View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

The VR-AI--Assisted Simulation for Content Knowledge Application in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: The VR-AI--Assisted Simulation for Content Knowledge Application in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training
Language: English
Authors: Joanna Pitura (ORCID 0000-0003-1659-1995), Regina Kaplan-Rakowski, Yuliya Asotska-Wierzba
Source: TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning. 2025 69(1):100-110.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Tests/Questionnaires
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Preservice Teachers, Language Teachers, Teacher Education Programs, English (Second Language), Second Language Learning, Second Language Instruction, Artificial Intelligence, Computer Simulation, Faculty Development, Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Reflective Teaching, Educational Benefits, Teacher Student Relationship, Teacher Attitudes, Foreign Countries
Geographic Terms: Poland
DOI: 10.1007/s11528-024-01022-4
ISSN: 8756-3894
1559-7075
Abstract: Pre-service teachers (PSTs) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) need extensive training, preparing them for challenges encountered in real classrooms. Such challenges include presenting the target content knowledge in front of the class and promptly responding to students' questions on the content. High-immersion virtual reality (VR) is increasingly seen as technology facilitating teacher training. When integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI), VR simulations can enhance teacher education by providing real-world practice opportunities. Drawing on cognitive flexibility theory (CFT), this case study investigated how pre-service EFL teachers (N = 17) in Poland interpret the VR-AI--assisted simulation designed to facilitate their content knowledge application. The results suggest that such simulations are valuable for professional development and reflective practice regarding content knowledge in pre-service EFL teacher training. The findings contribute to the broader understanding of the integration of VR and AI technology in language teachers' training programs aiming to support the application of content knowledge in real-life classrooms.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1460878
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwF_lMWB6bIfJ7RjTSp0Bqo7AAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPcWG89oy9-NY9BNZAIBEICBm_dYUNFEFC8YJsDlI495p7wUE4zS0Lp_ZDbd6uvQMFTaH_YjCjS1j56w3ymhzSit0TGGttqX_vLshKAgsb2-sz83Qudd1j7zZEPmezHyN8o3Cl0TQ459_olB6Wt68bk33KMbjQF5nO8NmL_IlQTD0qKC0h5zHcVTPukXtzsL2pUoOBuqYL6MNC4F439x3yTVg4cElC0iCZ43SKPl
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0182468368;ttr01jan.25;2025Jan29.03:45;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0182468368-1">The VR-AI–Assisted Simulation for Content Knowledge Application in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training </title> <p>Pre-service teachers (PSTs) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) need extensive training, preparing them for challenges encountered in real classrooms. Such challenges include presenting the target content knowledge in front of the class and promptly responding to students' questions on the content. High-immersion virtual reality (VR) is increasingly seen as technology facilitating teacher training. When integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI), VR simulations can enhance teacher education by providing real-world practice opportunities. Drawing on cognitive flexibility theory (CFT), this case study investigated how pre-service EFL teachers (N = 17) in Poland interpret the VR-AI–assisted simulation designed to facilitate their content knowledge application. The results suggest that such simulations are valuable for professional development and reflective practice regarding content knowledge in pre-service EFL teacher training. The findings contribute to the broader understanding of the integration of VR and AI technology in language teachers' training programs aiming to support the application of content knowledge in real-life classrooms.</p> <p>Keywords: Artificial Intelligence (AI) integration; Cognitive flexibility theory (CFT); Content knowledge application; Pre-service teacher (PST) training; VR-AI–assisted simulations; Education Curriculum and Pedagogy Information and Computing Sciences Artificial Intelligence and Image Processing</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Language teachers are language users who employ their language to communicate in both spoken and written forms. Simultaneously, they are responsible for teaching language as subject matter (content) to their learners. During their professional preparation, pre-service teachers (PSTs) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) are required to develop pedagogical skills allowing them to teach content and develop expertise in the content they will teach (i.e., the English language). As part of their training, they also need to apply their language knowledge in real-world classrooms during school placement (Meihami, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref1">34</reflink>]).</p> <p>The challenge concerns PSTs' development of content knowledge and their ability to apply it in teaching English in various classroom contexts. In this study, following Spiro et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref2">46</reflink>]), teacher training programs are viewed as settings for the development of advanced knowledge. PSTs enter these programs with subject matter knowledge gained during prior schooling experiences, but they cannot be considered experts yet. Developing mastery of the content beyond initial familiarity with key concepts (Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref3">46</reflink>]) and being able to apply content knowledge in real-world classrooms (Meihami, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref4">34</reflink>]) are essential.</p> <p>Developing advanced knowledge of English grammar and applying it to teach EFL learners can pose special problems for PSTs whose English is not their native language. English grammar, with its many rules and exceptions, can be difficult to master. The concept of the present perfect tense is particularly challenging because of the absence of its equivalent in the Polish language. To adequately prepare PSTs for classroom challenges, supporting them with regard to advanced knowledge of grammar (content) and their ability to apply that knowledge in classroom instruction is necessary. Teacher training simulations seem particularly relevant because of earlier successful efforts in the implementation of virtual reality (VR) simulations (VR simulations henceforth) in teacher training (e.g., Christensen et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]; Kosko et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref6">28</reflink>]; McGarr, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref7">33</reflink>]) and the fact that such simulations can offer PSTs the opportunity to apply content knowledge in a controlled, safe (Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref8">21</reflink>]) and ecologically valid way (Parsons et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref9">37</reflink>]). Importantly, when integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI), VR simulations can enhance teacher education by providing real-world practice opportunities. Using VR-AI–assisted simulations enables PSTs to recognize and rectify deficiencies in their grammar knowledge, resulting in an increased teaching effectiveness.</p> <p>This study aims to investigate how PSTs interpret the VR-AI–assisted simulation designed to facilitate their content knowledge application, with a specific focus on the grammatical concept of the present perfect tense. Drawing on the cognitive flexibility theory (CFT; Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref10">46</reflink>]) pertinent to creating learning environments that prepare learners for the use of their knowledge in unpredictable situations, our study explores how VR-AI–assisted simulations can enhance PSTs' content knowledge and their ability to apply it during instruction. The findings of this study will expand our understanding of the potential of using VR and AI technology in pre-service EFL teacher training.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-3">Literature Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-4">Teacher Training and Practicum</hd> <p>The teaching practicum, also known as teacher training or pedagogical practice, is a critical component for individuals aspiring to become professional educators (Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref11">32</reflink>]). This hands-on experience is a required part of the curriculum for all students wishing to pursue a teaching career. The practicum presents an opportunity for trainees to engage in the structured and supervised application of the theoretical knowledge acquired throughout their academic studies within real classroom settings (Becker et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref12">5</reflink>]). As such, the practicum serves as a bridge between academic study and professional practice, enabling students to grasp aspects of teaching that cannot be fully conveyed through a lecture or textbook.</p> <p>The transition from academic preparation to real-world teaching is challenging (Meihami, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref13">34</reflink>]). The primary challenge is the discrepancy between the pedagogical theories and technological applications taught in university courses and the practical realities faced in actual classroom environments (Hubbard & Levy, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref14">19</reflink>]). While classroom observations and the practicum provide valuable experience, they may inadequately prepare PSTs for real classroom settings (Alamri, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref15">1</reflink>]). Adapting teacher training programs is crucial, given the challenge of foreseeing the exact skills future teachers will require in a changing world (Flavian & Levin, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref16">13</reflink>]). Hence, pedagogical practice should help future educators prepare for unexpected teaching contexts.</p> <p>The practicum also allows PSTs to assess their own commitment and desire to continue in the profession as EFL teachers, offering them a realistic and objective appraisal of their chosen career path (Damnet, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref17">10</reflink>]). Additionally, changes in language education present PST programs with the challenge of preparing educators for diverse social situations (Komorowska, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref18">27</reflink>]). For instance, classrooms in Poland have already encountered an unexpected influx of migrant children, especially from Ukraine, due to the Russo-Ukrainian War. Consequently, Polish classrooms needed to quickly cater for students from different backgrounds and with various educational needs (Rokita-Jaśkow et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>]). Thus, teacher training must both impart specific teaching skills and foster the ability to adapt to the diverse and changing contemporary classrooms (Flavian & Levin, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref20">13</reflink>]; Rokita-Jaśkow et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref21">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Poland, practicum requirements encompass at least 60 hours of observations of English language classes led by in-service teachers. PSTs are expected to achieve an advanced (C1) proficiency level in English upon completion of their studies. An integral component of their practicum involves the preparation and delivery of five supervised lessons. Prior to these teaching sessions, PSTs must produce detailed lesson plans, which are reviewed and discussed with their educational supervisors to ensure their readiness for effective classroom engagement. Next, after PSTs conduct the required lessons, the educational supervisor of the practice evaluates their teaching using the Practicum Evaluation Form, which includes observations on various aspects of the student's preparation for the forthcoming independent teaching of English. In the Polish context (e.g., Pituła, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref22">39</reflink>]), although the practicum supports personal and professional development by enabling PSTs to apply theoretical knowledge, enhance language skills, and manage classroom challenges, some students experience anxiety and feel underprepared. This uncertainty is particularly visible when the Polish PSTs have to teach complex grammatical structures such as the present perfect tense (cf. Dillen, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref23">11</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-5">VR-AI–Assisted Simulations for Pre-Service Teacher Training</hd> <p>Because the practicum is central to PST training and practicum opportunities are limited, virtual simulations emerge as valuable platforms to enhance PSTs' readiness for their teaching careers. A virtual simulation is a method of replicating realistic or imaginary scenarios using digital environments. Virtual simulations have been increasingly popular in teacher education (thus sometimes referred to as virtual teaching simulations) as they provide trainees with scenarios mirroring real-life situations (Alessi & Trollip, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref24">2</reflink>]) and enable PSTs to build mental models of educational concepts (Jonassen et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref25">20</reflink>]). PSTs can benefit from such simulations because they encourage active participation rather than passive observation (Badiee & Kaufman, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref26">3</reflink>]). Virtual simulations offer a controlled and safe environment with scenarios offering repeated practice, reinforcing instant and continuous progress (Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref27">21</reflink>]). This study applied <emph>situational</emph> simulation because this type of simulation is most applicable to teacher training as it replicates elements of professional settings and teacher-student interactions (Alessi & Trollip, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref28">2</reflink>]).</p> <p>Until around 2016, virtual teaching simulations were mostly limited to low-immersion VR platforms (i.e., experienced using a desktop computer) such as Mursion (Hartle & Kaczorowski, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref29">16</reflink>]), SimSchool (Christensen et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref30">8</reflink>]) or the virtual world Second Life (Hartley et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref31">17</reflink>]). This early work gained interest as the avatar-based role-plays provided PSTs with ways to develop skills such as behavior and class management (McGarr, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref32">33</reflink>]). Overall, although low-immersion VR simulations showed a potential for teacher training, some limitations (e.g., the inability to use spontaneous gestures or teaching material and aids) constrained it from being considered optimal for teacher training.</p> <p>In 2016, the commercial release of VR headsets popularized high-immersion VR, leading to its growing use in teacher training for PSTs. High-immersion VR, defined as "a computer-generated 360° virtual space that can be perceived as being spatially realistic, due to the high immersion afforded by a head-mounted device" (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref33">23</reflink>], p. 522), differs from low-immersion VR in immersion level, embodiment, and features such as haptics and body tracking. High-immersion VR provides a safe space for experimentation and is known for creating a strong sense of presence and embodiment (Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref34">21</reflink>]). For the purposes of the current study, we used a VR-AI-assisted simulation which we define as a virtual environment that combines virtual reality and artificial intelligence to create immersive and interactive scenarios allowing PSTs to practice and refine their teaching skills.</p> <p>Teachers exhibit a willingness to integrate VR into their teaching practices, irrespective of their teaching style (Kaplan-Rakowski et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref35">22</reflink>]); however, the extent of their willingness to leverage VR for teacher training remains uncertain. Although the popularity of high-immersion VR for teacher training has been rapidly growing, few studies exist on this topic. A systematic review of high-immersion VR in teacher education (Billingsley et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref36">6</reflink>]) identified eight relevant studies. Covered contexts included education courses, mentoring induction programs and professional development focused on teaching skills improvement. The reviewed studies centered around four main areas: teaching classroom or behavior management skills (Bailenson et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref37">4</reflink>]), special education topics (Garland et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref38">14</reflink>]), students' emotional needs (Passig & Moshe, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref39">38</reflink>]) and content-area learning (Mikropoulos et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref40">35</reflink>]). Overall, the existing literature reports that the use of high-immersion VR enables improved comprehension of various disabilities and content-specific curricula, together with the ability of promoting emotional awareness.</p> <p>Studies into high-immersion VR for teacher training have been complemented by research using 360-degree video technology, spurred to its connection to VR. The interest in using 360-degree videos in teacher education has been surging mainly because viewers are offered a wider range of perspective compared with other media (Roche & Gal-Petitfaux, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref41">41</reflink>]; Shadiev & Yu, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref42">44</reflink>]; Shadiev et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref43">45</reflink>]). Previous studies centered on testing aspects of noticing (Kosko et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>]), reflexivity on teaching, preparation for internships and enhancement of content knowledge (Roche et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref45">42</reflink>]), concluding that this technology contributes to the understanding of teaching practices, cultivating organized knowledge about interpersonal relations (Theelen et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref46">47</reflink>]), and improves content knowledge (Kosko, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref47">29</reflink>]). While current research offers some insight, little research has targeted the context of language teachers needing to apply content knowledge in safe, ecologically valid settings such as VR.</p> <p>With the increased integration of AI within VR, teacher education has been affected. AI has been used for educational policy redesign and innovative teaching strategies (Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref48">50</reflink>]). Additionally, AI has been contributing to the development of educational applications, including virtual AI teachers for assisting students in learning (King et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref49">26</reflink>]; Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]). The use of AI in virtual classrooms has been showing promise in enhancing field training for PSTs, leading to skill development and effectiveness in teaching practices (Kaplan-Rakowski & Schnellbögl, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref51">25</reflink>]; King et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref52">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Some initial studies reported PSTs' learning experience of using a virtual practicum simulation with AI learners (e.g., Lee & Ahn, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref53">31</reflink>]). For example, using simSchool, PSTs can practice interacting with virtual AI students that are pre-designed to react differently to the PSTs' instructions and activities depending on the assigned characteristics. However, simSchool represents low-immersion VR, lacking the embodiment and sense of presence (Kaplan-Rakowski & Schnellbögl, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref54">25</reflink>]) that our study offers, as our PSTs used AI in high-immersion VR.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-6">Cognitive Flexibility Theory</hd> <p>Cognitive flexibility theory (CFT) is a constructivist theoretical framework formulated to enhance the effectiveness of advanced knowledge acquisition in complex domains (Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref55">46</reflink>]). This theory was developed to study how individuals acquire advanced knowledge and to identify the optimal learning conditions for such knowledge acquisition. The theory focuses on cognitive flexibility, denoting the capacity to apply one's knowledge flexibly to fit the demands of a given situation.</p> <p>According to this theory, introductory learning typically aims to expose learners to basic content to develop their general understanding of a subject, whereas the acquisition of advanced knowledge requires extensive hands-on experience (Spiro et al., 1998). To effectively employ one's knowledge in diverse situations, a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of the subject studied is essential. Learners need to achieve a deep understanding of the subject, engage in thinking about it and exhibit the ability to apply their knowledge flexibly in various situations. The theory also underscores the importance of dealing with complex problems encountered in real life. Learned concepts should be applied in unpredictable ways, requiring a high degree of cognitive flexibility as these concepts are applied differently each time to address complex issues. This study examines PSTs' application of advanced grammar, specifically the present perfect tense, in unpredictable teaching situations.</p> <p>Providing support for learners in their transition toward advanced knowledge is necessary (Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref56">46</reflink>]). This support can come from expert mentors and educational resources. In addition, the scholars outline the conditions that foster advanced knowledge acquisition, delineating four ways to provide support for learners. First, it is crucial to use <emph>multiple representations</emph> of complex concepts, such as examples and cases, to provide learners with a range of approaches to consider when dealing with a particular topic. Second, they encourage viewing learning as a <emph>multidirectional and multiperspectival</emph> process involving the interconnection of various concepts to create a network of knowledge elements. Therefore, it is vital to offer different methods for connecting these knowledge elements and to approach problems from different perspectives. Third, the scholars highlight the importance of fostering the skill of <emph>knowledge assembly.</emph> This entails encouraging learners to create their own solutions and ideas, rather than merely memorizing facts, with the objective of being able to adapt these solutions and ideas to suit the demands of specific knowledge application contexts. Fourth, the theory places considerable emphasis on the incorporation of practical <emph>cases of application</emph>, such as real-life examples and sample occurrences, to serve as instances in which knowledge is applied. This approach aids learners in understanding the subject matter and applying it in real-life contexts, bridging the gap between theory and practice. In this study, in line with the tenets of CFT, we devised a training simulation that highlights multiple knowledge representations, multidirectional learning, knowledge assembly, and the use of practical cases to support PSTs' deeper understanding of content knowledge and their ability to apply this knowledge while teaching.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-7">Research Purpose and Questions</hd> <p>Given that previous research on VR in teacher education has primarily focused on classroom management, special education, emotional awareness, and VR impact on teaching practices and interpersonal relations, a gap emerges. Specifically, it pertains to the use of VR and AI in the context of advanced content knowledge application among EFL PSTs before secondary school placement. Building on the principles of CFT, this study investigated how pre-service EFL teachers experience and interpret the VR-AI–assisted simulation designed to facilitate their content (grammar) knowledge application. The following research questions guided the study:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> RQ1: </bold> How do PSTs apply their knowledge while teaching in high-immersion VR? What problems do they encounter? What strategies do they apply to address these problems?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> RQ2: </bold> Do the PSTs engage in reflection on changes in their content knowledge and their ability to apply it in the VR-AI–assisted simulation? If so, how?</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> RQ3: </bold> How does the VR-AI–assisted simulation affect PSTs' content knowledge, if at all?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182468368-8">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-9">Research Design</hd> <p>A case study design, which is an empirical investigation of a current phenomenon within a real-world setting (Yin, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref57">49</reflink>]), was adopted to address the objective of this research study. The qualitative approach was considered adequate for capturing subjective perspectives and experiences through "close and extended analysis of the particular" emerging in "rich, real and uniquely human material" (Hood, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref58">18</reflink>], p. 67). Acknowledging the complexity of participants' experiences, the use of quantitative methods seeking generalization was deemed unsuitable. Consequently, we opted for a qualitative, in-depth exploration of how PSTs of EFL applied their knowledge of the present perfect tense to teach a group of intermediate (B1-level; Common European Reference for Languages, 2001) students in VR-AI–assisted simulations in efforts to prepare these PSTs for secondary school practicum. The case (i.e., the unit of analysis) in this study is the teaching session conducted by each pre-service EFL teacher in the VR-AI–assisted simulated classroom.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-10">Participants</hd> <p>The participants were graduate students (<emph>N</emph> = 17) seeking teaching qualifications in Poland by pursuing a Master of Arts (MA) degree in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language program at a Polish university. The students were EFL learners preparing to teach English. All the participants were female and their English proficiency levels ranged between B2 +/C1 (i.e., upper-intermediate/advanced; Council of Europe, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref59">9</reflink>]). These students had diverse teaching experience, with some students being one-on-one tutors or already being employed full time in state or private elementary schools. As part of their MA program, they were obliged to complete practicum in secondary state schools. All final-year students enrolled in the program during the 2023/2024 academic year were invited to participate in the study. The students familiarized themselves with the study using the study website. The volunteers provided informed written consent to participate. No compensation was offered for participation.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-11">Materials</hd> <p>The materials in the study included a VR application (Virtual Speech), VR equipment (Oculus Quest 2; https://<ulink href="http://www.meta.com/quest/products/quest-2/),">www.meta.com/quest/products/quest-2/),</ulink> and a study website. To conduct the class in VR, a commercial app Virtual Speech (https://virtualspeech.com/) offering roleplay activities for the professional development purposes was used. For this study, we used a free version of the traditional classroom (see Fig. 1). The class consisted of nine virtual students sitting in three rows of desks. The virtual class represented various races and genders. The virtual students were pre-programmed; their movements, such as nodding, gestures and gazing, were looped. There was a virtual blackboard available. The questions asked by the virtual class were AI-generated (see examples in Appendix 1).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Screenshots of the virtual classroom</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-12">Description of the VR-AI–Assisted Simulation</hd> <p>The simulated scenario entailed a teaching session in which study participants taught the present perfect tense to a virtual class of intermediate students. Throughout this simulation, both the teacher and learners were required to communicate in English only. Before the session, participants familiarized themselves with the project, the procedure and the Virtual Speech application via the study website created for this research. Upon entering the VR classroom, participants were supposed to teach the present perfect tense in the same way as they would in a physical classroom. They had an option to use the virtual blackboard to support their presentation. Following the presentation, participants were to answer questions asked by virtual learners pertaining to the topic of the present perfect tense, using an AI question-generation function within the Virtual Speech application.</p> <p>The length of the simulation was approximately 10–15 min. The start time depended on the availability of the VR headset; once it was available, the researcher assigned a participant to the headset, allowing them to begin the simulation. The end time was also determined by the individual participant, as they were allowed as much time as needed to complete their teaching session. To complete the simulation, participants were required to teach about the present perfect tense and address the virtual students' questions. Finally, participants exited the VR classroom and were directed to a separate physical room to complete the e-questionnaire.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-13">Instrument, Data Collection, and Data Analysis</hd> <p>To understand participants' experience with grammar knowledge application during the VR-AI–assisted simulation, we deployed a qualitative research e-questionnaire (Pitura, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref60">40</reflink>]). This data collection method was considered suitable for capturing the diverse ways participants made sense of the simulation, allowing them to report views in their own words. In line with the tenets of CFT, the instrument consisted of 11 open-ended questions (see Appendix 2) that enquired about the environment afforded in the simulation concerning advanced knowledge representation, multidirectional learning, knowledge assembly, and knowledge application in unpredictable teaching situations.</p> <p>The study volunteers were referred to the instructions on the study website. On the day of data collection, the participants were individually invited to a designated room equipped with a computer and a VR headset with hand controllers. Each participant followed the same data collection procedure: they taught their virtual class and completed the e-questionnaire. One researcher was available throughout the data collection process.</p> <p>The data gathered underwent thematic analysis to uncover insights into participants' experiences with teaching in a VR-AI–assisted simulation. We employed the codebook approach–one of thematic analysis approaches–to identify patterns within the dataset (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref61">7</reflink>]). This method uses a codebook to guide the analysis, where themes are conceptualized early in the process and are understood as overviews of topics that summarize participants' responses. In this study, the design of the codebook was determined by the research questions and served as a framework to map and organize the themes and topics within each theme.</p> <p>The analytic process involved several phases. It began by generating the codebook to include themes aligned with the research questions as follows:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> <bold> RQ1 themes: </bold> Content knowledge application, challenges, adaptation strategies,</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> RQ2 themes: </bold> Reflection on one's content knowledge, content knowledge application,</item> <p></p> <item> <bold> RQ3 theme: </bold> Impact on participants' content knowledge.</item> </ulist> <p>The next steps involved downloading and saving the dataset in a Microsoft Word document, followed by reading the participants' responses to become familiar with the data. Subsequently, chunks of text were organized manually around each theme in accordance with the codebook. For each theme, the analysis focused on summarizing the topics (specific issues) mentioned and describing participants' responses related to each topic. The identified topics within each theme are detailed in the Results section, with participants' words used to illustrate the points made. No qualitative data analysis software was used to analyze the data in this study.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-15">Content Knowledge Application, Challenges, and Adaptation Strategies</hd> <p>The analysis of participants' responses revealed several themes and patterns regarding the application of content knowledge, challenges encountered, and adaptation strategies employed in the VR-AI–assisted simulation.</p> <p>A predominant pattern emerged in how participants applied their knowledge of the present perfect tense during the simulation. Many participants replicated conventional teaching by presenting the present perfect tense in a similar way they would normally teach in their physical classrooms or how they were taught as English language learners. Within this approach, the participants focused on giving examples of sentences and explaining grammar rules, which was a consistent practice among the participants. In addition, some participants demonstrated an effort to engage virtual students by incorporating an additional step: before explaining the rules, they attempted to arouse students' interest.</p> <p>Participants encountered several challenges that can be categorized into four main areas: lack of interaction and feedback, absence of teaching materials, technological issues, and psychological factors. Although one participant mentioned difficulties in explaining the present perfect tense due to the absence of an equivalent structure in Polish, these challenges did not arise from their insufficient knowledge of grammar. Instead, a frequent challenge was the inability to gauge student understanding through facial expressions or reactions, which is what participants usually rely on in their classrooms. The lack of teaching materials normally available in a physical classroom was another prevalent concern. Technological challenges were also common, with some participants reporting issues with the VR equipment, which disrupted their ability to teach. Difficulties in using the virtual board were often mentioned as well. Psychological factors, including stress and insecurity, were further reported by participants as challenges in this virtual setting.</p> <p>To overcome challenges, participants employed various adaptation strategies, revealing several common patterns. Some participants focused on the oral presentation of key information about the present perfect tense, often accompanied by examples to illustrate grammar rules. In response to the lack of teaching aids, some participants made use of the board when possible, while others, unable to write on the board, resorted to gestures to illustrate concepts. Due to the absence of student reactions, one of the participants adjusted her teaching approach. She stated, "I had to stop myself from asking questions when I realized no one would answer me and had to switch into more of a lecture type lesson." Another participant adapted by giving virtual students names, which helped "to make them appear more humane." However, while most participants attempted to adapt to the challenges posed by the VR environment, one participant expressed an inability to overcome these difficulties.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-16">Reflecting on Content Knowledge and its Application</hd> <p>The analysis of participants' reflections revealed several themes related to their content knowledge and its application in the VR-AI–assisted simulation. These themes include knowledge reinforcement and practice, language use and terminology, confidence development, the impact of AI-generated questions, and the identification of areas for improvement.</p> <p>One of the main themes was participants' appreciation for the opportunity to apply their knowledge in practice. Participants recognized the simulation as a valuable revision tool, allowing them to consolidate their understanding of the present perfect tense. Another pattern emerged in how participants reflected on their use of language, including the terminology they employed while explaining grammar. Additionally, a positive trend was observed in the development of participants' confidence. Several participants reported feeling more confident in presenting content after completing the simulation, despite the challenges encountered.</p> <p>The AI-generated student questions had a positive impact on participants' teaching processes. These questions were consistently described as "thought-provoking" and "well formed," helping one participant "to organize the knowledge in my head." Another participant shared that the simulation sparked a new idea on how to approach this tense differently next time by adding an explanation of cultural differences in the use of present perfect.</p> <p>Finally, a common theme across reflections was an increased self-awareness regarding areas for improvement. Some participants became aware of the importance of preparation. As one participant declared, "I realized I need to organize my knowledge better and that I need to be well prepared because going with the flow doesn't work for me as I don't have a lot of experience yet and I cannot just revert to the things I've done before." Others highlighted the need for simpler and more precise instructions, whereas some emphasized the importance of having teaching aids, such as presentations and notes. The significance of managing teaching anxiety was also acknowledged; several participants noted that their performance could be improved by better handling their stress during the simulation.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-17">Impact on PSTs' Content Knowledge</hd> <p>Several patterns regarding the impact of the VR-AI–assisted simulation on participants' content knowledge were uncovered in the analysis. These patterns encompass varying degrees of knowledge change, shifts in knowledge application, the role of AI-generated questions, and the transferability to real-life teaching.</p> <p>Participants reported different levels of change in their understanding of the present perfect tense. While many indicated that their understanding of the tense remained unchanged as they were already knowledgeable in the topic, one participant found the simulation useful for revising the present perfect tense and a few others reported being able to remember the tense better and to distinguish it from other tenses.</p> <p>Despite minimal changes in core knowledge, an important theme emerged regarding how participants intended to apply their knowledge in teaching. Participants expressed a belief that their teaching skills had improved, not only for the virtual environment but also for conventional classrooms.</p> <p>The role of the AI-powered questions integrated into the simulation played an important role in participants' learning, though the extent of their influence varied. Many participants reported that these questions reinforced their understanding of the present perfect tense. There was also agreement that the AI-generated questions helped participants develop their ability to explain the tense.</p> <p>Participants held different opinions on the transferability of the simulation experience to real-world teaching. On the positive side, many participants saw value in applying the insights gained from the simulation to their actual teaching situations. Statements such as "Now I can prepare better for a lesson in real life" or "I feel that this experience can be transferred to real-world grammar teaching situations to a large extent. You know what it is like when students are looking at you (...)" reflect this optimistic perspective. Participants also declared that the experience could assist teachers in preparing to deal with "unexpected questions" asked by students and reducing anxiety related to public speaking.</p> <p>Some participants, however, expressed skepticism about whether the experience improved their ability to explain the content knowledge. They indicated limited student interaction as a barrier to the development of their teaching skills and questioned the direct applicability of insights from the VR-AI–assisted simulation to real-life classrooms. One participant expressed a preference for traditional classrooms and another found the absence of interaction to be artificial.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-18">Discussion</hd> <p>This study investigated pre-service EFL teachers' experiences and interpretations of VR-AI–assisted simulations designed to facilitate their content knowledge application before secondary school placement. Drawing on CFT (Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref62">46</reflink>]), this study explored the participants' ability to apply content knowledge in a high-immersion VR classroom and to reflect on their development of content knowledge.</p> <p>The designed VR-AI–assisted simulation allowed the PSTs to engage in teaching in a manner expected of them in a typical school setting. The simulation exposed the participants to various challenges and enabled them to demonstrate their ability to apply and adapt their knowledge. Given the importance of hands-on experience for advanced knowledge acquisition, the VR-AI–assisted simulation emerged as a learning environment that supports PSTs in developing their content knowledge expertise before real-world classroom placement. This finding aligns with previous research that suggests VR simulations can provide safe and immersive practice opportunities (Gruber & Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref63">15</reflink>]; Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref64">24</reflink>]; Kaplan-Rakowski, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref65">21</reflink>]). The study findings also reveal the value of AI in providing an environment where PSTs can adapt and apply their knowledge to meet the demands of unpredictable teaching scenarios. Specifically, AI-generated questions were unexpected and required a high degree of cognitive flexibility (Spiro et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref66">46</reflink>]), supporting participants' advanced knowledge application. While the VR-AI–assisted simulation presented some technological challenges, such as the lack of real-time student interaction (also reported in previous literature, e.g., Muir et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref67">36</reflink>]) and limited teaching aids, PSTs demonstrated their ability to overcome these obstacles. This adaptability suggests that the VR-AI–assisted simulation allows participants to experience problem-solving, which is crucial in effective teaching.</p> <p>Our study findings provide evidence of PSTs' engagement in reflection on their content knowledge and on their ability to apply content knowledge in the simulated classroom. This reflective process seems to have been triggered mainly by the AI-generated questions posed by virtual students, prompting participants to examine their lesson preparation, presentation techniques and identify areas of improvement. Aligned with the CFT notions underscoring the need to engage in thinking about the subject matter to deepen understanding, the VR-AI–assisted simulation appears to constitute a suitable venue for validating the understanding of the subject matter and self-assessing the ability to apply that knowledge to teaching.</p> <p>Finally, the results reveal the positive impact of the VR-AI–assisted simulation on participants' content knowledge. The reported improvement was particularly evident among those participants who had less familiarity with the present perfect tense, suggesting that the simulation served as a tool for revision and deepening understanding, which confirms some evidence in existing literature (e.g., Dobrowolski et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref68">12</reflink>]). The integration of AI-generated questions played a special role in this process because it let the participants become aware of some grammatical issues.</p> <p>No previous research has focused on the topic of AI being useful for the improvement of content knowledge in the context of VR simulations, highlighting the potential of AI to complement VR in enhancing content knowledge in PSTs' preparation programs. Our findings show that the simulation boosted participants' confidence in applying their knowledge and demonstrate the affordance of VR in providing a safe and supportive environment for experimentation and practice. This is consistent with existing research on the impact of VR on teacher training, which highlights the importance of safety in fostering effective learning. These results also align with research suggesting that VR is particularly beneficial in assisting individuals in managing performance anxiety (Kaplan-Rakowski & Gruber, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref69">24</reflink>]; Thrasher, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref70">48</reflink>]), providing evidence that VR-AI–assisted simulations can also address teaching anxiety. Overall, our findings support the claim that VR simulations, when paired with AI-based interactions, can create training environments allowing for the application of content knowledge and contribute to the development of expertise of subject matter among PSTs of EFL.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-19">Conclusions</hd> <p>The study provides insights into the potential of high-immersion VR combined with AI in pre-service EFL teacher training to support the development of the subject matter (the English language) in teacher education programs. Drawing on CFT, this qualitative study reveals the potential of the VR-AI–assisted simulation to foster professional competence and reflective practice, helping PSTs prepare for their school practicum. The incorporation of AI-based interactions appears promising in enriching the VR teaching experience as these prompt deeper understanding and reflection on the target content, thereby improving teaching confidence and efficacy. While this study emphasises the value of AI in VR simulations in teacher training, it also recognizes the necessity for continuous enhancements in interactivity.</p> <p>Acknowledging certain limitations inherent in our study is necessary. First, the study was designed in a way that constrained participants' prior exposure to VR technology, which could have influenced their engagement and training outcomes. In addition, the use of a free version of Virtual Speech software restricted access to some features potentially limiting the fullness of the simulated experience. Furthermore, the pre-programmed AI interactions in the software may have hindered the experience of spontaneity and realism of the simulation. For this reason, providing participants with more extensive training to maximize their familiarity with the platform is necessary in the future. Moreover, with recent advancements in generative AI (Lampropoulos et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref71">30</reflink>]) affording more interactive and adaptive simulations, future research should explore VR platforms incorporating AI-powered virtual agents capable of providing immediate, personalized feedback and more realistic responses (see a detailed discussion on the potential of VR-AI–assisted personalized adaptive simulations in teacher training in Kaplan-Rakowski & Schnellbögl, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref72">25</reflink>]). Other limitations concern the transferability and sustainability of the skills acquired through VR-AI–assisted simulations. As highlighted by Billingsley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref73">6</reflink>]), it is uncertain whether skills gained in VR simulations transfer to real teaching practices; neither is it clear whether these skills can be maintained long-term (Garland et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref74">14</reflink>]). Follow-up longitudinal research could, therefore, investigate the transferability of VR-AI–based experiences to real teaching environments and evaluate their longer-term effects. This research could also gather participants' feedback on the long-term impacts on teacher efficacy and the implementation of what they learned in their classrooms. Finally, the sole reliance on a qualitative approach in this study limits the generalizability of our findings. Researchers could incorporate quantitative measures or conduct complementary quantitative studies to provide a more rigorous evaluation of the effectiveness of VR-AI–assisted simulations in EFL teacher training.</p> <p>Despite these limitations, our findings provide implications for designing and implementing EFL teacher training, which can guide researchers, teacher educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers. Aligned with the tenets of CFT, VR-AI–assisted simulations can supplement traditional EFL PSTs' preparation methods by exposing trainee teachers to real-world teaching scenarios from diverse perspectives, creating a space for problem-solving and practical content knowledge construction. VR-AI–assisted simulations can provide an immersive environment where future teachers can experiment with various teaching techniques and adapt their strategies based on the feedback they receive. As such, they can be better prepared to meet the reality of the modern-day classroom.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-20">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-21">Competing Interests</hd> <p>The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <hd id="AN0182468368-22">Appendix 1</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-23">Examples of AI-generated Questions</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Can you give us an example of a sentence using the present perfect tense?</item> <p></p> <item> Are there any irregular verb forms that change when using the present perfect tense?</item> <p></p> <item> Can you provide us with some exercises that can help us practice using the present perfect tense?</item> <p></p> <item> Can you explain the difference between the present perfect tense and the simple past tense?</item> <p></p> <item> Are there any specific time expressions or adverbs that are typically used in the present perfect tense?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182468368-24">Appendix 2</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0182468368-25">E-questionnaire</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> "Present perfect" can be a complex grammatical concept. What challenges did you face in explaining this concept to the virtual students?</item> <p></p> <item> How did you overcome these challenges, if at all?</item> <p></p> <item> Did your understanding of "present perfect" change as a result of your participation in the virtual classroom? If so, how?</item> <p></p> <item> Did the questions asked by the virtual students influence your understanding of "present perfect"? If so, how?</item> <p></p> <item> How did you use your knowledge of "present perfect" to explain this structure to the virtual students?</item> <p></p> <item> How did participation in the virtual classroom contribute to your understanding of "present perfect", if at all?</item> <p></p> <item> Can you give an example of how you might apply what you learned about "present perfect" from the virtual reality simulation in a real classroom context?</item> <p></p> <item> During the virtual reality simulation, did you find yourself reflecting on your grammar knowledge? If so, can you describe your thoughts?</item> <p></p> <item> How do you think the virtual reality simulation experience influenced your understanding of your own strengths and weaknesses regarding your knowledge of English grammar, if at all?</item> <p></p> <item> Based on your experience in the virtual reality simulation, do you feel that your ability to explain "present perfect" has improved? What makes you think so?</item> <p></p> <item> To what extent do you feel the experience acquired during the virtual reality simulation can be transferred to real-world grammar teaching situations with real students?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0182468368-26">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0182468368-27"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref15" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Alamri, H. R. H. (2018). Challenges in practicum: Views and perceptions of EFL pre-service teachers towards field experience skills in real classrooms. Arab World English Journal, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no1.11</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref24" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Alessi SM, Trollip SR. Multimedia for learning: Methods and development. 20003; Allyn and Bacon</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref26" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Badiee, F, & Kaufman, D. (2015). Design evaluation of a simulation for teacher education. Sage Open, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/215824401559</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref37" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bailenson JN, Yee N, Blascovich J, Beall AC, Lundblad N, Jin M. The use of immersive virtual reality in the learning sciences: Digital transformations of teachers, students, and social context. Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2008; 17; 1: 102-141. 10.1080/10508400701793141</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref12" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Becker ES, Waldis M, Staub FC. Advancing student teachers' learning in the teaching practicum through content-focused coaching: A field experiment. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2019; 83: 12-26. 10.1016/j.tate.2019.03.007</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref36" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Billingsley, G, Smith, S, Smith, S, & Meritt, J. (2019). A systematic literature review of using immersive virtual reality technology in teacher education. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 30(1), 65–90. https://<ulink href="http://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/176261/">www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/176261/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref61" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Braun V, Clarke V. Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern-based qualitative analytic approaches. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research. 2021; 21; 1: 37-47. 10.1002/capr.12360</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref5" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Christensen R, Knezek G, Tyler-Wood T, Gibson D. SimSchool: An online dynamic simulator for enhancing teacher preparation. International Journal of Learning Technology. 2011; 6; 2: 201-220. 10.1504/IJLT.2011.042649</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref59" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Damnet A. Enhancing pre-service EFL teacher's teaching skill through teacher training: A case study of a university in Thailand. Advances in Language and Literary Studies. 2021; 12; 3: 1-11. 10.7575/aiac.alls.v.12n.3.p.1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dillen, M. (2023). Overcoming pre-service foreign language teaching anxiety with the help of virtual reality software: A contribution of the Ovation VR project [Master's thesis, Université Catholique de Louvain]. Université Catholique de Louvain. <ulink href="http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/thesis:43094">http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/thesis:43094</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dobrowolski P, Skorko M, Pochwatko G, Myśliwiec M, Grabowski A. Immersive virtual reality and complex skill learning: Transfer effects after training in younger and older adults. Frontiers in Virtual Reality. 2021; 1: 604008. 10.3389/frvir.2020.604008</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flavian H, Levin O. Using simulation-based learning to inform preservice teachers' professional development. Teaching Education. 2023; 35; 2: 145-161. 10.1080/10476210.2023.2240716</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Garland KV, Vasquez E, Pearl C. Efficacy of individualized clinical coaching in a virtual reality classroom for increasing teachers' fidelity of implementation of discrete trial teaching. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities. 2012; 47; 4: 502-515</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gruber, A, & Kaplan-Rakowski, R. (2020). User experience of virtual reality public speaking practice. In R. Zheng (Ed.), Cognitive and affective perspectives on immersive technology in education (pp. 235–249). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-3250-8</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hartle L, Kaczorowski T. The positive aspects of Mursion when teaching higher education students. Quarterly Review of Distance Education. 2019; 20; 4: 71-100</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hartley MD, Ludlow BL, Duff MC. Second Life®: A 3D virtual immersive environment for teacher preparation courses in a distance education program. Rural Special Education Quarterly. 2015; 34; 3: 21-25. 10.1177/875687051503400305</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hood, M. (2009). Case study. In J. Heigham & R. A. Croker (Eds.), Qualitative research in applied linguistics. A practical introduction (pp. 66–90). Palgrave Macmillan.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hubbard, P, & Levy, M. (Eds.). (2006). Teacher education in CALL (Vol. 14). John Benjamins Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Jonassen, D. H, Howland, J. Moore, & Mara, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective. Pearson Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kaplan-Rakowski, R. (2024). High-immersion virtual reality for pragmatics development. In C. A. Chapelle, N. Taguchi, & D. Kadar (Eds.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (2nd ed). Pragmatics. Wiley-Blackwell.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kaplan-Rakowski, R, Dhimolea, T. K, & Khukalenko, I. (2023). Language teachers' beliefs about using immersive virtual reality. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 12505–12525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11686-9</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kaplan-Rakowski, R, & Gruber, A. (2019). Low-immersion versus high-immersion virtual reality: Definitions, classification, and examples with a foreign language focus. In Innovation in language learning conference proceedings 2019 (pp. 552–555). Pixel.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kaplan-Rakowski, R, & Gruber, A. (2023). The impact of high-immersion virtual reality on foreign language anxiety when speaking in public. Smart Learning Environments, 10(46). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00263-9</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kaplan-Rakowski, R, & Schnellbögl, C. (2024). The potential of VR-AI–Assisted personalized adaptive simulations for teacher training. In Y. Choubsaz et al. (Eds.), CALL for humanity - EUROCALL 2024 short papers. https://doi.org/10.4995/EuroCALL2024.2024</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> King S, Boyer J, Bell T, Estapa A. An automated virtual reality training system for teacher-student interaction: A randomized controlled trial. JMIR Serious Games. 2022; 10; 4: e41097. 10.2196/41097</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Komorowska, H. (2017). Quality assurance in teacher education. Glottodidactica. An International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 44(1), 23–38.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosko KW, Ferdig RE, Zolfaghari M. Preservice teachers' professional noticing when viewing standard and 360 video. Journal of Teacher Education. 2021; 72; 3: 284-297. 10.1177/0022487120939544</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kosko, K. W. (2022). Pre-service teachers' professional noticing when viewing standard and holographic recordings of children's mathematics. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 17(4), em0706. https://doi.org/10.29333/iejme/12310</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lampropoulos, G, Ferdig, R. E, & Kaplan-Rakowski, R. (2024). A social media data analysis of general and educational use of ChatGPT: Understanding emotional educators. Educational Technology & Society.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lee, S, & Ahn, T. (2021). Pre-service teachers' learning experience of using a virtual practicum simulation with AI learners. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 24(4), 107–133. https://doi.org/10.15702/mall.2021.24.4.107</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Li, M, Kuang, F, & Dan, W. (2023). Exploring the characteristics of pre-service EFL teachers' practicum experiences: A complexity theory-based case study in China. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 8(13). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-00187-4</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McGarr O. The use of virtual simulations in teacher education to develop pre-service teachers' behaviour and classroom management skills: Implications for reflective practice. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2020; 46; 2: 159-169. 10.1080/02607476.2020.1724654</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Meihami, H. (2023). Situated learning in CALL teacher preparation programs: An ecological perspective to student-teachers' agency. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–27.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mikropoulos, T. A, Katsikis, A, Nikolou, E, & Tsakalis, P. (2003). Virtual environments in biology teaching. Journal of Biological Education, 37, 176181.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Muir, T, Allen, J. M, Rayner, C. S, & Cleland, B. (2013). Preparing pre-service teachers for classroom practice in a virtual world: A pilot study using second life. Journal of Interactive Media in Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Parsons TD, Carlew AR, Magtoto J, Stonecipher K. The potential of function-led virtual environments for ecologically valid measures of executive function in experimental and clinical neuropsychology. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 2017; 27; 5: 777-807. 10.1080/09602011.2015.1109524</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Passig D, Moshe R. Enhancing pre-service teachers' awareness to pupils' test-anxiety with 3D immersive simulation. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 2008; 38; 3: 255-278. 10.2190/EC.38.3.b</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pituła, B. (Ed.). (2014). "Praktyka czyni mistrza", czyli o przygotowaniu zawodowym studentów kierunków pedagogicznych. Raporty – opinie – propozycje zmian. Katowice: Śląska Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania im. gen. Jerzego Ziętka.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pitura, J. (2023). Using the e-questionnaire in qualitative applied linguistics research. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2(1), 100034.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Roche, L, & Gal-Petitfaux, N. (2017). Using 360° video in physical education teacher education. In P. Resta & S. Smith (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 3420–3425). Austin, TX, United States: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved September 3, 2024 from https://<ulink href="http://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/178219/">www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/178219/</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Roche, L, Cunningham, I, & Rolland, C. (2023, March). 360° Video uses in teacher education: A literature review. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 1205–1213). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Rokita-Jaśkow, J, Wolanin, A, Król-Gierat, W, & Nosidlak, K. (2023). Bridging the 'dual lives': School socialization of young bi-/multilinguals in the eyes of EFL teachers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 26(4), 395–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2022.2114788</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shadiev, R, & Yu, J. (2024). Review of research on computer-assisted language learning with a focus on intercultural education. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(1), 841–871. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2056616</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shadiev, R, Wang, X. Y, & Huang, Y. M. (2021). Cross-cultural learning in virtual reality environment: Facilitating cross-cultural understanding, trait emotional intelligence, and sense of presence. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69, 2917–2936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-10044-1</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Spiro, R. J, Coulson, R. L, Feltovich, P. J, & Anderson, D. K. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains (Technical Report No. 441, pp. 1–12). Bolt, Beranek and Newman.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Theelen H, van den Beemt A, den Brok P. Enhancing authentic learning experiences in teacher education through 360-degree videos and theoretical lectures: Reducing preservice teachers' anxiety. European Journal of Teacher Education. 2020; 45; 2: 230-249. 10.1080/02619768.2020.1827392</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Thrasher T. The impact of virtual reality on L2 French learners' language anxiety and oral comprehensibility: An exploratory study. CALICO Journal. 2022; 39; 2: 219-238. 10.1558/cj.42198</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Sage Publications.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, Y, Zhao, S, Tian, X, & Sun, H. (2023, March). Design and Development of "virtual AI teacher" system based on NLP. In 2023 11th International Conference on Information and Education Technology (ICIET) (pp. 141–145). IEEE.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Joanna Pitura; Regina Kaplan-Rakowski and Yuliya Asotska-Wierzba</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref47"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref71"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1460878
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The VR-AI--Assisted Simulation for Content Knowledge Application in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Joanna+Pitura%22">Joanna Pitura</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1659-1995">0000-0003-1659-1995</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Regina+Kaplan-Rakowski%22">Regina Kaplan-Rakowski</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yuliya+Asotska-Wierzba%22">Yuliya Asotska-Wierzba</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22TechTrends%3A+Linking+Research+and+Practice+to+Improve+Learning%22"><i>TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning</i></searchLink>. 2025 69(1):100-110.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 11
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Tests/Questionnaires
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preservice+Teachers%22">Preservice Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Language+Teachers%22">Language Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Education+Programs%22">Teacher Education Programs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22English+%28Second+Language%29%22">English (Second Language)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Learning%22">Second Language Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Second+Language+Instruction%22">Second Language Instruction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Artificial+Intelligence%22">Artificial Intelligence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Simulation%22">Computer Simulation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Faculty+Development%22">Faculty Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pedagogical+Content+Knowledge%22">Pedagogical Content Knowledge</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Reflective+Teaching%22">Reflective Teaching</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Benefits%22">Educational Benefits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Poland%22">Poland</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11528-024-01022-4
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 8756-3894<br />1559-7075
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Pre-service teachers (PSTs) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) need extensive training, preparing them for challenges encountered in real classrooms. Such challenges include presenting the target content knowledge in front of the class and promptly responding to students' questions on the content. High-immersion virtual reality (VR) is increasingly seen as technology facilitating teacher training. When integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI), VR simulations can enhance teacher education by providing real-world practice opportunities. Drawing on cognitive flexibility theory (CFT), this case study investigated how pre-service EFL teachers (N = 17) in Poland interpret the VR-AI--assisted simulation designed to facilitate their content knowledge application. The results suggest that such simulations are valuable for professional development and reflective practice regarding content knowledge in pre-service EFL teacher training. The findings contribute to the broader understanding of the integration of VR and AI technology in language teachers' training programs aiming to support the application of content knowledge in real-life classrooms.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1460878
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1460878
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11528-024-01022-4
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 100
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Preservice Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Language Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Education Programs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: English (Second Language)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Second Language Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Artificial Intelligence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Simulation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Faculty Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pedagogical Content Knowledge
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Reflective Teaching
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Benefits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Poland
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The VR-AI--Assisted Simulation for Content Knowledge Application in Pre-Service EFL Teacher Training
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Joanna Pitura
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Regina Kaplan-Rakowski
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Yuliya Asotska-Wierzba
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 8756-3894
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1559-7075
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 69
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning
              Type: main
ResultId 1