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Toward a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading

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Title: Toward a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading
Language: English
Authors: Kindel Turner Nash (ORCID 0000-0002-1148-0826), Roderick Peele, Kerry Elson, Alicia Arce, Erik Sumner, Bilal Polson
Source: Reading Research Quarterly. 2025 60(1).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 23
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Descriptors: Culturally Relevant Education, Reading, Cognitive Processes, Reading Processes, Situated Learning, Student Diversity, Cultural Differences, Language Variation, Well Being, Emergent Literacy, Early Childhood Education, Reading Instruction, Participatory Research, High Achievement, Early Childhood Teachers, Longitudinal Studies, Minority Group Students, Ethnic Diversity, Reading Skills, Disadvantaged, Power Structure, Theory Practice Relationship, Research and Development
DOI: 10.1002/rrq.583
ISSN: 0034-0553
1936-2722
Abstract: This article highlights a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR), a complex reader model illuminated by vivid findings from an eight-year collaborative classroom-based study and extensive reviews of cognitive and sociocultural research. Within the CSVR, reading is conceptualized as being shaped by a readers' culturally and linguistically situated knowledge (ways of knowing), experiences and relationships (ways of being), and cognitive reading processes (ways of reading) which overlap and interact through the non-linear, active process of culturally mediated cognition. In extending the CSVR, the authors hope to supplant long- standing false dichotomies between the cognitive and sociocultural functions within the human experience of reading. In doing so, we hope to advance ideas about how learning to read can foster cultural sustenance--with children and their lifeways centered as full and complete.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1458568
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183756683;[nrnu]01jan.25;2025Apr04.08:23;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183756683-1">Toward a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading </title> <p>This article highlights a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR), a complex reader model illuminated by vivid findings from an eight‐year collaborative classroom‐based study and extensive reviews of cognitive and sociocultural research. Within the CSVR, reading is conceptualized as being shaped by a readers' culturally and linguistically situated knowledge (ways of knowing), experiences and relationships (ways of being), and cognitive reading processes (ways of reading) which overlap and interact through the non‐linear, active process of culturally mediated cognition. In extending the CSVR, the authors hope to supplant long‐ standing false dichotomies between the cognitive and sociocultural functions within the human experience of reading. In doing so, we hope to advance ideas about how learning to read can foster cultural sustenance—with children and their lifeways centered as full and complete.</p> <p>This article highlights a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR), a complex reader model illuminated by vivid findings from an eight‐year collaborative classroom‐based study and extensive reviews of cognitive and sociocultural research. Within the CSVR, reading is conceptualized as being shaped by a readers' culturally and linguistically situated knowledge (ways of knowing), experiences and relationships (ways of being), and cognitive reading processes (ways of reading) which overlap and interact through the non‐linear, active process of culturally mediated cognition.</p> <p>Keywords: Culture; Literacy; Methodological perspectives; Theoretical perspectices; Language learners</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-2">"I am the Universe."—Remi, 8 Years Old</hd> <p>One year, Roderick Peele, an elementary school teacher in Uniondale, New York, read aloud <emph>The Me I Choose to Be</emph> by Natasha Tarpley to his third‐grade class as part of a poetry unit asking: "How can poetry inspire us?" This book features photographic images of children in futuristic dress: the cover image portrays a regal, dark brown‐skinned young girl dressed in silver fabric, wearing a silver mask over her eyes, with a planet‐like sphere cupped in her outstretched palm. After the read aloud, children in Roderick's class exclaimed, "I want to look like that!" "I want to dress like that!"</p> <p>One student, Remi (a pseudonym), whose family had recently immigrated to New York from Haiti, was fascinated by the futuristic illustrations. He told Roderick, "When I was living in Haiti, I would be outside and I could see the stars—I felt like I could reach out and touch the universe, like I was the universe. We would go outside every night to touch the stars. It was our escape."</p> <p>Inspired by Remi's fascination with the sky, Roderick decided to engage students in a green screen photoshoot and multimodal poetry writing activity. After dressing up for the photoshoot, students chose their green screen background and then wrote poetically in response to the self‐images they created. On the day of his photoshoot, Remi came to school in a full astronaut costume—complete with helmet, white space suit, and red, white, and black shoes! Later, as he looked at images of himself taken in front of the green screen made to look like the night sky, he said, "This is how it felt in Haiti; the clear skies."</p> <p>Remi wanted to write poetically in response to his photo; however, he struggled to connect the English phonemes to his Alfabé Kreyól (the Haitian Creole Alphabet), which he grew up hearing and speaking. To support Remi's goal, Roderick and other teachers provided daily support and intensive phonics and phonological awareness intervention, grounded in his language and interests. Also, each day, at school and at home, Remi read voluminously across the many genres of books about space available in Roderick's classroom library and engaged in many conversations about his heritage with his teachers and peers. Remi even shared knowledge of the topography of Haiti with his classmates via Google Earth during morning meeting.</p> <p>Remi eventually wrote the poetic words:</p> <p>I am Haiti/I am the place where I/can live in the stars/I remember the nights/ I am amazing/I am what I choose to be/I think I am the universe.</p> <p>He shared his poetry and photoshoot image with his teachers and members of his class enthusiastically; though they had some difficulty understanding him, they listened supportively, asking questions about Haiti, about the sky, about the universe.</p> <p>Remi's poem and image (Figure 1) encapsulates a central premise of the Cultural Sustenance View of Reading; that children are full people, full humans, full of a universe of ways of knowing, being, and engaging in reading that are mediated by their social, linguistic, and cultural worlds.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/01Jan25/rrq583-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq583-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 I Am the Universe" /> </p> <p></p> <p>The CSVR arises from extensive analysis of the research literature on the role of culture in the cognitive task of reading development, and our engagement as co‐researchers in a multi‐year qualitative research project. We sought understandings about what culturally sustaining pedagogies (Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref1">119</reflink>]) are <emph>already working</emph> (Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref2">84</reflink>]) when enacted by high‐performing public school teachers serving racial, linguistic, and ethnic populations of young children historically ignored and marginalized in schools (Nash & Panther, [<reflink idref="bib109" id="ref3">109</reflink>]; Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref4">107</reflink>]). Culturally sustaining pedagogies seek to normalize rather than eradicate the cultural ways of being of communities who have been marginalized by schools—through critically centering dynamic community knowledge, valuing community accountability, historicizing content and instruction, fostering a capacity to contend with systems of oppression, working in reciprocal relationship with the land, and curricularizing these features in learning, teaching, assessment, and curriculum (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref5">107</reflink>]; Paris, [<reflink idref="bib118" id="ref6">118</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-4">Collaborative Research Methodologies</hd> <p>In efforts to counter continuous deficit‐framing of historically ignored communities, the purpose of our collaborative research study was to understand how high‐performing teachers and school leaders of culturally and linguistically diverse children support and foster children's cultural sustenance and academic and socioemotional well‐being through instructional, curricular, and assessment practices and processes. As co‐researchers since 2016, we (Kindel Turner Nash, Roderick Peele, Kerry Elson, Alcia Arce, Erik Sumner, and Bilal Polson) have explored the research question: <emph>What are the culturally sustaining practices of high‐performing early literacy teachers?</emph> To unearth answers to this question, we have been researching culturally sustaining pedagogies' (CSPs) evolving features (Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref7">119</reflink>] in Ferlazzo, 2017; Paris, [<reflink idref="bib118" id="ref8">118</reflink>]) and what they look like in early literacy practice. The national qualitative study drew from Projects in Humanization, critical ethnography, and critical constructivist grounded theory methodologies (Bhattacharya, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref9">14</reflink>]; Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref10">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref11">32</reflink>]; San Pedro & Kinloch, [<reflink idref="bib128" id="ref12">128</reflink>]). Our research has been participatory—we are co‐participants, collaborators, co‐authors, co‐conspirators (Fine, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref13">50</reflink>]; Love, [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref14">90</reflink>]). This collaborative approach is important given the nature of culturally sustaining pedagogies, which necessitate humanizing, relational research rooted in "the convergence of theory and practice, theory and method, which allows us to be invited into relationships where we dialogically listen and give back to the stories shared and questions that arise with others" (San Pedro & Kinloch, [<reflink idref="bib128" id="ref15">128</reflink>], p. 377S). Originally, the study included 60 high‐performing US teachers from four richly diverse public schools located in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States. These schools were purposively selected (Corbin & Strauss, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref16">37</reflink>]) based on prior relationships with school personnel and standardized literacy measures showing that the teacher's students obtained 1–2 years of growth in a single school year. Via theoretical sampling in which data are iteratively collected to shed light on the emergent theory (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref17">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref18">32</reflink>]; Levitt, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref19">88</reflink>]), over time, the longitudinal research with Kindel Turner Nash, a university researcher, has become centered on four educators, Roderick Peele, Alicia Arce, Kerry Elson, and Erik Sumner, and a focal principal, Bilal Polson, in two schools in the Northeastern U.S. The school contexts, our onto‐epistemic positioning as researchers, and descriptions of data collection and analytic methods are described in the sections below.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-5">School Contexts</hd> <p>At Kerry's school of 360 students, eighty‐one percent of students are of Color‐‐about 40% Latinx, 32% Black, 7% Interracial, and 5% Asian. Each year, children in her class speak many different heritage languages including Spanish, Haitian Creole, Mandarin, French, Arabic, Hebrew, African American language among others.</p> <p>Roderick, Alicia, Erik, and Bilal's school is also a richly plural context, with an ethnically diverse population of over 600 students. Most children and families at their school identify as Latinx and Black; some have recently immigrated from Central and South America and the Caribbean, representing many countries including El Salvador, Jamaica, Honduras, Columbia, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-6">A remembering of our Past Lives</hd> <p>Rather than a traditional "positionality statement," Boveda and Annamma ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref20">20</reflink>]) argue for "onto‐epistemic positioning" which "requires us as researchers to explicitly grapple with, throughout the inquiry process, what our assumptions about reality, truth, and knowledge mean for research" (p. 311). This is important, as "all discovery is a remembering of past lives" (Plato as cited in Polanyi, [<reflink idref="bib122" id="ref21">122</reflink>], p. 22). Our collective interest in cultural perspectives of reading and CSPs comes from a remembering of our past lives—our ways of being and doing and knowing and reading in which our families and communities have immersed us; these in turn inform our onto‐epistemological assumptions and positioning.</p> <p>Alicia is a bilingual (Spanish‐English) teacher who has taught all grades except PK‐1 in her school for the past 16 years. Cultural traditions from her paternal Mexican and maternal Paraguayan have framed her experiences with literacy and language. Alicia's family annually honors loved ones through ofrendas placed in a home altar during Día de los Muertos. Alicia's mother speaks Guaraní, the indigenous language of Paraguay, and although she does not read and write the language, it is preserved in the family through singing songs and sharing oral stories.</p> <p>Roderick, Erik, and Bilal have always experienced literacy as part of tradition of excellence within their Black communities and histories. Roderick, a Black man from North Carolina who has taught elementary grades and special education for over a decade, remembers how every person he knew growing up had a complete set of the <emph>Encyclopedia Britannica</emph> at home. Black families made sacrifices to purchase these books because they valued literacy excellence and wanted to ensure their children and grandchildren did too. Erik, an elementary art teacher, is a Black man, and has been in education for more than 20 years. He recalls a fascination for reading comic books and magazines as a child—a passion encouraged by his family. Bilal is Afro‐Latino, and principal of the school where Roderick, Alicia, and Erik teach. An artist with a background in music production and dance, he has always been highly engaged in a cultural and textual lineage (Tatum, [<reflink idref="bib142" id="ref22">142</reflink>]) that builds from the hip‐hop activism movement. In that way, Bilal identifies strongly with the artistry of the teachers he supervises. Kindel is a cisgender white woman who was an elementary educator of Black and Brown students for a decade. Kindel is connected to the Black community by marriage and children. The culture and values of Appalachia have framed her family's lifeways—her Dad talked of weekly quilting nights that brought out a rare liveliness in his mother. Yet as they stitched quilts, they preserved English, Scottish, and Irish sewing traditions while syncretically building on local Indigenous and Quaker influences. When Kerry, a cisgender, multilingual white woman who has been teaching in the early grades for 14 years, was growing up, her family participated in activities rooted in her father's Catholic, Scottish‐Canadian heritage. Every December, Kerry's family celebrated Christmas by seeing the Christmas Revels, a folk song and dance troupe. Kerry's father has enjoyed singing throughout his life and has made up funny songs about Kerry and her sister. Kerry has, in turn, taken on this interest in singing and regularly makes up funny songs both in her classroom and outside of school.</p> <p>Thus, we bring racial, cultural, and linguistic traditions, experiences and values to our research and educational practice. We grew up immersed in languages and literacies deeply connected to multiple communities and knowledge(s). Our families and communities have gifted us with a universe of knowledge, experiences, relationships, and talents. It is no surprise that we call ourselves storytellers, artists, educators, leaders, researchers.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-7">Research Methods</hd> <p>Projects in Humanization (PiH), critical ethnography, and critical constructivist grounded theory have informed our ongoing research. Humanizing research methods are driven by efforts to understand how ways of knowing, being, and doing unfold in structurally inequitable spaces such as schools (Bhattacharya, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref23">14</reflink>]). Humanizing projects call for researchers to work with/in communities to "co‐construct and implement solutions based on local knowledges and realities" (San Pedro & Kinloch, [<reflink idref="bib128" id="ref24">128</reflink>], p. 380S). Like PiH, both critical ethnography and critical constructivist grounded theory also demand careful attention to how knowledge is historically, socially, and culturally situated and constructed over time in research spaces (Bhattacharya, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref25">14</reflink>]; Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref26">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]; Levitt, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref28">88</reflink>]). Thus, critical ethnography and critical constructivist grounded theory have methodologically affirmed the purpose of our PiH, to seek solutions to complex problems like continuous deficit‐framing of the cultures and languages of historically ignored communities, framings which are often the result of ongoing oppression. Centering inductive, emergent methods to engage critical questions that arise during the research en route to theory development (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref29">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref30">32</reflink>]), these methods have helped us to develop the CSVR.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-8">Data Collection</hd> <p>Collection of data has included periodic in‐person, phone, and video conferencing in and out of school, semi‐structured interviews, reflective memos, and collection and sharing of artifacts and notes (student work, photos, ideas, problems, insights). Over the eight‐year project, we have spent more than 200 hours of time together in classroom interactions, observations, and discussions, collected hundreds of artifacts and reflections, amassed more than 100 hours of video and audio data, and engaged in about 50 hours of phenomenological, semi‐structured interviews (Seidman, [<reflink idref="bib131" id="ref31">131</reflink>]). We store data in a password‐protected shared folder organized by school and year. More than mere data collection transactions, our extended time together has involved engaging in dialogic spirals "whereby the process of listening and speaking co‐creates an area of trust between speakers—the space between" (San Pedro, [<reflink idref="bib127" id="ref32">127</reflink>], p. 117). These dialogic spaces have often occurred in the classroom before, during, and after Kindel visited for observations over the course of several weeks each year, but also via other in‐person and virtual formats. For example, Roderick conveyed the story of Remi that opens this article via a voice thread message. He then sent photo artifacts from the poetry unit via email, Google Drive, and text message. Roderick and Kindel then engaged in a several conversations and a semi‐structured interview about Remi and the practices that supported his languaging, writing, and literacy.</p> <p>Other times, we meet collectively (in person and virtually) to dialogue and write about implementation of culturally sustaining pedagogies. For several years, we met virtually nearly every Tuesday evening to conference and reflect about the ongoing study. Other years, we engaged in data retreats where we spent time, over the course of several days, writing and reflecting on our data. Along with the long‐term nature of our work, such multiple data sources and collective, humanizing, dialogic discussions using a constant comparison approach have supported triangulation and crystallization of emerging findings, and ultimately, facilitated theory‐making (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref33">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref34">32</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-9">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Consistent with PiH, critical ethnographic, and critical constructivist grounded theory methods, data analysis has involved ongoing dialogue, creating spaces‐in‐between‐and‐ beyond‐researcher‐and‐researched as we have posed critical questions and constantly compared emerging themes and patterns to form core categories (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref35">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref36">32</reflink>]; Levitt, [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref37">88</reflink>]; San Pedro & Kinloch, [<reflink idref="bib128" id="ref38">128</reflink>]). This collaborative and dialogic data analytic process honors our humanity and collective work as educators, creates space for us to co‐theorize, and extends our collective ways of knowledge‐making across the many interconnected layers of life and research. Like most critical qualitative inquiry, our data analysis process has been inductive rather than deductive (Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref39">31</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref40">32</reflink>]; Lincoln & Guba, [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref41">89</reflink>]). Inductive analysis necessitates individual and collective synthesis of thematic patterns. As each co‐researcher coded data independently, we created our own reflective memos and data descriptors based on observations of patterns. Then, in collective dialogue via regular meetings and data retreats, patterns were "constantly compared" (Corbin & Strauss, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref42">37</reflink>]; Glaser & Strauss, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref43">59</reflink>]) with other data sources to saturate the data categories and triangulate and crystallize emerging themes about the ways that the teachers implement practices that foster cultural sustenance. Collapsing and synthesizing themes, we identified an overarching finding; that <emph>culturally sustaining literacy teaching that centers children and families' cultural and linguistic lifeways is multifaceted and involves interconnected literacy teaching practices and processes which are informed by and situated within school policies and the larger context of nation‐states</emph> (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref44">105</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref45">107</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within this overarching finding, we collaboratively identified sub‐findings related to technical literacy processes and practices that align with the features of CSPs. For example, how the teachers critically center children as full people in and through reading and writing instruction that honors and extends language varieties and heritage languages, and how they foster agency and belongingness through classroom procedures and processes at the beginning of the school year, etc. We have written and shared these findings extensively (Elson et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref46">48</reflink>]; Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib110" id="ref47">110</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref48">105</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref49">108</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref50">107</reflink>]). Consistent with the critical constructivist theory‐generating process (Bryant & Charmaz, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref51">24</reflink>]), we have compared our findings with extensive reviews of the literature on the cultural and cognitive roots of reading development, as well as with the current socio‐political reading discourse which has focused on the science of reading. For example, during one of our Tuesday night meetings in May of 2021, we discussed Duke and Cartwright's ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref52">45</reflink>]) article about the Active View of Reading (AVR) which appeared in a special issue about the science of reading in this journal (<emph>Reading Research Quarterly</emph>). In this research meeting, we articulated that while AVR and other contemporary models of reading described important technical aspects of reading, or <emph>ways of reading</emph>, they did not fully capture the central mediating role of culture in reading development as we saw it unfolding in classroom and school practice and research. In this way, our research findings have led us to generate a model of reading development that <emph>centers</emph> culture that we hope will be useful to practitioners and researchers.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-10">The Centrality of Culture in Reading Development</hd> <p>Culture is central to reading development. Culture is defined as a cultural group's knowledge production process, occurring as people respond to and understand their realities (Love, [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref53">90</reflink>]; Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref54">73</reflink>]). Culture is the complex, often messy, dynamic constellation of a group's ways of living (Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib125" id="ref55">125</reflink>]). Perception, memory, and intellect are generated and reinforced by and within cultural contexts (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref56">73</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref57">148</reflink>]). Culture also comprises systems of shared meaning‐making and repertoires of practice within communities (Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib125" id="ref58">125</reflink>]). Recent research troubles static notions of culture as a "container" to illustrate how people "live culture in incredibly rich and complex ways" and, importantly, within multiple cultural communities (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref59">111</reflink>], p. xviii). Culture is not merely a factor that influences human development, human development is cultural in nature (Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib125" id="ref60">125</reflink>]). Our cultures wrap around us like the sky, or like a quilt, stitching our lives together and keeping us whole; they are the lifeways that sustain our communities (Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref61">119</reflink>]).</p> <p>Illustrating the importance of leveraging students' culture and language as assets in teaching reading through "cultural modeling," Carol D. Lee ([<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref62">85</reflink>]) found that when teachers provide students from historically marginalized groups with cultural and linguistic scaffolds to facilitate their reading of school literary texts, students were fully able to participate in the act of reading with skill and increased proficiency. Our study's examination of Alicia's mediation of small group reading one year as she taught a second‐grade bilingual class provides another instantiation of the way culture and language can be leveraged in teaching reading to those historically ignored in schools. For example, Alicia dynamically grouped her multilingual students based on evolving, hybrid identities, intentionally selected texts that reflected her students' syncretic repertoires of practice, invited students to drive in‐the‐moment instruction, centered students' languages through translanguaged writing and talking across and about texts, and continuously worked toward mutual interdependence or confianza, a feeling of mutual trust that permeates relationships (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref63">106</reflink>]). Alicia's instruction stands in contrast to common small group reading approaches that use only English, focus on isolated‐skills, and use culturally irrelevant texts—practices that uphold linguicism by viewing heritage languages, literacies, and practices as supplemental. By intentionally drawing from cultural practices that fostered interdependence, and selecting and using culturally relevant, multilingual texts, Alicia showed that students' languages, literacies, and knowledges were valuable in and of themselves (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref64">106</reflink>]).</p> <p>These two examples are part of an accretion of research evidence highlighting the way that cultural experiences and linguistic knowledge non‐linearly mediate the cognitive and emotional self‐regulation skills that support reading (Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref65">28</reflink>]; Taboada Barber et al., [<reflink idref="bib140" id="ref66">140</reflink>]) and literacy and language development (Baker‐Bell, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref67">9</reflink>]; Elson et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref68">48</reflink>]; Gutiérrez, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref69">64</reflink>]; Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref70">73</reflink>], Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref71">83</reflink>]; Lee, [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref72">87</reflink>]; Moll & Gonzalez,[<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref73">102</reflink>]; Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref74">107</reflink>]; Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref75">119</reflink>]; Pennell et al., [<reflink idref="bib120" id="ref76">120</reflink>]; Proctor et al., [<reflink idref="bib124" id="ref77">124</reflink>]; Skerrett, [<reflink idref="bib133" id="ref78">133</reflink>]; Smitherman, [<reflink idref="bib135" id="ref79">135</reflink>]; Yaden, [<reflink idref="bib159" id="ref80">159</reflink>]; Yaden Jr et al., [<reflink idref="bib160" id="ref81">160</reflink>]; Zentella, [<reflink idref="bib163" id="ref82">163</reflink>]). Much of the above‐cited knowledge base about the cultural roots and applications of reading and literacy development and approaches to reading instruction arises from qualitative, classroom‐based research studies (Skerrett, [<reflink idref="bib133" id="ref83">133</reflink>]). However, recent quantitative studies of reading by cognitive psychologists, (e.g., Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref84">25</reflink>], Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref85">45</reflink>] and Kim, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref86">79</reflink>]) have also highlighted the ways cultural knowledge interacts with the cognitive reading processes of word recognition and language comprehension. In fact, three recent meta‐analyses highlight that cultural knowledge predicts reading development more than any other factor such as word recognition, self‐regulation skills, or language comprehension (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref87">25</reflink>]; Hwang & Duke, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref88">75</reflink>]; Talwar et al., [<reflink idref="bib141" id="ref89">141</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-11">Critical Research‐to‐Practice Gaps</hd> <p>Culture is central to the reading process; however, it has not been privileged in popular reading discourse and policy, creating critical research gaps. In the most recent volume of the <emph>Handbook of Reading Research</emph> Moje et al. ([<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref90">101</reflink>]) connect four critical reading research gaps to "a lack of consistent and positive student reading performance" (p. 501):</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <emph>Translational research gap</emph> —a gap between knowledge gleaned from research in controlled, lab‐based studies and their translation to classroom settings.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Implementation gap</emph> —a gap between what researchers describe as effective and what is implemented in classrooms.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Relevance gap</emph> —a gap between findings from market‐based reading research that occurs in "optimal conditions" (e.g., well‐resourced curriculum and professional development) and their relevance to less‐than‐optimal schools and classroom contexts.</item> <p></p> <item> <emph>Bridging gap</emph> —a gap in communication among complementary research fields with "diverse research traditions...attendant paradigms, methodologies, epistemologies, and research foci." (p. 501–502)</item> </ulist> <p>Moje et al. ([<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref91">101</reflink>]) identify the unique role of the media in the persistence of these gaps, asking:</p> <p>Are the gaps only a product of a failure to communicate across different communities of practice (i.e. research to practice, discipline to discipline, etc.)? Or do other influences mediate the closing of these gaps by presenting obstacles to a fair and full representation of reading research? One such influence worth pointing out is the media, which has a role in shaping how certain issues related to reading are framed and disseminated, or in how specific designs and results gain favor (and assume legitimacy) as they are certified by one authority or another. (Moje et al., [<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref92">101</reflink>], p. 503)</p> <p>Similarly, Teale et al. ([<reflink idref="bib143" id="ref93">143</reflink>]) identified critical gaps in early literacy research: (a) a market‐based and legislatively driven privileging of purportedly scientifically valid and experimental early literacy intervention studies focused on increasing literacy proficiency; (b) a limited response to increasingly diverse student populations despite an increase in the number of culturally and linguistically diverse students in U.S. schools (p. 202–205).</p> <p>Critical research‐to‐practice gaps also result from tacit beliefs about research and about historically marginalized communities. For example, widely disseminated ideas about reading development are fueled by research that privileges the hard sciences; such research is often inattentive to the role of sociocultural factors in the act of reading (Yaden Jr et al., [<reflink idref="bib160" id="ref94">160</reflink>]). Further, when researchers and policy‐shapers view historically marginalized communities as inherently inferior, these tacit beliefs proliferate their reading research and inform reading policy (Milner, [<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref95">99</reflink>]; Yoon, [<reflink idref="bib161" id="ref96">161</reflink>]; Willis et al., [<reflink idref="bib155" id="ref97">155</reflink>]). For example, Willis ([<reflink idref="bib154" id="ref98">154</reflink>]) points out that key national literacy research reports[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref99">1</reflink>] in the United States share a common thread of drawing on "triumphalism in an attempt to convince the public of the need for improvement of literacy instruction in beginning reading for minoritized youth" (p. 36). In other words, images and reading proficiency statistics of Black and Brown children are used to create a sense of urgency for literacy practices that often discount their lived experiences, languages, literacies, and values (Willis, [<reflink idref="bib154" id="ref100">154</reflink>]). Yet, "to be alive as a human being is to learn" thus, with Nasir et al. ([<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref101">111</reflink>]) we fundamentally disagree "with accounts of learning that routinely deny the humanity of some, or that view culture reductively in ways that limit how we understand and document human potential" (p. xviii).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-12">Models of Reading Development</hd> <p>Current models of reading development may also constrain the way researchers and teachers think about and describe culture and its role in the reading process. David Yaden, in recent articles and the 2023 presidential address to the Literacy Research Association, describes the limitations of prominent models of early literacy development that attempt to portray it as a line of regression—a fixed set of stages with isomorphic milestones that correlate with each stage. Yaden ([<reflink idref="bib159" id="ref102">159</reflink>]) encourages reading researchers to develop models that more accurately describe the non‐isomorphic (non‐correlational), historically and socioculturally embedded, non‐linear process of a child's early literacy development. Yaden has described children's literacy development as a hyperbolic plane rather than a line of regression (as cited in Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref103">108</reflink>]). A hyperbolic plane is a shape in which every part curves away from itself at every point. Artifacts of multimodal writing as you saw in the opening vignette about Remi showcase the complexity and fluid motion of children's language and literacy development. However, most widely popular models of reading, such as the Simple View of Reading (SVR), which have been used to justify certain teaching approaches in recent legislation in many states (Neuman et al., [<reflink idref="bib114" id="ref104">114</reflink>]), do not seem to account for the complex nature of reading, or the role of culture or sociocultural knowledge in literacy development.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-13">Simple View of Reading</hd> <p>The SVR (Gough & Tunmer, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref105">63</reflink>]) proposes that reading is the product of word recognition, or decoding, and language comprehension. From this view, a weakness in one domain might predict reading difficulties in another. The SVR is useful for identifying the cognitive skills that underlie early reading, yet it is limited in its consideration of factors beyond word‐level skills and language comprehension. SVR's formula does not fully account for cultural and linguistic knowledge and its role in reading (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref106">45</reflink>]; Yaden, [<reflink idref="bib159" id="ref107">159</reflink>]). For instance, for Indigenous or multilingual young readers, decoding does not predict language comprehension in the same way that it does for monolingual learners (Bonifacci & Tobia, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref108">17</reflink>]; Georgiou et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref109">58</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-14">Complex Models of Reading</hd> <p>Scarborough's Rope Model (Scarborough, [<reflink idref="bib134" id="ref110">134</reflink>]) extends the SVR's propositions to consider word recognition and language comprehension as interwoven and overlapping. The Rope Model and Nation's ([<reflink idref="bib112" id="ref111">112</reflink>]) expansion of SVR extends propositions about word recognition and language comprehension to further develop the role of context and background knowledge in learning to read. Other more complex models of reading, such as the Complete View of Reading (Francis et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref112">53</reflink>]), the Construction–Integration Model (Cervetti & Wright, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref113">30</reflink>]; Kintsch, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref114">80</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref115">81</reflink>]) and Direct and Inferential Mediation (DIME) and Direct and Indirect Effects (DIER) models, illustrate the central role of background knowledge, type of text, and the interactional, complex, multi‐componential process of reading. These models illustrate other key aspects of learning to read, such as background knowledge (DIME model‐ Ahmed et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref116">4</reflink>]) and theory of mind, defined as the ability to understand that people's mental states drive their actions (DIER model ‐ Kim, [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref117">79</reflink>]). The Complete View of Reading and the Construction–Integration Model center the construction and integration of knowledge (e.g., topic knowledge, domain knowledge, <emph>world knowledge</emph>, and <emph>cultural knowledge</emph>) in textual reading comprehension (Cervetti & Wright, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref118">30</reflink>]; Francis et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref119">53</reflink>]; Kintsch, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref120">80</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref121">81</reflink>]). A heuristic for thinking about reading comprehension developed by the Research and Development (RAND) Corporation delineates the reader, the text, and the reading task as interconnected in the development of reading comprehension which is framed by a reader's sociocultural context (Snow & RAND Reading Study Group, [<reflink idref="bib137" id="ref122">137</reflink>]). Recently, Wyse and Hacking ([<reflink idref="bib158" id="ref123">158</reflink>]) developed the "double helix model of reading and writing" which illustrates the interconnectedness of reading and writing or encoding. These more complex conceptions of reading help us understand how decoding and encoding acquisition and language comprehension are intertwined and shaped by a myriad of foundational components including background knowledge, sociocultural context, the reading task, and theory of mind.</p> <p>However, none of these complex reading models explicitly <emph>centralize</emph> the role of culture and language in reading development; instead, these are sub‐components, if present at all. Given the gaps in research about how to address the needs of a culturally and linguistically diverse population (Teale et al., [<reflink idref="bib143" id="ref124">143</reflink>]), many teachers and researchers may default to deficit connotations based on their own tacit knowledge (Sealey‐Ruiz & Greene, [<reflink idref="bib130" id="ref125">130</reflink>]; Willis, [<reflink idref="bib154" id="ref126">154</reflink>]). In other words, when culture and language are not explicitly described within a model of reading, culture becomes a code word used to "pathologize minoritized and improvised students, families, and communities, while simultaneously ignoring structural economic and social inequalities" and their impact on reading (Willis, [<reflink idref="bib154" id="ref127">154</reflink>], p. 40).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-15">Active View of Reading</hd> <p>The Active View of Reading (AVR) (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref128">45</reflink>]) is a complex reader model that is grounded in extensive analyses of the reading development literature. It expands SVR and Scarborough's rope and extends other complex models of reading. AVR describes reading as a multidimensional process in which word recognition and language comprehension are not wholly separate developmental processes but are intertwined with and by bridging processes and active self‐regulation. The AVR asserts that:</p> <p>Readers play a central role in making reading happen. In addition to acquiring necessary word‐reading and language comprehension knowledge and skills, readers must learn to regulate themselves, actively coordinate the various processes and text elements necessary for successful reading, deploy strategies to ensure reading processes go smoothly, maintain motivation, and actively engage with text. Duke and Cartwright ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref129">45</reflink>], p. 6)</p> <p>AVR thus depicts 18 core components of the reading process within four key areas, word recognition, language comprehension, bridging processes, and active self‐regulation (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref130">25</reflink>]; Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref131">45</reflink>]; Table 1). Word recognition processes include phonological awareness or conscious attention to sounds, the alphabetic principle, phonics knowledge, decoding ability, and recognition of words by sight. Language comprehension involves cultural and other knowledge, background knowledge specific to reading, verbal reasoning or thinking critically about aspects of text, language structure or understanding how an orthographic system is organized to convey meaning, and theory of mind, a social reasoning skill involving perspective taking for inferential text understanding. AVR illustrates how bridging processes link word recognition and language comprehension. Bridging processes include the alphabetic principle, print concepts, fluency, vocabulary, morphology, and grapho‐phonological‐semantic flexibility. Bridging processes "forge the essential connections among phonology, orthography, and meaning necessary for the mature orthographic mapping observed in skilled readers" (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref132">45</reflink>], p. 529). Bridging processes are crucial to consider because they have a strong impact on the reading abilities of striving readers (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref133">25</reflink>]) but young people from historically ignored racial and ethnic groups often have fewer classroom opportunities to develop bridging processes (Duke, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref134">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>1 Table Definition and Example Supporting Study (or Review of Studies) for each Construct within the Active View of Reading Model (Used with Permission)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th align="left">Construct in the model</th><th align="center">Definition of the construct</th><th align="center">Example study finding that instruction in the construct improves reading comprehension</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left">Active self‐regulation</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Motivation and engagement</td><td align="left">Reading motivation involves expecting value in, having interest in, and having a desire to read; motivation facilitates engagement, which is active participation in reading and interaction with text.</td><td align="left">McBreen and Savage (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr96">2020</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Executive function skills</td><td align="left">Higher order self‐regulatory neurocognitive processes recruited particularly in complex, goal‐directed tasks (including reading)</td><td align="left">Johann and Karbach (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr77">2019</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Strategy use</td><td align="left">"Deliberate, goal‐directed attempts to control and modify the reader's efforts to decode text, understand words, and construct meanings of text" (Afflerbach, Pearson, & Paris, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr2">2003</xref>, p. 368)</td><td align="left">Word‐reading strategies: Lovett et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr91">2000</xref>)Comprehension strategies: Okkinga et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr115">2018</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Word recognition</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left">Phonological awareness</td><td align="left">Conscious attention to the sounds in spoken language, including words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and individual phonemes (phonemic awareness)</td><td align="left">Ehri et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr46">2001</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Alphabetic principle</td><td align="left">The understanding that in alphabetic languages, sounds in spoken language are represented by letters in written language</td><td align="left">This construct is typically taught along with those above and/or below this row.</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Phonics knowledge</td><td align="left">Knowledge of specific phoneme‐grapheme relations, such as that the letters sh together typically represent the sound heard at the beginning of the word ship</td><td align="left">Connelly, Johnston, and Thompson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr34">2001</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Decoding skill</td><td align="left">The ability to associate graphemes with phonemes and to blend those phonemes to produce a word</td><td align="left">Cunningham (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38">1990</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Recognition of words at sight</td><td align="left">The ability to identify/read a word automatically or at sight, which typically results from having previously decoded the word multiple times</td><td align="left">McArthur et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr95">2015</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Bridging processes</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Print concepts</td><td align="left">Understanding of how print works, such as reading it from left to right and top to bottom in English</td><td align="left">This construct is typically taught along with others, but effects on comprehension have been found by Piasta, Justice, McGinty, and Kaderavek (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr121">2012</xref>).</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Reading fluency</td><td align="left">The accuracy, automaticity, and prosody with which a person reads</td><td align="left">Stevens, Walker, and Vaughn (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr138">2017</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Vocabulary knowledge</td><td align="left">Understanding of the denotative and connotative meanings of words and phrases within a language</td><td align="left">At least for comprehension of passages with taught words: Wright and Cervetti (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr157">2017</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Morphological awareness</td><td align="left">Awareness and knowledge of the smallest meaningful units in language, such as recognizing that returnable has three morphemes: re, turn, and able</td><td align="left">Goodwin and Ahn (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr62">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Graphophonological‐semantic cognitive flexibility</td><td align="left">The ability to simultaneously consider and actively switch between the letter sound (graphophonological) and meaning (semantic) features of printed words</td><td align="left">Cartwright et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr29">2020</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Language comprehension</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Cultural and other knowledge</td><td align="left">A body of information acquired over time through experiences, such as formal education and daily activities within one's cultural group(s)</td><td align="left">Cabell and Hwang (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr27">2020</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Reading‐specific background knowledge</td><td align="left">Knowledge specific to understanding written language, such as knowledge of common genres of written text and written text features (e.g., headings, diagrams)</td><td align="left">Hebert, Bohaty, Nelson, and Brown (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr70">2016</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Verbal reasoning</td><td align="left">Reasoning about aspects of text meaning beyond vocabulary and printed text, such as when making inferences or when interpreting the nonliteral meanings of metaphors and figures of speech</td><td align="left">Elleman (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr47">2017</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Language structure</td><td align="left">The organization of language to convey meaning, such as how words are ordered within a sentence (syntax); some aspects of language structure are encompassed in other constructs</td><td align="left">Weaver (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr151">1979</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Theory of mind</td><td align="left">A kind of social reasoning that involves "the ability to understand and take into account one's own and others' mental states (Premack & Woodruff, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr123">1978</xref>)" (Weimer et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr152">2021</xref>, p. 1), including characters' mental states (e.g., thoughts, feelings, intentions) to understand, reason about, and make inferences from text</td><td align="left">Lysaker, Tonge, Gauson, and Miller (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr92">2011</xref>)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>AVR also depicts active self‐regulation, or the active coordination of various processes and strategies that successful reading requires. Specifically, self‐regulation involves executive functioning skills, described as cognitive processes that are necessary to coordinate a complex task such as reading (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref135">45</reflink>]), and deploying strategies to facilitate engagement and motivation so that reading progresses smoothly (Duke, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref136">44</reflink>]; Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref137">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>Thus, in addition to depicting intersections among word recognition and language comprehension, the AVR situates their crucial overlaps with bridging processes and active self‐regulation as interacting to drive the reading process (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref138">45</reflink>]). Table 1 (used with permission[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref139">2</reflink>]) provides a definition of each component of AVR along with supporting literature.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-16">Culture and the Active View of Reading</hd> <p>Duke and Cartwright's ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref140">45</reflink>]) AVR enhances our understanding of <bold><emph>ways of reading</emph></bold>: <emph>word recognition</emph>, <emph>language comprehension</emph>, <emph>active self‐regulation</emph>, and the <emph>bridging processes</emph> that facilitate them. Like other complex models, AVR showcases reading as a multifaceted developmental journey. However, AVR situates culture as <emph>componential</emph> to the reading process. The visual depicting AVR points out the importance of sociocultural context with a note in the top left corner which reads "This is a reader model. Reading is also impacted by text, task, and sociocultural context" (p. S33). Culture, described as "a body of information acquired over time through experiences, such as formal education and daily activities within one's cultural group(s)" (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref141">45</reflink>], p. S36), is one of many components within "language comprehension," including reading‐specific background knowledge, verbal reasoning, language structure, and theory of mind (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref142">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>As noted, in 2021, shortly after its publication, we discussed the AVR visual during a Tuesday night meeting. We wondered together why the sociocultural contexts in which readers enact reading were not explicitly centered. Roderick asked: "Where is culture in this model?" When Kindel pointed him to the note in the top left‐hand corner of the visual about how context and task informs reading, as well as the "culture" component within "language comprehension," Roderick asserted, "That doesn't feel like enough, culture should be central."</p> <p>AVR developers seem to be reflexively thinking about the role of culture in reading development. For example, a recent meta‐analysis of the AVR's undergirding research (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref143">25</reflink>]), highlighted that knowledge from one's own cultural experiences predicted reading beyond the effects of word recognition and language comprehension (Hwang et al., [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref144">76</reflink>]; Talwar et al., [<reflink idref="bib141" id="ref145">141</reflink>]). The authors noted a need to more explicitly include culture in reading research and consequent models of reading.</p> <p>Although cultural and content knowledge is identified across multiple research studies as a key indicator of reading proficiency... there was a lack of [quantitative] research regarding cultural and content knowledge with only two studies for average readers and three for striving readers. (Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref146">25</reflink>], p. 37)</p> <p>Grounded in our own research, our knowledge about the centrality of culture in reading development, and concerns about the dislocation of culture within reading models which perpetuate longstanding critical research‐practice gaps, we have conceptualized a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR). We are fortunate to be in conversation and collaboration with AVR's developers as we have worked to develop the CSVR.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-17">The Cultural Sustenance View of Reading</hd> <p>The CSVR was developed over time through examining the way the practitioner‐authors implement culturally sustaining pedagogies (CSPs) (Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref147">119</reflink>]) within classroom practices in two richly racially, culturally, linguistically, and otherwise plural school contexts. Culturally sustaining pedagogies situate "dynamic cultural dexterity as a necessary good, and sees the outcome of learning as additive, rather than subtractive, as remaining whole rather than framed as broken, as critically enriching strengths rather than replacing deficits" (Paris, [<reflink idref="bib118" id="ref148">118</reflink>], p. 263). Applied to early literacy classroom teaching, culturally sustaining pedagogies involve:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Critically centering children's literacies, languages, and knowledge</item> <p></p> <item> Valuing children's and communities' agency and input so that we are accountable to the communities we serve,</item> <p></p> <item> Historicizing content and instruction to connect learning to the histories of racial, ethnic, and linguistic communities, neighborhoods and cities, and the larger states and nation‐states.</item> <p></p> <item> Building children's and our own capacity to contend with internalized oppressions and to counter messages and systems that suggest that marginalized students and families are the problem and that value White, middle‐class, monolingual, monocultural, ableist norms.</item> <p></p> <item> Working with children and communities to sustain right, reciprocal relationships with the land.</item> <p></p> <item> Curricularizing these features in early learning settings. (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref149">107</reflink>])</item> </ulist> <p>To enact CSPs, Roderick, Kerry, Alicia, Erik and Bilal have found that they need both technical knowledge of <emph>ways of reading</emph> illustrated within AVR and other reading models, <emph>and</emph> deep knowledge of students' culture, along with a desire to honor the knowledge, beliefs, and cognition extending from the cultural communities of the children they serve. Our research, supported by decades of scholarship, reveals the importance of understanding <emph>how</emph> children think—their ways of knowing, and the way that experiences and relationships, or ways of being undergird these ways of knowing, and in turn how both ways of knowing and ways of being permeate the cognitive and affective components of the reading process.</p> <p>In Figure 2, we share the CSVR. This is a cultural, non‐linear, complex model of reading that characterizes <emph>ways of reading</emph>, the processes of word recognition, language comprehension, active self‐regulation, and bridging processes as interfacing organically with <emph>ways of knowing</emph> and <emph>ways of being</emph>. Within the CSVR, <emph>culturally mediated cognition</emph> operates as the overarching lifeforce that touches ways of knowing, ways of being, and ways of reading. The CSVR positions children, within their cultural and linguistic ecological communities, their ways of being—at the center of the reading process.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/01Jan25/rrq583-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq583-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 The Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR)" /> </p> <p></p> <p>Interweaving Remi's foray into his Haitian heritage and topography, other findings from our study, and examples from research, four key constructs of the CSVR are described in the sections below. Ways of knowing, ways of being, and culturally mediated cognition, as overlapping constructs within the CSVR, are defined and supported with research in Table 2. Ways of reading, described briefly below, are not explicit within the CSVR or outlined in Table 2 because they are well‐established in reading development literature and highlighted in Table 1 above.</p> <p>2 Table Definition and Example Supporting Study (or Review of Studies) for each Construct within the Cultural Sustenance View of Reading</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><th>Model construct</th><th align="center">Construct definition</th><th align="center">Example study or review finding that the construct is culturally mediated within the reading process</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="char">Culturally Mediated Cognition<xref ref-type="fn" rid="tfn1" /></td></tr><tr><td>Attention</td><td align="left">Attention describes the extent to which information is retained or encoded in our memories through sustained and meaningful rehearsal, practice, and elaboration</td><td align="left">Au and Jordan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr7">1981</xref>) and Nash et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr107">2022</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Perception</td><td align="left">Perception involves discerning the aspects or patterns of a particular phenomenon. Pattern recognition may involve "bottom up" or "top down" processes, based on cultural practices</td><td align="left">Gardner‐Neblett and Iruka (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr54">2015</xref>) and Pennell et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr120">2024</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Memory</td><td align="left">Cognitive structures or schema that enable people to receive and process information. Memory is influenced by a community's cultural practices</td><td align="left">Cartwright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr28">2023</xref>) and Diamond (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr42">2013</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Knowledge Construction</td><td align="left">Knowledge is constructed through mental operations and processes. The construction and acquisition of knowledge are shaped by cultural practices (e.g., analytic vs holistic thinking)</td><td align="left">Hwang et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr76">2020</xref>), Muhammad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr103">2020</xref>) and Nash et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr107">2022</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Ways of Being</td></tr><tr><td>Cultural and Linguistic Community Membership</td><td align="left">Culturally and linguistically rooted systems of beliefs that guide human behavior</td><td align="left">Linguistic membership: Baker‐Bell (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr9">2020</xref>)Cultural membership: Zentella (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr163">2015</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Life Experiences</td><td align="left">Life experiences are grounded in cultural and linguistic community membership which shape belief systems, values, and relationships</td><td align="left">Harlin and Souto‐Manning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr67">2009</xref>), Machado et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr93">2024</xref>) and Nash et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr106">2021</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Relationships</td><td align="left">Relationships are grounded in cultural community membership which shape belief systems, values, and life experiences.</td><td align="left">Heath (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr69">1982</xref>) and Gutiérrez and Johnson (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr65">2017</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Ways of Knowing</td></tr><tr><td>Ancestral Knowledge</td><td align="left">"The developmental progression and collective knowledge of a particular cultural group" (Hollins, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr74">2019</xref>, p. 46)</td><td align="left">Darder (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr40">2015</xref>) and Nash et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr107">2022</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Cultural Knowledge</td><td align="left">A group's knowledge construction process which happens as they respond to their realities</td><td align="left">Cervetti and Wright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr30">2020</xref>) and Duke and Cartwright (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">2021</xref>)</td></tr><tr><td>Linguistic Knowledge</td><td align="left">A way of communicating that is linked to a particular community</td><td align="left">Hevia‐Tuero et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr72">2021</xref>) and Washington et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr149">2001</xref>)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 a Building on Hollins' ([<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref150">73</reflink>]) description of culturally mediated cognition in the book <emph>Culture in school learning</emph>: <emph>Revealing the deep meaning</emph>. Routledge.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-19">Ways of Reading</hd> <p>In the opening story, Roderick honored and extended Remi's ways of knowing, being, and reading via a connected sequence of engaging and culturally sustaining literacy activities. Within the Cultural Sustenance View, <emph>ways of reading</emph> are the cognitive and affective components of reading—word recognition, language comprehension, active self‐regulation, and bridging processes (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref151">45</reflink>]). The CSVR displays word recognition, language comprehension, and active self‐regulation as three overlapping circles. The bridging processes that undergird and flexibly connect these components are noted by a dotted curved line that touches each overlapping circle.</p> <p>The purpose of the CSVR is not to detail these ways of reading—these constructs are described elsewhere (see Burns et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref152">25</reflink>]; and Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref153">45</reflink>] and Table 1). Instead, the CSVR seeks to illustrate how ways of reading <emph>interplay</emph> with ways of knowing and being through culturally mediated cognition. In this way, language comprehension, word recognition, active self‐regulation, and bridging processes (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref154">45</reflink>]) are depicted within the CSVR not as components or influences, but as culturally and linguistically situated and mediated processes that drive reading development.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-20">Culturally Mediated Cognition</hd> <p>In the CSVR, culture is not an influence or an aspect of any one component of the reading process, culture mediates reading, just as it mediates human development (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref155">111</reflink>]; Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib125" id="ref156">125</reflink>]; Varnum et al., [<reflink idref="bib146" id="ref157">146</reflink>]; Vygotsky, [<reflink idref="bib147" id="ref158">147</reflink>]). Building on the work of Michael Cole ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref159">33</reflink>]), Etta R. Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref160">73</reflink>] describes culturally mediated cognition as the way attention, perception, memory, and knowledge construction—generated and reinforced by and within cultural communities—mediate the reading process. In other words, culturally mediated cognition describes the way that culture, not as a "container," but as a constantly evolving construct, fluidly mediates attentional control, perception, memory, and knowledge construction when a reader engages in reading (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref161">111</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-21">Attention</hd> <p>Attention directs the ways in which information is retained or recoded in our memories through sustained and meaningful rehearsal, practice, and elaboration. The cognitive functions that guide attentional control include working memory and metalinguistic awareness (Adesope et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref162">1</reflink>]; Bialystok, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref163">15</reflink>]). Culture shapes attentional control. As Wang ([<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref164">148</reflink>]) notes, "culture shapes perceptual encoding by directing people's attention to salient details or to interrelated parts of a whole... this, in turn, affects what, how much, and in what ways information is encoded in memory" (n.p.).</p> <p>In the opening story, Remi's attention was activated and sustained through writing and reading poetic verse that evoked his memories of stargazing in Haiti. Remi may have felt disconnected and been inattentive if Roderick had instead asked him to write an Irish Limerick. Instead of reducing the poetry unit to a purely cognitive task requiring assimilation of new information, Roderick provided a "life‐wide and life‐deep learning experience" that fostered meaningful rehearsal grounded in Remi's real‐world experiences (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref165">111</reflink>], p. xxviii).</p> <p>Across disciplines, research demonstrates that language shapes memory and in turn attention (Hedden et al., [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref166">71</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref167">148</reflink>]). This is why practices such as translanguaging, or talking across multiple linguistic repertoires, help sustain multilingual students' attentional control during reading (Taboada Barber et al., [<reflink idref="bib140" id="ref168">140</reflink>]). For example, through translanguaging about multilingual texts, Alicia honors and extends the varied, fluid, and flexible ways that her multilingual children navigate or culturally mediate the texts they read without compartmentalizing their linguistic dexterity by switching from one language to another (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref169">107</reflink>]). Another example of teachers guiding students culturally mediated attention can be seen in Au and Jordan's ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref170">7</reflink>]) seminal study of the Kamehameha Early Education Program method of reading instruction for Native Hawaiian students, a method which resulted in increases in reading comprehension on traditional reading assessments. To guide students' attentional control, teachers built lessons on cultural and linguistic patterns of "talk‐story" found within Native Hawaiian communities. These examples demonstrate the way teachers shape attentional control by drawing children's attention to meaningful details or to connected parts of a whole culture or language (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref171">148</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-22">Perception</hd> <p>Perception is the ability to discern facets or patterns of particular phenomena. Like attentional control, pattern perception may differ depending on a child's varied cultural and language experiences (Miyamoto et al., [<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref172">100</reflink>]). Remi, deeply connected to the land and sky of Haiti, was able to invoke those experiences holistically as he engaged in intensive intervention in letter‐sounds in order to poetically encode his thoughts and experiences and feelings. Since the task of English reading and writing was difficult for him, Remi could easily have fallen into a pattern of many striving readers who spend the bulk of their time grappling with letter‐sounds without attending to a text's deep meaning (Dewitz & Dewitz, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref173">41</reflink>]; Yuill & Oakhill, [<reflink idref="bib162" id="ref174">162</reflink>]). However, rather than the task of writing and reading itself, Remi's cultural memories facilitated his perception of ideas which he then worked to decode and encode.</p> <p>Wang ([<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref175">148</reflink>]) notes that "distinct perceptual patterns are associated with the philosophical traditions, value orientations, and characteristics (e.g., complexity, ambiguity) of the physical environment in the respective cultural contexts" (n.p.). Some cultural communities may place a higher value on linear, or "bottom‐up" or hierarchical processes of pattern recognition while others may more accurately perceive holistic "top‐down" patterns. An example can be found in the ways that Black and Indigenous diasporan cultural and community practices of orality influence perception holistically. In and out of schools, Black children often have strong oral language and storytelling abilities (Gardner‐Neblett & Iruka, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref176">54</reflink>]) and narrative and verbal reasoning skills (Curenton et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref177">39</reflink>]). The Tohono O'Odham Indigenous community who reside in the Sonoran Desert in North America, place a high value on orality. Children are expected to listen carefully to stories that are told and the talk that is going on around them, without being told to do so; as a result, they become more adept at perceiving meaning without being overseen (Tsethlikai & Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib145" id="ref178">145</reflink>]).</p> <p>Perceptual skills and abilities do not always align with the more linear, bottom‐up processes of teaching reading in Western classrooms (Wyse & Hacking, [<reflink idref="bib158" id="ref179">158</reflink>]), such as synthetic phonics or teaching individual letter sounds and their correspondences (Bear et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref180">12</reflink>]; Glazzard & Stones, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref181">60</reflink>]). For this reason, Kerry has found it necessary to interchange synthetic and analytic phonics approaches that rely more on contextualized analysis of phonics patterns (although her school's phonics program uses synthetic methods). Flexibly interchanging analytic and synthetic phonics has proven to be more useful for the culturally and linguistically diverse student populations Kerry teaches (Elson et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref182">48</reflink>]; Pennell et al., [<reflink idref="bib120" id="ref183">120</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-23">Memory</hd> <p>Memory is the cognitive schema that facilitates people's reception and processing of information (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref184">73</reflink>]). Memories are constructed and reconstructed based on cultural and linguistic practices and general knowledge (Bartlett, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref185">11</reflink>]; Bruner, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref186">23</reflink>]; Cole, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref187">33</reflink>]; Middleton & Edwards, [<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref188">98</reflink>]; Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref189">148</reflink>]). For this reason, "remembering cannot be completely separated from the mental, physical, and social contexts in which it takes place" (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref190">148</reflink>]). An example of the way memory influences cognition is the way a person's primary orthographic system influences their spatial orientation (McCrink & Shaki, [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref191">97</reflink>]). Studies have demonstrated that people remember information more accurately when that information follows the patterns of their orthographic system. For example, in one study, North American and Israeli participants were shown letter‐shape sequences: left to right, right to left, or central. Then, they were prompted to remember which letters paired with which shapes. North Americans demonstrated better recall for left to right information, whereas the Israelis (right‐to‐left orthographic system) more accurately remembered information shown from right to left (McCrink & Shaki, [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref192">97</reflink>]).</p> <p>Memory is linked to executive functioning, verbal reasoning and theory of mind, as key active self‐regulation and language comprehension skills that facilitate management of the complex and goal‐directed tasks demanded of beginning reading for culturally plural learners (Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref193">28</reflink>]; Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref194">45</reflink>]). Executive functioning, verbal reasoning, and theory of mind are ways of reading have been shown to support literacy learning for students from plural cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Barreyro et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref195">10</reflink>]; Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref196">28</reflink>]; Dore et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref197">43</reflink>]; Kelkar et al., [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref198">78</reflink>]). For example, when Roderick read <emph>The Me I Choose to Be</emph> by Natasha Tarpley, this text activated and ignited Remi's imagination and cultural memory, which enabled him to engage further with the task of reading and writing—the load on his memory was coherent with his culture. Thus, not only did Remi write poetry based on his green screen photograph, he also showed other students a map of Haiti using Google Earth, teaching his classmates about the geography and history of his homeland. Remi was thus able to activate both macro (the topography of Haiti) and‐micro‐level (stargazing) memories which shaped his knowledge of Haiti. In doing so, Remi not only developed executive functioning, verbal reasoning, and theory of mind skills, he sustained his own cultural memory by sharing where he came from, his home, his love for his country and the deep connection he had with Haiti.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-24">Knowledge Construction</hd> <p>Knowledge construction is the final component of culturally mediated cognition. Knowledge construction, like attention, perception, and memory, is shaped by cognitive processes that are transmitted within cultural and linguistic communities. Knowledge construction reciprocally influences how people interpret and understand their realities, resulting in different mental operations during the reading process (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref199">73</reflink>]).</p> <p>Muhammad ([<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref200">103</reflink>]) describes cultivating intellect as a highly valued form of knowledge construction in Black communities, "because society and oppressors did not see Black people as useful, smart, or capable of rigorous learning" (p. 102). Knowledge construction within the Black Radical Tradition has been called "an accretion, over generations, of collective intelligence gathered from struggle. In daily encounters and petty resistances to domination, slaves had acquired a sense of the calculus of oppression as well as its organization and instrumentation" (Robinson, 2000, as cited in Willis et al., [<reflink idref="bib155" id="ref201">155</reflink>], p 13).</p> <p>Contemporary cognitive reading models highlight the important role of a reader's construction and integration of knowledge during reading (e.g., Construction–Integration Model) (Kintsch, [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref202">80</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref203">81</reflink>]). Reading researchers also highlight the impact of different knowledge types on reading comprehension. Topic knowledge, domain (disciplinary) knowledge, world knowledge, sometimes referenced as "general knowledge," and cultural knowledge all influence a reader's comprehension (Cervetti & Wright, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref204">30</reflink>]). Several reviews of research found that experiential cultural knowledge predicted reading ability beyond the effects of word recognition and language comprehension (Hwang & Duke, [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref205">75</reflink>]; Talwar et al., [<reflink idref="bib141" id="ref206">141</reflink>]) or vocabulary (Ahmed et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref207">3</reflink>]). Remi had life‐shaping experiences with stargazing in Haiti with his family. Roderick and Remi's family supported Remi's keen interest in space by providing him with resources (books, videos, elaborate astronaut Halloween costumes). Having deep disciplinary knowledge along with cultural knowledge about space facilitated Remi's interest and integration of that knowledge in reading, writing, and speaking.</p> <p>When Alicia and Erik engaged children in art activities related to the book <emph>Black is a rainbow color</emph> by Angela Joy, they also helped foster understandings rooted in children's knowledge construction processes (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref208">107</reflink>]). Alicia chose to read the book when she overheard one student making a colorist comment to another student—<emph>You can't be Latino</emph>, <emph>your skin is too brown</emph>. While reading the book aloud, Alicia encouraged students' multilingual comments about all the beautiful things in their lives that were black and brown. After reading and discussing the book, Erik and the students created a mosaic‐like rainbow that included the ROYGBIV color spectrum <emph>and</emph> black and brown; the rainbow spanned the length of the bulletin board outside of Alicia's classroom. Students extended this conversation about the colors black and brown. With their families, they reflected on beautiful and important things in their lives that were black and brown. Children wrote about photographs, pictures, and illustrations of black and brown items that they had talked about with their families, then added these to the mosaic rainbow. Building on students' and families' ways of constructing knowledge, this engagement also fostered students' oral language and vocabulary development across English and Spanish. Importantly, this activity developed students' capacity to contend with oppression by reframing pejorative and deeply encoded negative associations with the colors black and brown. As children in Alicia's classroom consistently show growth in English and Spanish reading, the activity also exemplifies the way that interventions that address cultural or content knowledge can positively impact reading development (Connor et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref209">35</reflink>]). Figure 3 displays the mosaic rainbow that children created grounded in their culturally and linguistically mediated knowledge construction process (published with permission by the authors).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/01Jan25/rrq583-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq583-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Culturally Mediated Knowledge Construction: An Artifact" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183756683-26">Culturally Mediated Cognition: Summary</hd> <p>Culturally mediated cognition is manifested in the way we perceive, remember, and understand. As the overarching fluid medium interposing reading development within the Cultural Sustenance View, this conception of culturally mediated cognition, and of reading broadly, requires a fundamental shift. We must move away from viewing some people's culturally mediated cognition as deficient, and toward critically centering the culturally plural attentional, perceptual, memory, and knowledge construction processes that are the reality of all people as they read. Culturally mediated cognitive processes must be viewed not as "resources to take learners (almost always unidirectionally) from 'where they are at' to some presumably 'better' place" (Alim et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref210">6</reflink>], p. 263) but as "goods unto themselves" (Lee, [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref211">86</reflink>], p. 261).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-27">Ways of being</hd> <p>While culturally mediated cognition is the fluid lifeforce that mediates the process of reading, ways of being are at the heart of reading within the Cultural Sustenance View. Ways of being are belief systems—the often unseen affective forces that guide human behavior, values, and ways of reading (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref212">74</reflink>]). Fox ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref213">52</reflink>]) outlines a wide body of research that demonstrates the way that both cognitive and affective factors influence the reading process interactively and bidirectionally, noting how "affect and cognition appear to be commingled at the very heart of our thinking" (p. 191). As a result, Fox calls for reading researchers to "consider linking the cognitive and affective aspects even more closely in our theoretical models" (p. 191). By centering ways of being as central to reading, the CSVR links cognitive and affective ways of being through illustrating the way that cultural and linguistic community membership, life experiences, and relationships influence the reading process.</p> <p>Cultural community membership(s), life experiences, and relationships shape humans' ways of being—people have different ways of being because they have different ways of thinking grounded in their experiences as members of linguistic and cultural communities (Baker‐Bell, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref214">9</reflink>]; Gutiérrez & Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref215">66</reflink>]; Skerrett, [<reflink idref="bib133" id="ref216">133</reflink>]), life experiences (Harlin & Souto‐Manning, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref217">67</reflink>]), and relationships (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref218">148</reflink>]). Neither ways of being nor any other aspects of the CSVR are meant to be invoked as disembodied cultural traits. Doing so serves to "obscure the racialized, gendered, classed, landed, dis/abilitied, languaged (and so on) bodies of the people enacting them" (Alim et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref219">6</reflink>], p. 265). Ways of being are embodied and complicated by structural racism, linguicism, and other oppressive factors in people's lives and communities.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-28">Cultural and Linguistic Community Membership</hd> <p>Cultural and linguistic membership, being part of a particular community (Gutiérrez & Rogoff, [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref220">66</reflink>]) and language (Baker‐Bell, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref221">9</reflink>]) influences a person's literacy experiences. For instance, linguistic and cultural membership affects the ways people communicate, interact, and transact with texts (Gee, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref222">56</reflink>]; Smagorinsky, [<reflink idref="bib134" id="ref223">134</reflink>]; Street, [<reflink idref="bib139" id="ref224">139</reflink>]). In working with Black Language speaking adolescents who perceived their language to be less academic, Baker‐Bell ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref225">9</reflink>]) found that "a language pedagogy that centers blackness can dismantle anti‐black linguistic racism and white linguistic hegemony" (p. 6). In the opening story, the way Roderick focalized Remi's cultural and linguistic membership influenced Remi's engagement with reading and writing. Rooted in his deep interest in space and stargazing experiences, Remi read many books about the solar system, space, and the universe; these books motivated him to grapple with reading and writing the letter‐sounds in English and thinking about how they compared to those in Haitian Creole.</p> <p>Zentella ([<reflink idref="bib163" id="ref226">163</reflink>]) discusses home literacy practices in her Latinx cultural community, such as weekly games of Lotería, and recitation of Spanish prayers, songs, and poems. Although her teachers never worked to center these literacy practices, if they had done so, they would have been culturally mediating the ways of being of Zentella and her cultural community. Daily morning meetings provide another example of how Kerry, Alicia, and Roderick create classroom spaces that foster knowingness and belonging through honoring and extending children's linguistic and cultural membership (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref227">107</reflink>]). Historicizing his Black and Latinx students' cultural and linguistic musical traditions within the morning meeting, Roderick sometimes starts it by playing Cee Lo Green's <emph>Good Morning</emph>. To connect to Indigenous and African oral and collective traditions of students, he gathers them in a <emph>cipher</emph>, a circular grouping where he and the class "come together to share and to celebrate and honor voices, ideas, and stories" (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref228">107</reflink>], p. 36). This Afro‐Indigenous approach to morning meetings is a schoolwide practice that Bilal also uses in professional learning, faculty meetings, and book studies (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref229">108</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-29">Life Experiences</hd> <p>People's life experiences shape their ways of being. While there are certainly no fixed cultural values, some cultures may value interdependence, while others may place more value on independence (Hardin & Souto‐Manning, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref230">67</reflink>]; Machado et al., [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref231">93</reflink>]). European American, when compared with African and East Asian cultural groups, for example, have cultural orientations toward independence while the latter value interdependence (Boutte et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref232">19</reflink>]; Markus & Kitayama, [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref233">94</reflink>]; Triandis, [<reflink idref="bib144" id="ref234">144</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Communities of Color like those that Roderick, Kerry, Alicia, and Erik teach, interdependence, family orientation, and confianza through mutually reciprocal obligations are often prioritized (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib106" id="ref235">106</reflink>]). Returning to the introductory story, as the photoshoot activity ended, Remi continued to read about the wonders of space at home and during independent reading time. He shared his learning from his daily independent reading with his classmates, who were challenged by his pronunciation. They encouraged him, however, because of their life experiences and community norms around interdependence Roderick had set in his classroom. Another example of fostering collective, loving classroom environments that build on interdependence can be found in the way Kerry creates community agreements with her Kindergarten and first‐grade classes at the beginning of the school year. Engaging children in creating classroom norms is a process that builds on their input and fosters their agency. She begins by asking: "How do you want to feel at school?" Then she leads children to think about "rules" and why we have them. After that, she and the class brainstorm a list of goals for their school year; Kerry eventually condenses the list into three or four community agreements that are accountable and answerable to the lifeways of the students she teaches (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref236">107</reflink>], p. 26).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-30">Relationships</hd> <p>Enmeshed with cultural membership and life experiences, relationships are interdependent, mutually influential connections to the people, places, and things around us. Relationships shape belief systems, values, and life experiences. For example, in the opening narrative, with the support of his classmates and Roderick listening to him read texts and his own writing about space aloud, Remi's fluency began to grow; in turn he was inspired to read more and more. When they had difficulty understanding Remi as he shared more information about Haiti with his classmates, the other students listened carefully and offered a safe space and constructive feedback that supported his English oral language and reading fluency. Gutiérrez and Rogoff ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref237">66</reflink>]) note that students who do not share life experiences of being praised within their cultural communities may find this common classroom practice discomforting. Gutiérrez and Rogoff's ([<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref238">66</reflink>]) research also emphasizes that children who have relationships of familiarity and often engage in discussions with the adults in their lives may have difficulty answering the kinds of closed‐ended, known‐answer questions that many teachers may ask during reading instruction. Illustrating this finding, Heath ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref239">69</reflink>]) found that Black children in one rural, Southeastern American community were less likely to be familiar with the known‐answer type questions their white teachers asked during read alouds and other reading instruction because they were not asked these kinds of questions by the people in their lives. Gutiérrez and Johnson ([<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref240">65</reflink>]) help us understand the fluid and complex way that relationships influence literacy development as they are shaped by "sociocultural formations imbued with histories, local influences, and future orientations [experiencing] shifts and changes... reorganization, hybridization, re‐mixing, overlaps, and tensions" (p. 254).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-31">Ways of Being: Summary</hd> <p>Ways of being are cast by people's life experiences, relationships, and cultural and linguistic community membership(s), resulting in profound variations in the way people conceive of choice, agency, morality, trust, and personhood (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib148" id="ref241">148</reflink>]). Alim et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref242">6</reflink>]) caution "we cannot continue to act as if the white, middle‐class linguistic, literate and cultural ways of being that were seen as the sole gatekeepers to the opportunity structure over a quarter‐century ago have remained so or will remain so as our society changes" (p. 265). Instead, as we develop children's ways of reading, we can and should center their ways of being, while attending to structural oppression that impacts their communities to "work toward reclamation of the histories, contributions, and possibilities of cultural communities" (Gutiérrez & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref243">65</reflink>], p. 249). In order to move toward reclamation and cultural sustenance, the Cultural Sustenance View forefronts understanding the culturally mediated overlap between ways of being and ways of reading as essential.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-32">Ways of Knowing</hd> <p>Within the CSVR, ways of reading, culturally mediated cognition, and ways of being overlap and intermingle with <emph>ways of knowing</emph>. Ways of knowing connote the way that communities carry their past lives within them, transmitting understandings from generation to generation. Ways of knowing can be functional, phenomenological, semantic, and ontological (Polanyi, [<reflink idref="bib122" id="ref244">122</reflink>]) but they are always carried forward through a cultural community's ancestral, cultural, and linguistic knowledge. Put another way, ways of knowing undergird the way people <emph>come to know</emph> as they respond to and form understandings rooted in ancestral, cultural, and linguistic knowledge and remember and transmit these understandings to the next generation (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref245">73</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-33">Ancestral Knowledge</hd> <p>Ancestral knowledge "embodies the developmental progression and collective knowledge of a particular cultural group" (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref246">74</reflink>], p. 46). Cultures all over the world transfer knowledge through various forms of literacy, like dance, language, music, and visual arts. For instance, First Nations Australian people pass on ancestral knowledge through "songlines" or songs, dances, and images that connect people to the land, water, and sky (see Songlines: The art of navigating the Indigenous world ‐ Australian National Maritime Museum and Why Songlines Are Important In Aboriginal Art ‐ Japingka). With a songline connecting him to the skies, Remi tapped into his ancestral knowledge when he engaged in the astronaut photoshoot and authored the first two lines of his poem: "I am Haiti/I am the place where I can live in the stars." His poetic musings reflect a sustained and deep connection to the heavens that had been nurtured throughout his childhood. In the Black community in the U.S., people often say "that child has been here before," a phrase used to explain how a child displays the genius and ancestral knowledge that was passed on to them. As Darder ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref247">40</reflink>]) notes, Black communities often resist "either/or, linear, reductionist, hierarchical, concrete, object/subject or nature/human separation, and neutral, decontextualized, ahistorical, and apolitical methodologies in the ways we construct knowledge about social phenomenon" (p. 66). Remi's poem expresses the holistic progression of his ancestral knowledge and perhaps shows that he "has been here before."</p> <p>Another example of the way the teachers embody students' ancestral knowledge can be seen in art engagements Erik has planned for children who have ancestral knowledge rooted in Mayan, Aztec, Olmec, Lenca, Pipil, Yoruba, Tiv, Igbo, and Taino Indigenous and African culture. One year, Erik's first art activity for PK‐5 students engaged the young artists creating artwork that reflected their immediate families in order to begin mapping their ancestral knowledge, their ancestral genius. This project involved students in researching Indigenous and African art from their own heritage, and then re‐interpreting the artwork in their own way to show what they have learned about their culture. Erik offered a series of questions for students to answer in their research:</p> <p>I was born in the country of _______.</p> <p>My parent(s)/caregivers are from ______________.</p> <p>The country or culture I most identify with is _____________, _____________.</p> <p>The Indigenous tribes from my country are ____________________________.</p> <p>I found _______ art from ________ tribal groups.</p> <p>After researching art and drawing from their chosen Indigenous and African heritage groups, children illustrated and shared their own depictions of Indigenous artwork from that tribe or ancestral group (Figure 4). This engagement developed children's understanding of their own ancestral knowledge, facilitating life‐deep literate expressions of the ways that their communities preserve their collective knowledge visually.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/NRNU/01Jan25/rrq583-fig-0004.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="rrq583-fig-0004.jpg" title="4 Integrating Ancestral Knowledge in an Art/Literacy Engagement" /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183756683-35">Cultural Knowledge</hd> <p>Cultural knowledge represents a group's knowledge construction process which happens as they respond to their realities. Cultural knowledge influences the way children hear and understand texts (Boutte et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref248">19</reflink>]; Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref249">45</reflink>]), for as a reader transacts with a text, they construct meaning based on their cultural knowledge (Cervetti & Wright, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref250">30</reflink>]). We know that readers who are "rarely provided with opportunities to read texts that reflect their cultural background will experience the reading process differently than those with the privilege of a frequent match of their cultural background and the knowledge assumed by an author/text" (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref251">45</reflink>], p. S28). So, a fundamental way that Alicia, Roderick, Kerry honor and sustain their students' cultural knowledge is by utilizing books during reading instruction and creating a classroom library featuring authors with backgrounds similar to those of their students, many of whom identify as Latinx or Black. For example, in Kerry's classroom, authors featured in the library include Donald Crews, Angela Dominguez, Kadir Nelson, and Monica Brown. Although the teachers often have to purchase their own books, Bilal helps the teachers sustain such a rich classroom library by periodically securing funding for such books. Authentically integrating cultural knowledge into a classroom library involves more than merely "adding some books about people of color" to the collection (Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref252">82</reflink>], p. 82). It means considering and imagining the interests, local topography, preferred storylines, languages, language varieties, abilities, family structures, and more through selecting texts—broadly conceived—that are written and illustrated by cultural insiders (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref253">107</reflink>]). For example, the opening vignette shows how Roderick used a culturally sustaining text, <emph>The Me I Choose to Be</emph>, by Natasha Tarpley, to engage Remi and other students in poetic writing. The selection of this read aloud reflects the way educators can simultaneously nurture students' ways of reading and ways of knowing. The text fostered language comprehension, provided opportunities for Remi to develop word recognition, and engaged bridging processes such as fluency, morphology, vocabulary <emph>and</emph> centered his fluid and dynamic cultural knowledge.</p> <p>Kerry engages students in studies based on their cultural knowledge that often emerge organically during their daily choice time. One year, Kerry noticed that her first graders were interested in making clothes and accessories out of paper at the "paper table." Some students also seemed to enjoy clothes and seemed to take pride in the fun outfits they wore to school. Based on these observations, Kerry initiated a study of clothes, sewing, and the clothing industry with these students. She began by asking children to share what they knew about sewing and clothes and questions they had. Kerry also helped children learn about fabric and clothing by inviting families to share their knowledge of these topics. A parent who had spent years working in the fashion industry visited the class to share sewing tools she used, photos of sewing projects she worked on, and answer students' questions about the fashion industry. In addition, Kerry invited families to share a photo of something at home related to fabric, sewing, or clothes—perhaps a photo of their child's favorite item of clothing, or a sewing tool they might use, or another item made of fabric. Families sent in stories and images of such fabric items as baby blankets, pajamas, and hair bonnets. One family sent in a piece of patterned mudcloth from Mali for everyone to touch and admire. This family also sent a link to a video that the class could watch to learn more about how this fabric is made. At morning meeting over a few weeks, each child had a chance to share the photo their family had sent in and talk about why this fabric item or sewing tool was special to them. Kerry also read the information their family sent about why these items were special or important in their family and turned these images and stories into several class books. With this engagement into children's and family knowledge of and experiences with fabric, children's cultural knowledge was interwoven into an integrated literacy curriculum that emerged from children's own curiosity.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-36">Linguistic Knowledge</hd> <p>Linguistic knowledge represents another critical <emph>way of knowing</emph>. Linguistic knowledge is a way of communicating and understanding that is linked to a linguistic community. Intimately linked to cultural knowledge, (as in a songline) linguistic knowledge facilitates shared understandings about the present and past, and conveying feelings and thought processes (Fivush, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref254">51</reflink>]; Nelson, [<reflink idref="bib113" id="ref255">113</reflink>]). Language and discourse patterns help people retain cultural knowledge and obtain meaning about life experiences (Sharifian, [<reflink idref="bib132" id="ref256">132</reflink>]; Wierzbicka, [<reflink idref="bib153" id="ref257">153</reflink>]). Membership in a language community not only marks a particular linguistic repertoire, but also a community's cultural repertoire(s). For example, Black language is "a style of speaking English words with Black Flava—with Africanized semantic, grammatical, pronunciation, and rhetorical patterns" (Smitherman, [<reflink idref="bib136" id="ref258">136</reflink>], p. 3). Smitherman ([<reflink idref="bib136" id="ref259">136</reflink>]) describes how Black language arises from the knowledge and experiences of enslaved people in this country, and the ways in which that shared experience fostered language practices that were created to be "unintelligible to speakers of the dominant language" (Smitherman, [<reflink idref="bib136" id="ref260">136</reflink>], p. 3). While it represents a linguistic repertoire of the African diaspora, Black language is not static—just as culture is not static; we cannot (and should not) one‐to‐one map a person's race onto their language. Many other ethnic groups also speak Black language, because people speak the language and language varieties of their peers (Paris, [<reflink idref="bib116" id="ref261">116</reflink>]). A person's language knowledge helps them thread information from within various regions of the brain together to form coherent understandings about the present and past (Rubin, [<reflink idref="bib126" id="ref262">126</reflink>]). This is why linguistic knowledge predictably interacts with a child's reading development (Washington et al., [<reflink idref="bib150" id="ref263">150</reflink>]). Thus, accounting for linguistic ways of knowing is crucial as children are learning to read. In fact, phonological and morphological mismatches between a child's instructional language and their heritage language (Bellocchi & Bonifacci, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref264">13</reflink>]) or language variety such as Black language (Boutte et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref265">18</reflink>]; Brown et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref266">22</reflink>]), result in cognitive interference that hinders learning grapheme‐phoneme correspondences (Hevia‐Tuero et al., [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref267">72</reflink>]) and renders assessments of reading inaccurate (Briceño & Klein, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref268">21</reflink>]; Washington et al., [<reflink idref="bib150" id="ref269">150</reflink>]).</p> <p>Roderick incorporates his other students' language varieties into talk, literacy activities, and interactions in his classroom. For example, knowing that many of his students speak Jamaican Patois, he often uses, and he encourages children to use the greeting "Watagwan?" ("What's good?") when children arrive in the classroom. By preserving the integrity of everyday practices like this greeting, Roderick maintains "the value and history of the everyday genre vis‐a‐vis the dominant form" (Gutiérrez & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref270">65</reflink>], p. 254).</p> <p>As a multilingual educator, Alicia extends students' linguistic knowledge by translanguaging throughout all instruction. For example, one year during a third‐grade reading small group, she meshed and translanguaged across Spanish and English as she questioned students about a high‐interest Spanish language text they were reading, <emph>¡El Fútbol Es Un Golazo!</emph> "¿Cómo suena diferente la palabra 'net' en español salvadoreño y hondureño?"[How does the word 'net' sound different in Salvadoran and Honduran Spanish?] Alicia had chosen this controlled text especially because of the children's obsession with soccer player Lionel Messi (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref271">107</reflink>], p. 53). Here, Alicia's acknowledgement of Salvadoran and Honduran language varieties exemplifies a central premise of the Cultural Sustenance View, which asks us to move toward dynamic and fluid notions about the interaction among language, race, ethnicity, and culture, so that we don't oversimplify languages and language varieties as static (Alim et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref272">6</reflink>]; Paris, [<reflink idref="bib116" id="ref273">116</reflink>]). Latinx children in Alicia's class often speak Indigenous languages, many language varieties of Spanish, <emph>and</emph> Black Language (and sometimes all three!)</p> <p>Another example of the way Roderick foregrounds his students' linguistic knowledge can be found in the opening story. As Remi began to put his ideas to paper to craft his poem about the universe, he worked first through linguistic knowledge of Haitian Creole, as this is the language in which he thinks. Roderick encouraged him to write in Haitian Creole first, but Remi insisted on writing his poem in mainstream English (perhaps as a result of internalized oppressive ideas about English as a superior language). This proved to be a struggle, because Remi had difficulty with pronouncing and thus writing mainstream English phonemes. To develop Remi's phonemic awareness of mainstream English, Roderick and the reading specialist worked with him on letter‐sounds and phonemic awareness briefly each morning before school began. Roderick also asked Remi to find at least one word he didn't know in the books about the universe, the solar system, and the stars that he was so motivated to read daily during independent reading and at home. He then asked Remi to record himself on the school‐issued i‐pad pronouncing those difficult English words. As he gradually gained phonemic awareness and phonics knowledge through these interventions, Roderick encouraged Remi to apply this growing knowledge to writing. Over time, Remi's confidence began to grow. Roderick strategically supported Remi's linguistic knowledge in ways that "neither romanticize everyday knowledge nor privilege school‐based skills and dominant forms of knowledge" (Gutiérrez & Johnson, [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref274">65</reflink>], p. 254). Remi's motivation to write and read about the universe overtook the space of struggle he initially felt about writing English phonemes. Exemplifying the CSVR, Roderick centered Remi's <emph>ways of knowing</emph>—his linguistic and cultural knowledge, his <emph>ways of being—</emph>life experiences in particular, and <emph>ways of reading—</emph>decoding, phonological awareness, vocabulary, language comprehension, and active self‐regulation—to facilitate culturally mediated cognition—seen in the way Remi integrated his culturally situated memory, perception, attentional control toward the complex literacy task at hand.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-37">Ways of Knowing: Summary</hd> <p>Ways of knowing describe the way people understand reality through their ancestral, cultural, and linguistic knowledge. To foster cultural sustenance, teachers can foreground ancestral, cultural, and linguistic knowledge in reading and literacy instruction, as highlighted in the above examples. Thus, forefronting such ways of knowing are central to the CSVR. Culturally sustaining pedagogies "are not interested in relegating learners' cultural and linguistic strengths as tools for advancing the learning of an 'acceptable' curricular canon, a 'standard' variety of language, or other 'academic' skill" (Alim et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref275">6</reflink>], p. 263). In contrast, focalizing ancestral, cultural, and linguistic ways of knowing and the way they over‐ and underlie ways of being and ways of reading within the reading process through culturally mediated cognition helps us reimagine reading as a way to foster and deepen children's understanding of their generational genius (Muhammad, [<reflink idref="bib104" id="ref276">104</reflink>]), not in relation to a right standard or norm but as "goods unto themselves" (Lee, [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref277">86</reflink>], p. 261). Table 2 highlights each of these components of the CSVR.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-38">A Cultural Sustenance View: Sustaining Children's Whole, Full Worlds</hd> <p>I am Haiti/I am the place where I/can live in the stars/ I remember the nights/</p> <p>I am amazing/I am what I choose to be/I think I am the universe.</p> <p>In conversation with complex reader models that consider the key role of culture within reading, but do not necessarily center it, the Cultural Sustenance View builds upon our extensive and collective engagement with culturally sustaining pedagogies (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref278">108</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref279">107</reflink>]). Our robust, multi‐year, multi‐school research has focused on <emph>what is already working</emph> (Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref280">84</reflink>]) with students who have been historically marginalized in schools. Each year, as the teachers try to mediate their instruction using pedagogies that are culturally sustaining, they see students grow academically, and more importantly as humans. Exploring the deep meaning of cultural sustenance in school learning (Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref281">73</reflink>]) has led us to develop deeper understandings of the ways that children thrive when their languages, identities, and cultures are central to the process of learning to read and when these community cultural and linguistic practices are valued from school to classroom (Nash et al., [<reflink idref="bib105" id="ref282">105</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib108" id="ref283">108</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib107" id="ref284">107</reflink>]).</p> <p>The Cultural Sustenance View builds from our research, but is also grounded in an extended research lineage suggesting that the teaching of literacy should consider the crucial, full contexts of children's families, histories, cultures, languages, and histories (Au & Jordan, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref285">7</reflink>]; Baines et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref286">8</reflink>]; Cooper, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref287">36</reflink>]; Gay, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref288">55</reflink>]; Genishi & Dyson, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref289">57</reflink>]; Gonzalez et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref290">61</reflink>]; Hollins, [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref291">73</reflink>]; Ladson‐Billings, [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref292">84</reflink>]; Muhammad, [<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref293">103</reflink>]; Paris & Alim, [<reflink idref="bib119" id="ref294">119</reflink>]; Woodson, [<reflink idref="bib156" id="ref295">156</reflink>]). As the fruits of a deeply rooted lineage of culturally situated teaching pedagogies, culturally sustaining pedagogies offer a much needed change in mindset (Alim & Paris, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref296">5</reflink>]). Culturally sustaining pedagogies necessitate that our teaching be more than "responsive of or relevant to the cultural experiences and practices of young people—it requires that they support young people in sustaining the cultural and linguistic competence of their communities while simultaneously offering access to dominant cultural competence" (Paris, [<reflink idref="bib117" id="ref297">117</reflink>], p. 95). The Cultural Sustenance View likewise offers a much‐needed change in model; away from static, linear, componential views of reading to a non‐linear, non‐isomorphic view of reading that identifies the elements of culture and the way they interact with other cognitive reading processes of word recognition, language comprehension, and active self‐regulation (Duke & Cartwright, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref298">45</reflink>]). For too long, a false dichotomy has been set up between the neurological and the sociocultural elements of the human experience of reading (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref299">111</reflink>]). The Cultural Sustenance View seeks to establish a common ground between these unnecessary binaries, bringing together scientific evidence from reading psychology and sociocultural research (Nasir et al., [<reflink idref="bib111" id="ref300">111</reflink>]; Yaden, [<reflink idref="bib159" id="ref301">159</reflink>]; Yaden Jr et al., [<reflink idref="bib160" id="ref302">160</reflink>]). The Cultural Sustenance View is also important because culture has been statically framed as a deficit within much of reading research, popular ideologies, and media coverage—leading to critical research‐practice gaps that only deepen educational inequities and ignore our multiethnic, multilingual, and pluralistic reality (Moje et al., [<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref303">101</reflink>]; Teale et al., [<reflink idref="bib143" id="ref304">143</reflink>]).</p> <p>Perhaps most importantly, Remi's poem reminds us why a Cultural Sustenance View is needed; for children like Remi have been historically and currently marginalized in schools and have not always been afforded opportunities to "be amazing," to be "the universe," or to "live in the stars." Remi's story and poetic verse exemplify how a teacher can honor and extend the deep structure of a person's language and culture as it mediates complex reading and writing experiences, where present and future lifeways are normalized in life‐deep ways of reading.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-39">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors appreciate Kelly Cartwright for her willingness to put the Active View and the Cultural Sustenance View in conversation, and to Ashley Pennell and other colleagues for their feedback on the model.</p> <hd id="AN0183756683-40">Conflict of Interest Statement</hd> <p>The authors do not have a funding or other conflict of interest associated with this manuscript.</p> <ref id="AN0183756683-41"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref99" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Willis points to <emph>The First Grade Studies</emph> (Bond & Dykstra, [16]), <emph>Preventing Reading Difficulties</emph> (Burns et al., [26]), the National Reading Panel Report (Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, DHHS, [49]), and the book <emph>Meaningful difference in the everyday experiences of young american children</emph>, by B. Hart and T. R. Risley ([68]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref139" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> © 2021. <emph>Reading Research Quarterly</emph> published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Literacy Association. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial‐ NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0183756683-42"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta‐analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80 (2), 207 – 245.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. 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  Data: Toward a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kindel+Turner+Nash%22">Kindel Turner Nash</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1148-0826">0000-0002-1148-0826</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Roderick+Peele%22">Roderick Peele</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kerry+Elson%22">Kerry Elson</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alicia+Arce%22">Alicia Arce</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Erik+Sumner%22">Erik Sumner</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Bilal+Polson%22">Bilal Polson</searchLink>
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: 10.1002/rrq.583
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  Data: 0034-0553<br />1936-2722
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This article highlights a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading (CSVR), a complex reader model illuminated by vivid findings from an eight-year collaborative classroom-based study and extensive reviews of cognitive and sociocultural research. Within the CSVR, reading is conceptualized as being shaped by a readers' culturally and linguistically situated knowledge (ways of knowing), experiences and relationships (ways of being), and cognitive reading processes (ways of reading) which overlap and interact through the non-linear, active process of culturally mediated cognition. In extending the CSVR, the authors hope to supplant long- standing false dichotomies between the cognitive and sociocultural functions within the human experience of reading. In doing so, we hope to advance ideas about how learning to read can foster cultural sustenance--with children and their lifeways centered as full and complete.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1458568
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1458568
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/rrq.583
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 23
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Culturally Relevant Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Situated Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Diversity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Language Variation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Well Being
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emergent Literacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Participatory Research
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Group Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Ethnic Diversity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reading Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Disadvantaged
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Power Structure
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Theory Practice Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Research and Development
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Toward a Cultural Sustenance View of Reading
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kindel Turner Nash
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Roderick Peele
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kerry Elson
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Alicia Arce
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Erik Sumner
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Bilal Polson
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      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0034-0553
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1936-2722
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 60
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Reading Research Quarterly
              Type: main
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