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Describing Outcomes in Autistic Young Adults One Year after High School Graduation

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Title: Describing Outcomes in Autistic Young Adults One Year after High School Graduation
Language: English
Authors: Gael I. Orsmond (ORCID 0000-0002-4133-7326), Sharada G. Krishnan, Elizabeth G. S. Munsell, Ellen S. Cohn, Wendy J. Coster
Source: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2025 55(2):695-705.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R324A160113
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Autism Spectrum Disorders, Young Adults, High School Graduates, Employment, Interpersonal Competence, Independent Living, Life Satisfaction, Transitional Programs, Test Construction, Test Reliability, Outcome Measures
DOI: 10.1007/s10803-023-06152-x
ISSN: 0162-3257
1573-3432
Abstract: Purpose: Research documents poor outcomes for autistic adults in the domains of employment, independent living, and social relationships. Measurement and sample limitations in prior studies may have amplified past estimates of poor outcomes. The goal of the current study was to improve upon past approaches and to create and describe a measurement approach to capture adult outcomes that reflected the context of young adulthood and the perspectives of autistic individuals, pairing objective outcome indicators with subjective satisfaction indicators. Methods: Thirty-six autistic young adults (mean age 19.8 years) and a parent completed self-report surveys. Using these data, we defined an objective and subjective (i.e., satisfaction) outcome indicator in each of three domains: productivity (employment or post-secondary education), social well-being (frequency of contact with friends), and living situation (autonomy). Results: Three-quarters of young adults experienced at least 5 out of 6 positive outcomes. Over 90% were engaged in school, work, or a structured transition program, and an equal percentage were satisfied with their productivity activity. Over three-quarters of adults had a good amount of contact with friends and were satisfied with their social life. Most young adults had a moderate level of autonomy in their daily lives, and all were satisfied with their living situation. Conclusion: Tailoring outcome measurement approaches specifically for autistic young adults provided a more optimistic portrayal of outcomes than previously noted in the literature. The approach used better reflects a neurodiversity approach and may be useful for evaluating the effectiveness of transition services or interventions.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1460736
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0182958574;aut01feb.25;2025Feb13.05:25;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182958574-1">Describing Outcomes in Autistic Young Adults One Year After High School Graduation </title> <p>Purpose: Research documents poor outcomes for autistic adults in the domains of employment, independent living, and social relationships. Measurement and sample limitations in prior studies may have amplified past estimates of poor outcomes. The goal of the current study was to improve upon past approaches and to create and describe a measurement approach to capture adult outcomes that reflected the context of young adulthood and the perspectives of autistic individuals, pairing objective outcome indicators with subjective satisfaction indicators. Methods: Thirty-six autistic young adults (mean age 19.8 years) and a parent completed self-report surveys. Using these data, we defined an objective and subjective (i.e., satisfaction) outcome indicator in each of three domains: productivity (employment or post-secondary education), social well-being (frequency of contact with friends), and living situation (autonomy). Results: Three-quarters of young adults experienced at least 5 out of 6 positive outcomes. Over 90% were engaged in school, work, or a structured transition program, and an equal percentage were satisfied with their productivity activity. Over three-quarters of adults had a good amount of contact with friends and were satisfied with their social life. Most young adults had a moderate level of autonomy in their daily lives, and all were satisfied with their living situation. Conclusion: Tailoring outcome measurement approaches specifically for autistic young adults provided a more optimistic portrayal of outcomes than previously noted in the literature. The approach used better reflects a neurodiversity approach and may be useful for evaluating the effectiveness of transition services or interventions.</p> <p>Keywords: Adults; Autism spectrum disorders; Quality of life; Vocation/labor force participation; Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology Medical and Health Sciences Public Health and Health Services</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>Autistic individuals often experience difficulty attaining traditional indicators of adulthood, such as graduation from post-secondary education, sustained employment, independent living, and social relationships (Bouck & Park, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref1">11</reflink>]; Orsmond et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref2">47</reflink>]; Roux et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref3">53</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref4">54</reflink>]; Taylor & Seltzer, [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref5">64</reflink>]). Studies have consistently reported these poor outcomes in 50–60% of autistic adults (Henninger & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref6">25</reflink>]; Howlin & Magiati, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref7">27</reflink>]). A recent meta-analysis corroborated these poor outcomes (Mason et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref8">38</reflink>]), with aggregated data indicating that 20% of participants had a good outcome, 27% a fair outcome, and 49% a poor outcome. This historical narrative, however, has been challenged over the past decade, with researchers citing numerous outcome measurement challenges and sample limitations in prior studies that may have amplified past estimates of poor outcomes (Henninger & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref9">25</reflink>]; Mason et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref10">38</reflink>]). The goal of the current study was to create and describe a measurement approach to capture adult outcomes that reflected the context of young adulthood and the perspectives of autistic individuals, pairing objective outcome indicators with subjective satisfaction indicators.</p> <p>The historical narrative of poor outcomes risks undervaluing the unique strengths and assets of the autistic community (Pellicano & den Houting, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref11">49</reflink>]). Changes to the diagnostic criteria, the more recent availability of services and supports for autistic individuals throughout their lives, and changes to the economic and societal contexts that affect young adults (e.g., greater acceptance of time to explore careers, more young adults living with parents), necessitate a re-examination of the extent to which findings from earlier studies are representative of autistic adult outcomes today. Accordingly, researchers and autistic self-advocates have urged re-examination of what are considered "good" adult outcomes in this population (Bal et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref12">7</reflink>]; McCauley et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref13">40</reflink>]; Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref14">63</reflink>]).</p> <p>Autistic adult outcomes have traditionally been based on the attainment of normative objective outcome markers selected through "value-based decisions about what activities [researchers] consider to be a good outcome" (Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref15">63</reflink>], p. 918), such as competitive employment, living separately from one's family of origin without support, and having a certain number of friends. Most commonly, researchers have assessed adult outcomes using an overall outcome composite score developed by Howlin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref16">28</reflink>]), which categorizes an individual's outcome from very good (a high degree of independence) to very poor (a high degree of support needed) based on the attainment of normative outcome indicators. Recently, McCauley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref17">40</reflink>]) proposed an outcome measurement scheme to better accommodate the diversity in autistic adults' experiences and focused on three domains of adulthood: purpose (employment or education), social relationships, and autonomy. For autistic adults without intellectual disability (ID), they conceptualized outcomes largely in line with previous research: regular employment or education, having at least one friend, and living independently. For autistic adults with ID, outcomes were defined as supported or non-supported work or volunteering, any social contact outside of family, and daily living skills. In the current study, we drew from McCauley and colleagues' approach, retaining the three broad categories of adult outcomes, but adding subjective indicators to each and further refining the autonomy and social domains.</p> <p>Adopting a holistic outcome measurement approach, such as including autistic adults' subjective experiences or quality of life (QoL), can contribute to a more contextualized understanding of adult outcomes that better honors a neurodiversity perspective (Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref18">9</reflink>]; Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>]; Scheeren et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref20">58</reflink>]). Some research has examined QoL or subjective experiences in addition to normative outcomes. For example, Bishop-Fitzpatrick and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref21">9</reflink>]) measured objective quality of life in addition to normative outcomes of employment, independent living, and social engagement. According to mother-report, rates of positive normative outcomes were low and comparable to prior research. Quality of life was relatively high, and 80% of mothers reported that their autistic adult had good health and 47% of the adults were reported to spend time with family at least once a week. Similarly, Scheeren et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref22">57</reflink>]) used the outcome approach developed by Howlin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref23">28</reflink>]) and added a one-item subjective well-being question about happiness. Most autistic adults completed this item independently and reported they were 'equally happy and unhappy'; fewer than 10% were either almost always happy or unhappy. Researchers have also integrated both objective indicators and subjective satisfaction, according to parent report or researcher ratings, in studies that investigate employment (Neary et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref24">45</reflink>]), living situation (Billstedt et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref25">8</reflink>]; Neary et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref26">45</reflink>]; Scheeren et al., [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref27">58</reflink>]; Song et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref28">59</reflink>]), and social participation (Cameron et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref29">14</reflink>]). Within measures of overall adult outcomes, however, no prior researchers have paired both objective and subjective satisfaction indicators in each of these three domains (e.g., employment/school and satisfaction with that domain), prioritized adult self-report, or given equal weight to the subjective and objective experience.</p> <p>Our conceptualization of young adult outcomes was further informed by qualitative research reflecting the perspective and experiences of autistic adults. For instance, autistic young adults often value the quality of friendships over the quantity of friendships (Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>]; Lam et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref31">35</reflink>]). This finding suggests a need to focus on metrics of social contact other than the number of friends, which is frequently used as an outcome indicator. In addition, autism advocacy organizations have argued that it is more important for autistic individuals to have autonomy – to have control over their own lives, including being able to direct their own support needs – than for them to be pressured to "be independent" (Autistic Self Advocacy Network, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref32">6</reflink>]). In qualitative accounts of autistic transition-age individuals without intellectual disability and their parents, participants described the desired process of moving out of their the parents' home as gradual and contingent upon the autistic young person's development of autonomy (Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref33">16</reflink>]; Sosnowy et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref34">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>In this study, we focused on a specific subset of autistic young adults – those who had graduated from high school with a regular high school diploma. With a high school diploma, they are afforded opportunities such as acceptance to college and employment that require high school graduation. These youth, however, often receive few services and supports during the high school years (Orsmond et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref35">48</reflink>]; Rosen et al., [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref36">52</reflink>]; White et al., [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref37">69</reflink>]), despite having documented challenges with social interactions, executive functioning, and daily living skills (Alverson et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref38">3</reflink>]; Elias & White, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref39">18</reflink>]). As such, they may experience barriers to succeeding in post-secondary environments which they aspire to, including college and employment (Anderson et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref40">4</reflink>]). Therefore, the outcome measurement approach we developed was specific to autistic young adults without intellectual disability. It incorporated both an objective and subjective indicator in three outcome domains: productivity, social well-being, and living situation. The definitions of these outcomes were adjusted based on current normative expectations (e.g., continued living with family seen as acceptable) and autism-specific considerations (e.g., contact with friends rather than number of friends). The availability of a better measure of autistic young adult outcomes may be helpful in evaluating the effectiveness of newly developed interventions, programs, and supports for transition-age youth and adults (Sosnowy et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref41">60</reflink>]). We anticipate the approach and findings will provide important considerations for researchers and and the autism community as the conversation about meaningful and appropriate adult outcomes measures continues.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-2">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182958574-3">Participants</hd> <p>The present analysis included 36 autistic young adults (<emph>M</emph><subs>age</subs> = 19.8 years; <emph>SD</emph> = 0.5) who were initially recruited during their final year of high school. Young adults and a parent provided data approximately one year (<emph>M</emph> = 1.43 years; <emph>SD</emph> = 0.38) post expected high school graduation. At that point, all participants had completed high school degree requirements, although two participants had delayed receipt of their diploma so that they could participate in a school-funded post-secondary transition program. Participants were recruited from high schools and service organizations across the United States and were eligible if they had received a diagnosis on the autism spectrum from a professional, were currently or had received special education services under the autism disability category, and planned to graduate high school with a regular diploma. Participants were excluded if they had intellectual disability, expected to receive a certificate of completion from high school rather than graduate with a diploma, or had significant physical limitations, per caregiver report.</p> <p>Upon expression of interest in the study, a parent completed the Social Communication Questionnaire – Lifetime Version (SCQ-L; Rutter et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref42">56</reflink>]) and all autistic individuals received a score of 15 or higher to verify traits consistent with an autism diagnosis (<emph>M</emph> = 21.5, <emph>SD</emph> = 4.4). Parents also completed the SCQ-Current version, reflecting current behaviors of young adults, which reflected lower average scores and thus improvement in behaviors (<emph>M</emph> = 12.9; <emph>SD</emph> = 5.7). At the time of recruitment in high school, parents reported on young adults' co-occurring diagnoses. Many had co-occurring anxiety and attention deficit disorder diagnoses, and about one-third had reported depression and diagnosed learning disability. Demographic characteristics of parents and autistic individuals are presented in Table 1. Young adult age and gender were available for all 36 participants. One parent did not participate, and thus the remaining demographic characteristics (all parent-reported) are based on a sample size of 35.</p> <p>Table 1 Characteristics of autistic young adults and parents</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Autistic young adults</p></th><th align="left"><p>%</p></th><th align="left" colspan="2"><p>n</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Age, <italic>M</italic></p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>M</italic> = 19.8 (<italic>SD</italic> = 0.5)</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Asian</p><p>Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander</p><p>White</p><p>Two or more Races</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.6</p><p>2.8</p><p>80.6</p><p>8.3</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>2</p><p>1</p><p>29</p><p>3</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Ethnicity</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Hispanic or Latino</p><p>Not Hispanic or Latino</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.8</p><p>91.7</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>1</p><p>33</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Male</p><p>Female</p><p>Prefer to self-describe (Trans female)</p></td><td align="left"><p>80.6</p><p>16.7</p><p>2.8</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>29</p><p>6</p><p>1</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Co-occurring conditions</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Anxiety disorder</p><p>ADD/ADHD</p><p>Depression</p><p>Learning disability</p><p>Bipolar disorder</p><p>Obsessive-compulsive disorder</p><p>Oppositional defiant disorder</p><p>Hearing impairment</p></td><td align="left"><p>75</p><p>72.2</p><p>47.2</p><p>41.7</p><p>19.4</p><p>16.7</p><p>5.6</p><p>2.8</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>27</p><p>26</p><p>17</p><p>15</p><p>7</p><p>6</p><p>2</p><p>1</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parents (<italic>n</italic> = 35)</p></td><td align="left"><p>%</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>n</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Female</p><p>Male</p></td><td align="left"><p>94.4</p><p>2.8</p></td><td align="left"><p>34</p><p>1</p></td><td align="left" colspan="1" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Respondent's highest level of education</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>High school graduate</p><p>Some college or Associate's degree</p><p>Bachelor's degree</p><p>Some graduate school or Graduate degree</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.8</p><p>19.4</p><p>13.9</p><p>61.1</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>1</p><p>7</p><p>5</p><p>22</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Household pre-tax income</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><$30,000</p><p>$30,000 - $49,999</p><p>$50,000 – $99,999</p><p>$100,000 - $149,999</p><p>>$150,000</p><p>Prefer not to say</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.8</p><p>13.9</p><p>16.6</p><p>33.3</p><p>16.6</p><p>13.9</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>1</p><p>5</p><p>6</p><p>12</p><p>6</p><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Community Type<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Urban</p><p>Suburban</p><p>Rural</p></td><td align="left"><p>19.4</p><p>75.0</p><p>5.6</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>7</p><p>27</p><p>2</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>a</sups> Participants were able to select more than one community type</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-4">Procedures</hd> <p>All study procedures were approved by the Boston University Charles River Campus Institutional Review Board. Young adults and their parent provided informed consent and completed measures via Qualtrics; some young adults did not wish to participate, but provided consent for their parents to participate. Participants were contacted approximately 14 months after the autistic individual was expected to graduate high school. Parents and young adults were provided with separate links to an online consent form and the measures. Participants received electronic gift cards upon completion of the measures.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-5">Measures</hd> <p>In addition to demographic characteristics, parents and young adults completed standardized measures and survey questions about the young adult's life after school. Both parent and young adult surveys included questions related to young adults' productivity (e.g., work, post-secondary education), social satisfaction, and living situation.</p> <p>Using both adult self-report and parent data, we created indicators to represent three domains of adult outcomes: productivity, social well-being, and autonomy in living situation. For each domain, an objective outcome indicator and a subjective outcome indicator (i.e., young adult satisfaction in the domain) were defined. These six indicators were each coded dichotomously (1 representing a positive outcome, 0 representing a negative outcome) so that a composite outcome measure could be created that equally weighted objective and subjective indicators. Descriptions of outcome indicators are presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2 Description and frequencies of positive objective and subjective outcome indicators for the sample of 36 autistic young adults</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2"><p>Outcome Domain</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Positive Objective Outcome</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Positive Subjective Outcome</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Description</p></th><th align="left"><p>%</p></th><th align="left"><p>n</p></th><th align="left"><p>Description</p></th><th align="left"><p>%</p></th><th align="left"><p>n</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Productivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>Engaged in post-secondary education, paid employment, post-secondary transition program, employment training program, or internship</p></td><td align="left"><p>94.4</p></td><td align="left"><p>34</p></td><td align="left"><p>Somewhat satisfied or very satisfied with work and/or education situation</p></td><td align="left"><p>88.9</p></td><td align="left"><p>32</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Social</p><p>well-being</p></td><td align="left"><p>Contact with close friends 3 or more times a month<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>77.1</p></td><td align="left"><p>27</p></td><td align="left"><p>Somewhat satisfied or very satisfied with social life</p></td><td align="left"><p>77.8</p></td><td align="left"><p>28</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Autonomy in living situation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autonomy in at least 4 of 8 domains queried (e.g., I can come and go whenever I want throughout the day).</p></td><td align="left"><p>72.2</p></td><td align="left"><p>26</p></td><td align="left"><p>Living situation is working out moderately well or very well</p></td><td align="left"><p>100.0</p></td><td align="left"><p>36</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Overall Outcome</p></td><td align="left"><p>Positive outcomes across all outcomes</p></td><td align="left"><p>50.0</p></td><td align="left"><p>18</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <sups>a</sups>Missing data for one participant</p> <p>For all indicators, we first used the young adult's self-report data, but if self-report data were unavailable, parent report data from analogous questions were used in its place. This approach balances the benefits of self-report, while also using parent-report when necessary, such as when the self-report data are missing or if adults are unable to independently report on a survey, creating an outcome measure that could be used across the autism spectrum. Young adult data were available for 28 of 36 (77.8%) participants for productivity, 29 (80.6%) for productivity satisfaction, 31 (86.1%) for social well-being, 28 (77.8%) for social satisfaction, 28 (77.8%) for autonomy in living situation, and 29 (80.6%) for satisfaction with living situation.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-6">Objective Outcome Indicators</hd> <p>For objective productivity, young adult and parent surveys queried whether the young adult was engaged in post-secondary education, paid employment, an employment training program, post-secondary transition program, or an internship. If the young adult was involved in any of these activities, young adult objective productivity was coded as positive; otherwise, objective productivity was coded as negative.</p> <p>Objective social well-being in young adulthood was measured with a question answered via self-report on the Adult Self-Report (ASR; Achenbach & Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>]) or by parent-report on the Adult Behavior Checklist (ABCL; Achenbach & Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>]). The ABCL and ASR scales provide reliable and valid norm-based information about emotional and behavioral health (Achenbach & Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref45">1</reflink>]) and have been used with autistic individuals (Gotham et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref46">24</reflink>]; Hong et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref47">26</reflink>]; Pickles et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref48">50</reflink>]). The item used from the ASR/ABCL queried frequency of social contact with friends, "About how many times a month do [you/the adult] have contact with any [of your] close friends? (Include in-person contacts, phone, letters, e-mail)." If the young adult had contact with close friends 3 or more times a month, objective social well-being was coded positive; if they had contact 2 or fewer times per month, it was coded as negative. This cut-off was based on large-scale population studies showing that 80% of young adults have contact with friends at least once a week (Nicolaisen & Thorsen, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref49">46</reflink>]; Werner-Seidler et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref50">68</reflink>]).</p> <p>The objective indicator of autonomy was derived from the sum total of the following 8 questions asked in the young adult survey: I can come and go whenever I want throughout the day; I can stay out at night as long as I want; I can choose what and when I want to eat; I do not need to let anyone know when I am going out; I can spend time with people whenever I want; I can choose whom I want to spend time with; I can choose how I want to spend my money. These questions were developed by the research team following a literature review on autonomy development. Internal consistency of the scale was high (Cronbach's alpha = 0.87) in the sample of 28 participants with self-report data. Parents responded to the same 8 questions with regards to their young adult. Objective autonomy was coded as positive if the sum was greater than or equal to 4; otherwise, it was coded as negative. We determined that for a young adult who recently graduated from high school, having at least 4 of the 8 autonomy indicators would represent a typical level of autonomy, considering that young adults in the general population may still be living with parents or in college and therefore a higher level might not be expected.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-7">Subjective Outcome Indicators</hd> <p>Subjective indicators assessed the young adult's satisfaction with each of the three domains. Questions for subjective indicators were on a three-point scale (e.g., not at all satisfied, somewhat satisfied, and very satisfied). To give equal weighting to objective and subjective indicators, it was necessary to collapse subjective responses to a dichotomous scale. We coded any level of satisfaction as a positive outcome, including endorsement of being "somewhat satisfied," reflecting that varying levels of satisfaction are typical in young adulthood (Moksnes & Espnes, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref51">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Productivity satisfaction was measured with two questions from the ASR: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>) "I am satisfied with my work situation" (paid employment) and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref53">2</reflink>) "I am satisfied with my educational situation" (school, college, or educational and training programs). Possible response options included: not true, somewhat true, or very true. We selected the question for the indicator based on the productive role that participants spent the majority of their week in. For example, for a young adult who worked part-time but was a full-time college student, the educational situation question was used. If these data were unavailable, parent report was used via the survey question, "How well do you think [your young adult's] work is working out for them?" Response options were: not at all well, moderately well, or very well.</p> <p>Social satisfaction was assessed by an item on the young adult survey. Young adults were asked, "Overall, how satisfied are you with your social life?" Answer choices were: not at all satisfied, somewhat satisfied, or very satisfied. Parent-report data used the question, "How satisfied do you think your young adult is with their social life?" The answer choices were same as the self-report question.</p> <p>Satisfaction with living situation was measured with a question from the young adult or parent survey: "In your opinion, how well is [your/your young adult's] current living situation working out for [you/them]?" Answer choices were: not well, moderately well, or very well.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-8">Overall Outcome</hd> <p>All participants included in the present analysis had data for at least five out of the six indicators; 1 participant had missing data for one indicator (social well-being). For each participant, a total number of positive outcomes (out of 6) was calculated. We defined the overall outcome score to be positive if participants had positive outcomes across all 6 outcomes, or 5 outcomes if one metric was missing. If one or more indicator was considered poor, then the participant's overall outcome was coded as mixed.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-9">Community Involvement Statement</hd> <p>During the development of the parent and young adult surveys, the research team incorporated the input of a community advisory board, which included an autistic young adult, parents of autistic individuals, and school personnel who worked with autistic high school students. While the research questions or outcome measurement approach in this analysis were not co-produced with community members, they were informed by research reflecting the perspectives of the autistic community.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-10">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182958574-11">Outcomes by Indicator</hd> <p>Table 2 and Fig. 1 present outcome indicators for the sample. In the year following exit from high school, over 90% of the participants had positive productivity outcomes. As shown in Fig. 1, these participants were engaged in post-secondary education (<emph>n</emph> = 12), attending a post-secondary transition program or employment training program (<emph>n</emph> = 4), or employed (<emph>n</emph> = 7). Eleven young adults were engaged in both post-secondary education and employment. For participants who were employed, 56.3% worked fewer than 20 hours per week, and 43.8% worked more than 20 hours per week. Four participants received on-site support (e.g., vocational rehabilitation services) at their place of employment, and five participants received accommodations because of a disability. Most young adults (88.9%) were satisfied with their primary productive roles (<emph>n</emph> = 18 somewhat satisfied; <emph>n</emph> = 14 very satisfied). Four young adults (11.1%) were not satisfied with their productive roles. Objective and subjective indicators of productivity were significantly associated (Fisher's exact test; <emph>p</emph> =.009); of the four young adults who were dissatisfied, two were not currently engaged in any productivity activity.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Positive outcomes met for autistic young adults</p> <p>With respect to social well-being, over three-quarters of young adults had positive social well-being, defined as interacting with their friends at least 3 times a month (77.1%). Over three-quarters were also satisfied with their social lives (77.8%; <emph>n =</emph> 17 somewhat satisfied; <emph>n =</emph> 11 very satisfied), while eight (22.2%) were not at all satisfied. The association between objective and subjective indicators of social well-being trended towards significance (Fisher's exact test, <emph>p</emph> =.060). The majority of young adults with higher levels of contact with friends were satisfied with their social lives (85.2%); of the eight who experienced limited contact with friends, four were dissatisfied.</p> <p>As presented in Fig. 1, most young adults lived at home with their parents or guardians (69.4%); other participants lived in on- or off-campus housing at college (19.4%) or housing provided by a post-secondary transition program (11.1%). Most young adults had considerable levels of objective autonomy in their living situation, as indicated by a score of 4 or higher on the 8-point scale (72.2%). All participants reported that their living situation was working out well (<emph>n =</emph> 17 moderately well; <emph>n</emph> = 19 very well). Tests of association between objective and subjective indicators could not be conducted due to the lack of variability in living situation satisfaction. Autonomy varied by the young adult's living situation. All young adults who lived in on- or off-campus campus housing experienced relatively high levels of autonomy. Seven of the 25 young adults living at home had limited autonomy, as defined by a score of 3 or lower, as did three of the four young adults living in post-secondary transition program housing.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-12">Overall Outcomes</hd> <p>Exactly half the sample had positive outcomes across all available outcome indicators, and 72.2% (<emph>n</emph> = 26) experienced at least 5 positive outcomes (Fig. 1). The remaining participants experienced 2 to 4 positive outcomes. The mean number of positive outcomes experienced per participant was 5.1 (<emph>SD =</emph> 1.1).</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-13">Self-Report Only Outcomes</hd> <p>To assess the impact of including parent report data, we conducted all analyses using only self-report (<emph>n =</emph> 28). Results were similar to analyses incorporating parent-report, and rates of positive outcome indicators were: 96.4% for productivity, 92.6% for productivity satisfaction, 75.0% for social well-being, 81.5% for social satisfaction, 70.4% for autonomy in living situation, and 100% for living situation satisfaction. In total, 57.1% of young adults reported positive outcomes across all six indicators.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-14">Discussion</hd> <p>In the present study, we defined and described objective and subjective young adult outcomes tailored to the context of young adulthood for a sample of autistic individuals who graduated from high school one year prior. To our knowledge, this is the first study that has adapted traditional outcome definitions to consider priorities of autistic young adults as well as the greater milieu of young adulthood. For example, by defining the objective independent living indicator in relation to autonomy, as opposed to place of residence, we acknowledged the shifting societal trend that living with a parent is currently the most common living arrangement among all young adults in America (Fry, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]) as well as a preference of the autistic community (Autistic Self Advocacy Network, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref55">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>Three-quarters of participants in our sample reported at least 5 out of 6 positive outcome indicators, suggesting a more optimistic narrative of outcomes for autistic young adults without co-occurring intellectual disability than previously noted in the literature. Previous studies have reported that about half of autistic young adults have good or very good outcomes (Farley et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref56">20</reflink>]; Mason et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref57">38</reflink>]; McCauley et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref58">40</reflink>]). The proposed outcome measurement approach likely painted a more optimistic picture of adulthood for this population because the indicators were operationalized to more accurately capture the complexity and reality of autistic young adulthood and gave equal weight to autistic adults' subjective experiences.</p> <p>The proposed outcome measurement approach is unique in its prioritization of self-report but use of parent-report if necessary. This dual approach serves two purposes within the context of assessing outcomes for autistic young adults. First, the inclusion of parent-report enhances the accessibility of the outcome measure, facilitating its utilization by researchers and clinicians, or in situations when the adult is not able to self-report for some reason. Second, prioritizing self-report is crucial when assessing subjective metrics such as satisfaction. Parents may feel uncomfortable judging their young adult's satisfaction with life (Müller & Cannon, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref59">43</reflink>]) or may not have an accurate view of the young adult's satisfaction (e.g., parents being likely to believe that young adults living at home with them are satisfied; Müller & Cannon, [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref60">43</reflink>]; Neary et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref61">45</reflink>]). The method of using self-report data when possible may overcome some of these barriers.</p> <p>Findings on productivity roles support the notion that a growing number of autistic young adults without intellectual disability are engaged in post-secondary education, and may in fact prioritize college over pursuing employment during the transition to adulthood. While some participants were solely employed, the majority were engaged in post-secondary education either solely or in addition to employment. These aggregate results align with a recent study by Flower et al. ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref62">22</reflink>]), who found that almost 90% of a sample of autistic young adults without intellectual disability were employed and/or enrolled in post-secondary education programs. In fact, similar trends are also observed in the general population of young adults, with over 60% of high school graduates enrolling in college (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref63">13</reflink>]) and many full-time undergraduate students opting not to pursue concurrent employment while at college (Hussar et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref64">29</reflink>]). Thus, it is possible that the seemingly low employment rates in the sample may reflect these recent shifts towards post-secondary education, rather than a narrative of poor employment outcomes (Alverson & Yamamoto, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref65">2</reflink>]; Roux et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref66">53</reflink>]; Taylor et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref67">65</reflink>]). Focusing exclusively on employment as the indicator of productive roles (e.g., the Overall Outcome Rating measure developed by Howlin et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref68">28</reflink>]) could potentially inflate the number of 'poor' outcomes for autistic young adults who choose college over employment.</p> <p>The way we operationalized social well-being may have contributed to the high rate of positive social outcomes observed in this sample by taking into account the diverse friendship preferences of autistic young adults (Brownlow et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref69">12</reflink>]; Finke et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref70">21</reflink>]; Sosnowy et al., [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref71">61</reflink>]). These considerations included that autistic individuals value the quality of friendships over quantity (Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref72">16</reflink>]; Hwang et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref73">30</reflink>]; Lam et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref74">35</reflink>]), and that virtual spaces can be valued contexts or facilitators of social participation for autistic adolescents and adults (Chan et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref75">15</reflink>]; Kuo et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref76">34</reflink>]; Mazurek, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref77">39</reflink>]; Milton & Sims, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref78">41</reflink>]; van Schalkwyk et al., [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref79">67</reflink>]); accordingly, we measured frequency of close contact with friends, including virtual interactions. Previous research has indicated that autistic individuals experience limited social participation in adulthood (Liptak et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref80">36</reflink>]; Tobin et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref81">66</reflink>]), though investigations on social satisfaction in this population have yielded mixed results (Cameron et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref82">14</reflink>]; Finke et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref83">21</reflink>]). By aligning the objective outcome of social well-being with the preferences of autistic young adults, our measurement approach may have captured more positive objective social well-being outcomes than previously noted in the literature. Furthermore, the trend-level association between objective and subjective social outcomes indicates that autistic young adults' social satisfaction was related to increased contact with friends, although some participants were satisfied with little contact. Taken together, our findings suggest that autistic young adults in our sample, by and large, have satisfying friendships that they may navigate on their own terms, rather than according to neurotypical or non-autistic terms.</p> <p>The inclusion of subjective outcomes offers additional insight into autistic young adults' outcomes by including both normative outcome attainment along with the individual's perception of satisfaction or success in each domain (Henninger & Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref84">25</reflink>]). For instance, the fewest participants experienced a positive outcome in objective autonomy in living situation, yet all participants reported satisfaction with their living situation. A possible explanation for this seemingly paradoxical finding may be attributed to the age and developmental context of this sample. Song et al. ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref85">59</reflink>]) found that younger autistic adults were more likely to live at home than autistic adults older than 25 years, and were more satisfied with their living arrangement than older autistic adults. The authors proposed that older autistic adults were more likely to live away from home because they had gained the experience necessary to do so. Indeed, autistic young adults and their families have expressed the need for a gradual transition from living at home to living independently, allowing time for skill development in executive functioning, managing daily life tasks (Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref86">16</reflink>]), and safety (Sosnowy et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref87">60</reflink>]). In the present study, all young adults with limited autonomy resided at home or in housing provided by their post-secondary transition program. While these more structured living environments may have restricted autonomy, they may be valuable as they afford autistic young adults the time and support to build needed skills for success in adulthood. When considering the fit between the individual and their living environment (Ruble & Dalrymple, [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref88">55</reflink>]), living in structured environments may be representative of an appropriate, rather than a poor, outcome within the young adulthood context, in which a core developmental tenet is building autonomy (Arnett, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref89">5</reflink>]). Service providers, such as school professionals who develop transition plans, should consider that independent living may not be preferred for all and collaborate with autistic youth and their families to design services that meet individualized goals.</p> <p>Moreover, these considerations prompt us to re-examine whether independence should always be the goal. Bishop-Fitzpatrick et al. ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref90">9</reflink>]) present the case of an autistic woman who was living at home with family, but was employed in a job that she found meaningful, was in good health, and had good quality of life with the support of her family. The authors argue that multiple developmental pathways can lead to a given outcome (i.e., equifinality; Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996, as cited in Bishop-Fitzpatrick, 2016) and that this case represents the outcome of "a good life" as much as attainment of traditional outcome indicators. The focus on independence also fails to consider cultural contexts that may value collectivism and interdependence (Long et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref91">37</reflink>]). Research has shown that families from such cultures anticipate that youth with developmental disabilities will live at home after high school graduation, and are willing to support youth for as long as necessary (Blue-Banning et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref92">10</reflink>]; Kim & Dababnah, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref93">32</reflink>]). Overall, the notion that autistic people should be independent and not require support "may well be perpetuating an impossible standard" (Cribb et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref94">16</reflink>], p. 1778). Rather, disability theorists posit that interdependence and autonomy should be valued, as they empower disabled people to have control over their lives whilst acknowledging the support needs of those with disabilities (Ells, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref95">19</reflink>]; Reindal, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref96">51</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-15">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>Although the results of our study are encouraging, the current sample is relatively small and primarily White and male, indicative of broader challenges recruiting and enrolling autistic individuals from diverse backgrounds (Jones & Mandell, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref97">31</reflink>]; Steinbrenner et al., [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref98">62</reflink>]). The positive outcomes in the current sample may reflect systemic advantages that are not available to the broader population. Low-income and ethnic/racial minority autistic individuals and their families often face challenges in accessing transition-related services, which may lead to disconnection from occupational, educational, and social activities in young adulthood (Eilenberg et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref99">17</reflink>]). Future research using this outcome measurement approach with a larger, diverse sample could provide a comprehensive understanding of systemic influences on adult outcomes.</p> <p>Furthermore, the sample consisted of a small, specific subset of autistic youth in the US – those who will graduate high school with a regular diploma. It is likely that autistic young adults with more significant support needs may have different experiences, such as navigating different barriers to post-secondary education or employment. We also defined most outcome indicators based on a single question each, which may not provide a robust measurement of outcome constructs such as work performance, social participation, or subjective satisfaction. Future research should consider instruments that provide a scale comprising multiple questions for each outcome domain (Munsell & Coster, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref100">44</reflink>]). Finally, although our outcome definitions were informed by autistic perspectives from the literature, future studies should be conducted in collaboration with autistic co-researchers and community members, to ensure that the outcomes captured best reflect the priorities of the autistic community.</p> <p>Overall, this outcome measurement approach appears feasible and may be replicated in other descriptive or intervention studies. Given our focus on the developmental phase of young adulthood, the approach may be particularly useful for evaluating the effectiveness of transition services (Sosnowy et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref101">60</reflink>]). It would also be interesting to see how the indicators used in the current study change over time in the years after high school. Additionally, future work should aim to examine the predictors of both objective and subjective outcome indicators. While extant research has primarily focused on demographics and individual functioning (i.e., IQ/cognition, communication, autism diagnosis or severity) as predictors (for a review, see Kirby et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref102">33</reflink>]), it is important to understand how potentially malleable targets that may be improved by services and supports predict outcomes. A longitudinal study to examine the relation of such factors to young adult outcomes could yield important implications for tailoring services to best support autistic individuals in the transition to adulthood.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-16">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We would like to thank the members of our community advisory board for their contributions in developing the survey instruments used in this study, as well as their thoughtful insights over the years.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-17">Author' Contributions</hd> <p>All authors contributed to the development of study methods. GIO led manuscript writing and participated in data analysis interpretation. SGK performed data analysis and contributed to drafting the manuscript. All authors participated in manuscript review and editing. All authors approved the manuscript to be submitted and published.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-18">Funding</hd> <p>The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R324A160113 to Boston University. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-19">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182958574-20">Ethics Approval</hd> <p>Ethical approval for all study procedures was obtained by the Institutional Review Board at Boston Univeristy. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-21">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0182958574-22">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0182958574-23"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref43" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach, T. M, & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA Adult Forms & Profiles. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref53" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alverson CY, Yamamoto SH. Employment outcomes of vocational rehabilitation clients with autism spectrum disorders. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Describing Outcomes in Autistic Young Adults One Year after High School Graduation
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gael+I%2E+Orsmond%22">Gael I. Orsmond</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4133-7326">0000-0002-4133-7326</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sharada+G%2E+Krishnan%22">Sharada G. Krishnan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Elizabeth+G%2E+S%2E+Munsell%22">Elizabeth G. S. Munsell</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ellen+S%2E+Cohn%22">Ellen S. Cohn</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wendy+J%2E+Coster%22">Wendy J. Coster</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Autism+and+Developmental+Disorders%22"><i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i></searchLink>. 2025 55(2):695-705.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 11
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: R324A160113
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Adults%22">Young Adults</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Graduates%22">High School Graduates</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employment%22">Employment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Independent+Living%22">Independent Living</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Life+Satisfaction%22">Life Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Transitional+Programs%22">Transitional Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Construction%22">Test Construction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Reliability%22">Test Reliability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Outcome+Measures%22">Outcome Measures</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10803-023-06152-x
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0162-3257<br />1573-3432
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Purpose: Research documents poor outcomes for autistic adults in the domains of employment, independent living, and social relationships. Measurement and sample limitations in prior studies may have amplified past estimates of poor outcomes. The goal of the current study was to improve upon past approaches and to create and describe a measurement approach to capture adult outcomes that reflected the context of young adulthood and the perspectives of autistic individuals, pairing objective outcome indicators with subjective satisfaction indicators. Methods: Thirty-six autistic young adults (mean age 19.8 years) and a parent completed self-report surveys. Using these data, we defined an objective and subjective (i.e., satisfaction) outcome indicator in each of three domains: productivity (employment or post-secondary education), social well-being (frequency of contact with friends), and living situation (autonomy). Results: Three-quarters of young adults experienced at least 5 out of 6 positive outcomes. Over 90% were engaged in school, work, or a structured transition program, and an equal percentage were satisfied with their productivity activity. Over three-quarters of adults had a good amount of contact with friends and were satisfied with their social life. Most young adults had a moderate level of autonomy in their daily lives, and all were satisfied with their living situation. Conclusion: Tailoring outcome measurement approaches specifically for autistic young adults provided a more optimistic portrayal of outcomes than previously noted in the literature. The approach used better reflects a neurodiversity approach and may be useful for evaluating the effectiveness of transition services or interventions.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: CodeSource
  Label: IES Funded
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Yes
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1460736
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1460736
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10803-023-06152-x
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 695
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Graduates
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Independent Living
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Life Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Transitional Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Test Construction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Test Reliability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Outcome Measures
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Describing Outcomes in Autistic Young Adults One Year after High School Graduation
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Gael I. Orsmond
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sharada G. Krishnan
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Elizabeth G. S. Munsell
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ellen S. Cohn
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Wendy J. Coster
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 02
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0162-3257
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-3432
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 55
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
              Type: main
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