality traits (extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) and how RS moderates their relationship with CTE. Our findings contribute to understanding the impact of personality traits on teacher outcomes and CTE, depending on schools' RS. According to trait activation theory, situational cues activate personality traits (Tett et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref126">76</reflink>]). Our findings contrast with our hypotheses, showing an unexpected complexity in the relationship between personality-traits, RS, and CTE. This unexpected outcome prompts further exploration.</p> <p>Specifically, the results showed that RS moderates the relationship between personality-traits: extraversion and openness to experience and CTE. When school RS was low, correlations were found between middle-leaders low level of extraversion and openness to experience and CTE. However, no correlations between personality-traits and CTE were found when the RS of the school was percieved as high.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-26">The role of extraversion in low and high RS schools</hd> <p>There are several potential reasons for these intriguing findings. The negative relationship between extraversion and CTE under low RS may be attributed to two factors. Firstly, <emph>dominance of communication</emph>: Extraverted individuals, being outgoing and sociable, may dominate communication and decision-making processes within a school (Pickett et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref127">59</reflink>]). This dominance can overshadow teachers' contributions and opinions, reducing their sense of ownership and engagement in decision-making. Consequently, teachers may experience decreased motivation and report lower CTE. Secondly, <emph>limited input from teachers</emph>: In resource-limited schools, collaborative efforts and teacher input are vital for problem-solving (García-Martínez et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref128">30</reflink>]). However, an extraverted middle-leader, with their assertiveness and vocal nature (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref129">63</reflink>]), may unintentionally downplay teachers' input and contributions. This imbalance in perspectives and ideas could result in missed opportunities to leverage the collective expertise of the teaching staff, ultimately leading to lower CTE.</p> <p>Third, <emph>focus on external relations</emph>: Extraverted leaders may prioritise external ties and interactions, such as networking with stakeholders or advocating for resources (Pickett et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref130">59</reflink>]), which can be beneficial for a school with low RS. However, this focus on external relations may come at the expense of internal communication and teacher collaboration (Lebin et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref131">45</reflink>]). As a result, teachers may feel disconnected, unsupported, and less effective in their day-to-day work, which can negatively impact their CTE as a team. Finally, <emph>neglect of individual differences</emph>: Extraverted leaders may have a natural preference for socialising and may thrive in environments that are more stimulating and fast-paced (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref132">63</reflink>]). However, teachers have diverse personalities. An extraverted middle-leader who does not take into account these individual differences may inadvertently create a school culture that is more suited to extraverted teachers while neglecting the needs and contributions of other teachers (Lebin et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref133">45</reflink>]). This can result in an environment that leads to less CTE.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-27">The role of openness to experience in low RS schools</hd> <p>Similarly, several potential reasons explain why a low RS school's middle-leader's openness to experience personality correlates with low CTE levels. First, Openness to experience, which relates to <emph>risk-taking and trying new things</emph> (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref134">22</reflink>]), can be particularly challenging in resource-limited schools. Risk-taking may be perceived as being particularly risky or unfeasible in these settings. A more open middle-leader might encourage unfeasible or unrealistic new approaches due to the low RS, leading to a gap between the leader's expectations and teachers' actual abilities, resulting in frustration and reduced effectiveness. Second, <emph>neglecting practical solutions</emph>: Openness to experience correlates with a preference for novelty and creativity preference (Roos & Kazemi, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref135">63</reflink>]). However, in a low RS school, practical, resource-efficient solutions may be essential. A more open middle-leader might prioritize creative approaches that require more resources or time, diverting from more practical, feasible solutions implementable within resource constraints (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref136">43</reflink>]), thus impeding CTE in realizing and executing realistic, achievable solutions.</p> <p>Third, <emph>distracted by new ideas</emph>: Middle-leaders who are more open to experiences may be more receptive to new ideas and may constantly seek out new information, perspectives, and initiatives (Costa & McCrae, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref137">22</reflink>]). While this can stimulate creativity and innovation, it may also result in a lack of focus and direction. In a school with low RS, it is important for the middle-leader to prioritise and allocate resources effectively to address immediate needs (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref138">43</reflink>]). A middle-leader who is too open to experiences may become distracted by new ideas or initiatives, leading to a lack of clear direction and guidance for the teachers, which can reduce their CTE. Finally, <emph>mismatched expectations</emph>: Openness to experience might result in a middle-leader having high expectations for change not aligning with the school's low RS reality (Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref139">77</reflink>]). This creates a mismatch between expectations and what's achievable. If expectations are too high, it can lead to disappointment, frustration, and a sense of unmet expectations among teachers, in turn reducing their team motivation and efficacy.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-28">The role of conscientiousness and the absence of RS moderation</hd> <p>Regarding conscientiousness's relationship to CTE, no RS moderating influences were found. This outcome could be due to several factors. While conscientiousness is crucial for individual leadership effectiveness (Benoliel, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref140">13</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref141">15</reflink>]), it's multifaceted (Do & Minbashian, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref142">27</reflink>]) and its CTE impacts in school settings may not hinge on one factor. The teaching environment's dynamics, such as diverse teaching styles and teacher motivations, might overshadow middle-leaders' conscientiousness activation. Additionally, RS's moderating role could be overestimated with factors like school culture, professional development, or leadership styles possibly playing larger roles. Further research should explore these factors and clarify the interplay between personality traits, leadership, and CTE in schools.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-29">Reciprocal relationship between CTE and RS</hd> <p>The reciprocal relationship between Collective Teacher Efficacy (CTE) and Resource Support (RS) can be understood through Bandura's social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the interplay between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors (Bandura, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref143">9</reflink>]). High levels of CTE can lead to more effective teaching practices and improved student outcomes, which in turn can attract additional resources and support from stakeholders, creating a positive feedback loop (Goddard et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref144">32</reflink>]). Conversely, increased RS can enhance teachers' perceptions of their collective efficacy by providing the necessary tools and environment to implement effective teaching strategies (Voelkel & Chrispeels, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref145">79</reflink>]). This dynamic interaction suggests that improvements in one area can lead to enhancements in the other, highlighting the importance of fostering both CTE and RS to achieve optimal educational outcomes (Donohoo et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref146">28</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-30">Limitations and future studies</hd> <p>Future research should consider several study limitations. The data was primarily self-reported and retrospective, making it biased. Self-reported data, however, may not be as limited as previously believed, as people frequently assess their social surroundings accurately, according to a prior study (Alper et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref147">5</reflink>]). Second, the study's design prevents direct proof of causal relationships between personality factors and CTE. The causal chain may theoretically be reversed. Reverse causality also cannot be ruled out. Therefore, to further support the causal findings proposed here, future research would be well advised to employ longitudinal designs. (Maxwell & Cole, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref148">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition, while this study provides insights into the relationship between personality-traits and CTE, further research is required to fully understand these mechanisms. For example, how leadership styles, such as transactional or laissez-faire, interact with RS to influence CTE should be explored (Bass & Avolio, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref149">11</reflink>]). The sample only included middle-leaders and teachers from secondary schools, making it difficult to extrapolate results to elementary educational systems, where staff demographics might change. The research was not conducted in a representative educational setting for all Israeli sectors, complicating the extrapolation of findings to other sectors. This study examined only selected outcomes. Future studies could explore integrating several Big-Five typology personality-traits on CTE, given that these traits do not operate in isolation but rather interact in intricate ways (Digman, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref150">26</reflink>]). This study focused solely on the relationship between personality-traits and CTE, overlooking other potential factors influencing CTE outcomes, such as organisational factors (e.g., organisational commitment, organisational resilience) or external pressures. Including these in future studies would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of factors affecting CTE in education (Hoy & Tarter, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref151">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>Furthermore, the quantitative nature of this study presents inherent limitations. While quantitative methods allow for statistical analysis and generalization, they may not capture the full complexity and nuance of human experiences and perceptions related to personality traits and collective teacher efficacy. The use of standardized measures, while enabling comparability, may not fully reflect the contextual factors that influence CTE in different school environments (Plano Clark, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref152">60</reflink>]). To address these limitations and gain more in-depth insights, future research could benefit from mixed-methods approaches. Qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or case studies could provide rich, contextual data to complement quantitative findings. These methods could explore the lived experiences of teachers and leaders, uncovering how personality traits manifest in daily interactions and decision-making processes that affect CTE (Merriam & Tisdell, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref153">56</reflink>]). Ethnographic studies could offer valuable insights into the cultural and social dynamics within schools that influence the relationship between personality traits and CTE (Hammersley & Atkinson, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref154">33</reflink>]). Additionally, longitudinal studies could track changes in CTE over time, providing a more dynamic understanding of how personality traits and other factors influence CTE throughout a school year or across multiple years. This approach could help identify critical periods or events that significantly impact CTE development (Singer & Willett, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref155">73</reflink>]). Incorporating observational data could also enhance the validity of the findings by providing an external perspective on teacher behaviors and interactions that contribute to CTE. This could help mitigate the limitations of self-reported data and offer a more comprehensive view of the school environment (Angrosino, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref156">6</reflink>]). Finally, comparative studies across different educational contexts, cultures, and school types could provide valuable insights into the generalizability of the findings and highlight how contextual factors may moderate the relationship between personality traits and CTE (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref157">80</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-31">Conceptual and practical implications</hd> <p>The present study has theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, this study expands the extant literature on personality-traits and CTE by highlighting the importance of considering RS (Haug & Mork, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref158">35</reflink>]; Torphy et al., [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref159">77</reflink>]). The theoretical significance of this study lies in its insightful examination of the moderating impact of RS on the association between personality-traits and CTE in schools. The study provides a more nuanced view of the relationship between personality-traits from the Big-Five typology and CTE, showing that RS plays a key role in shaping this relationship. These results expand our understanding of the complex interplay among personality, resources, and teacher outcomes.</p> <p>The practical implications of this research benefit educational institutions and policymakers focused on enhancing teacher outcomes. The findings highlight the necessity of providing adequate RS to middle-leaders for leveraging personality traits and nurturing CTE. Extraverted middle-leaders bring strengths to school settings, such as inspiring and motivating others (Pickett et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref160">59</reflink>]), but should consider diverse teacher needs and contributions. Therefore, strategies to balance communication dominance and cooperation, leveraging teacher expertise, should be devised. Similarly, middle-leaders open to experiences should consider practical constraints and limitations, striving for balance, fostering practical solutions, and offering clear guidance in resource-limited situations. These insights can inform teacher professional development programmes, resource allocation decisions, and professional development initiatives to optimise teacher CTE.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 The hypothesized 1. The moderating role of resource support in the relationship between extraversion and collective teachers efficacy</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 The hypothesized 3. The moderating role of resource support in the relationship between openness to experience and collective teachers efficacy</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-32">Funding</hd> <p>Open access funding provided by Bar-Ilan University.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-33">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182421365-34">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors have no actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.</p> <hd id="AN0182421365-35">Publisher's note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0182421365-36"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref53" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abad FJ, Sorrel MA, Garcia LF, Aluja A. 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Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Sage.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang J, Yin K, Li S. Leader extraversion and team performance: A moderated mediation model. PLOS ONE. 2022; 17; 12: 1-15. 10.1371/journal.pone.0278769</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Ayala Zadok Ayala Zadok is a Ph.D. specializing in Leadership, Organizational Development, and Policy in Education at Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel. She also serves as a Knowledge Management Lead, in the R&D Unit for Innovative and Experimental Schools at the Israeli Ministry of Education. With over 30 years of experience in education, Ayala's research focuses on middleleadership, Big Five personality traits, collective teacher efficacy, transformational leadership, and organizational resilience. Her work aims to enhance school management systems and improve educational outcomes. ayala.zadok2@gmail.com.</p> <p>Pascale Benoliel Pascale Benoliel Ph.D. Associate Professor, Head, Leadership, Organizational Development and Policy in Education, Faculty of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Israel. Pascale is also the head of the International Affairs Unit of the Faculty of Education. In addition, Pascale serves as the Head of the Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion unit at the Faculty of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Israel. Pascale's research interests include leadership in minorities, team leadership, boundary management, participative leadership, and systems thinking within the educational context. She also focuses on global education governance and cross-cultural and comparative research, combining quantitative and qualitative research. Pascale Benoliel is the corresponding Author of the article and can be contacted at pascale.benoliel@biu.ac.il.</p> <p>Chen Schechter Chen Schechter Ph.D., Professor, leadership, organizational development and policy in education, Faculty of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Israel. Chen is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Educational Administration. He also serves as Head of MOFET National Institute for Research and Development in Education. Chen's research interests include school leadership, leadership development/preparation, educational change/reform in accountability systems, learning from success, collaborative learning strategies, and systems thinking leadership. chen.schechter@biu.ac.il.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref86"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref97"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref98"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref110"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref111"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref113"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref116"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref120"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref124"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref128"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref146"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref148"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref149"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref150"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref152"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref153"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref154"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref155"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref157"></nolink>
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  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: School Middle Leaders' Personality Traits and Collective Teachers' Efficacy: The Moderating Role of Resource Support
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ayala+Zadok%22">Ayala Zadok</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Pascale+Benoliel%22">Pascale Benoliel</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8896-7889">0000-0001-8896-7889</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chen+Schechter%22">Chen Schechter</searchLink>
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  Label: Source
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2025 28(1).
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Collectivism%22">Collectivism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+School+Teachers%22">Middle School Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Extraversion+Introversion%22">Extraversion Introversion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hebrew%22">Hebrew</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Schools%22">Religious Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Arabic%22">Arabic</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+Schools%22">Secondary Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Judaism%22">Judaism</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Role+of+Religion%22">Role of Religion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Resource+Allocation%22">Resource Allocation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Resources%22">Educational Resources</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Achievement+Need%22">Achievement Need</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Characteristics%22">Teacher Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Control%22">Self Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Productivity%22">Productivity</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Israel%22">Israel</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11218-024-09982-4
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  Data: 1381-2890<br />1573-1928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Drawing upon trait-activation-theory, this study explores the moderating role of resource support in the relationship of middle-leaders' personality traits, namely extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness to collective teacher efficacy. The study used a two-source survey design with data from 609 participants: middle-leaders and teachers in 103 secondary schools in Israel. The findings reveal that resource support served as a moderator in the relationship of the personality traits of extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy. Specifically, when resource support was low, negative correlations between middle-leaders' extraversion and openness to experience and collective teacher efficacy were found. However, no correlations were found when resource support was high. No significant influence of resource support was found on the relationship of conscientiousness to collective teacher efficacy. This study adds and deepen our understanding regarding the complex interplay among middle-leaders' personality traits, school resources support and collective teacher efficacy, emphasising the need for adequate resource support to maximise middle-leader traits' influences and to promote collective teacher efficacy. These findings have significant practical implications for teacher and teaching education, teacher development programmes and practices, resource allocation decisions, and professional development initiatives.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1458317
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        Value: 10.1007/s11218-024-09982-4
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      – Text: English
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      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Collectivism
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      – SubjectFull: Middle School Teachers
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
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      – TitleFull: School Middle Leaders' Personality Traits and Collective Teachers' Efficacy: The Moderating Role of Resource Support
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              Y: 2025
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