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Industrial Strikes in Higher Education: Ascertaining Causes and the Levels of Effect from Developing Economy Perspectives

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Title: Industrial Strikes in Higher Education: Ascertaining Causes and the Levels of Effect from Developing Economy Perspectives
Language: English
Authors: Edna Addo, Moses Segbenya (ORCID 0000-0003-0065-2183), Samuel Yaw Ampofo (ORCID 0000-0001-6510-2858)
Source: European Journal of Education. 2025 60(1).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Teacher Strikes, College Faculty, Higher Education, Developing Nations, Foreign Countries, Economic Factors, Productivity, Schools of Education, Teacher Salaries, Fringe Benefits
DOI: 10.1111/ejed.70026
ISSN: 0141-8211
1465-3435
Abstract: This study examined industrial strikes in higher education: Ascertaining causes and the levels of effect from a developing economy perspective. The study adopted the positivist philosophical position and a quantitative approach to collect data from 523 staff members of 30 Colleges of Education in a developing economy situated in Africa. Data analysis was performed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The study found that strikes among higher education staff in developing economies were influenced by both economic and non-economic factors. These factors subsequently affected productivity at Colleges of Education and subsequently affected students, teachers and the country as a whole. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the management of Colleges of Education that also doubles as the representatives of the employer or government should improve the condition of service for employees at the college by enhancing their salary, other allowances and fringe benefits.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1461364
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183654445;eje01mar.25;2025Mar17.06:27;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183654445-1">Industrial Strikes in Higher Education: Ascertaining Causes and the Levels of Effect From Developing Economy Perspectives </title> <p>This study examined industrial strikes in higher education: Ascertaining causes and the levels of effect from a developing economy perspective. The study adopted the positivist philosophical position and a quantitative approach to collect data from 523 staff members of 30 Colleges of Education in a developing economy situated in Africa. Data analysis was performed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS‐SEM). The study found that strikes among higher education staff in developing economies were influenced by both economic and non‐economic factors. These factors subsequently affected productivity at Colleges of Education and subsequently affected students, teachers and the country as a whole. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the management of Colleges of Education that also doubles as the representatives of the employer or government should improve the condition of service for employees at the college by enhancing their salary, other allowances and fringe benefits.</p> <p>Keywords: causes; college productivity; developing economies; effects; higher education; national effect; strikes</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The role of a conducive industrial atmosphere in enhancing both employee and organisational productivity cannot be underestimated (Oladosu [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref1">36</reflink>]). One of the factors posing a great threat to a harmonious industrial atmosphere in most workplaces is industrial actions that mostly manifest in the form of strikes and lockouts (Asante et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]; Breda [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref3">10</reflink>]; Pérez‐Muñoz [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref4">38</reflink>]; Hulden [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]; Gouzoulis [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref6">18</reflink>]; Cox [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]; Bartram et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]; Ahmad [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref9">3</reflink>]). Industrial strikes through the legal rights of workers relate to any action taken by two or more workers working jointly with the intention of restricting the output of such services with the aim of exerting coercive pressure on the employer (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref10">53</reflink>]; Odoh and Moluno [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref11">35</reflink>]). Therefore, a strike is a brief suspension of work by a group of workers to air a complaint or enforce a demand (Ahmad [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref12">3</reflink>]). There are several reasons for industrial strikes, which vary from sector to sector. The effects of industrial strikes are also very wide, affecting both parties to industrial relations at the workplace and external stakeholders (Isaiah and Damilola [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref13">24</reflink>]; Jolayemi and Fatomilola [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref14">25</reflink>]). Industrial strikes are a common phenomenon, particularly in Ghana and others like Canada, China, Nigeria, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref15">53</reflink>]; Murwirapachena and Sibanda [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref16">32</reflink>]; Rapatsa and Matloga [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref17">40</reflink>]). Taylor ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref18">53</reflink>]) contended that because strikes are frequent, they are viewed as a worldwide phenomenon.</p> <p>The tertiary education landscape is one of the most important sectors that prepares graduates for several other sectors in every economy, so it is for the Colleges of Education (CoE) that they train teachers who also further train/teach other learners at the lower level of the educational hierarchy or at the basic level (Oladosu [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref19">36</reflink>]; Pérez‐Muñoz [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref20">38</reflink>]; Odoh and Moluno [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref21">35</reflink>]). Thus, any industrial strike could affect both management and employees as well as escalate to the immediate students being trained, students at the lower level, and the nation as a whole (Pérez‐Muñoz [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref22">38</reflink>]; Odoh and Moluno [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref23">35</reflink>]). Tertiary education institutions in Ghana, South Africa, and Nigeria continue to face chronic interruptions in academic sessions due to persistent strikes by both students and staff (Ringqvist [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref24">41</reflink>]; Noh and Hebdon [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>]; Van Zomeren et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref26">55</reflink>]; Kaufman [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref27">27</reflink>]; Momodu, Matudi, and Momodu [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref28">30</reflink>]). Various worker groups and trade unions, such as the Colleges of Education Teachers' Association, the National Association of Teachers, the National Association of Graduate Teachers (NAGRAT), the University Teachers Association, and the Federation of Universities Senior Staff Association, among others, have all embarked on several industrial strikes in Africa (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref29">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref30">1</reflink>]) and these effects have been devastating for several stakeholders. The avoidance or reduction of strikes on the campuses of these Colleges of Education and their effects on stakeholders demands ascertaining the causes and effects of these industrial strikes.</p> <p>Existing studies on strike in Africa (Oladosu [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref31">36</reflink>]; Pérez‐Muñoz [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref32">38</reflink>]; Odoh and Moluno [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref33">35</reflink>]; Mozu [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref34">31</reflink>]; Isaiah and Damilola [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref35">24</reflink>]; Jolayemi and Fatomilola [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref36">25</reflink>]; Aun, Kolapo, and Ibraheem [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref37">7</reflink>]) have been conducted in the African higher education landscape. These studies have been centred on universities without considering Colleges of Education. Thus, there is a dearth of research on the causes of strikes and their effects on Colleges of Education in developing economies. Education colleges have different mandates from universities, and it is possible that the causes and effects of industrial strikes could be different from those of other sectors or subsectors. It is also difficult to determine how the effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education subsequently influences other sectors in developing economies. For this reason, this study sought to examine the causes and level of the effect of industrial strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education and other sectors. The study was guided by three research questions such as:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Examine the causes of industrial strikes in Colleges of Education in a developing economy.</item> <p></p> <item> Evaluate the general effect of industrial strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education in a developing economy.</item> <p></p> <item> Assess the mediating role of the specific effect of an industrial strike on causes and the general effect of industrial strikes in Colleges of Education in a developing economy.</item> </ulist> <p>The remaining sections of the paper focus on the literature review, methodology, results, discussion of the results, theoretical and practical implications, conclusions, and recommendations.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-3">Literature Review</hd> <p>The two main issues considered in this section include theoretical and conceptual reviews. The theoretical review was based on the social conflict theory, and the conceptual review considered the causes and effects of industrial strikes in higher education.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-4">Theoretical Review</hd> <p>Two main theories underpinned this study and these are Social conflict theory and Industrial relation theory.</p> <p>The first theory to review is the <bold>Social conflict theory</bold>. Because every organisation is considered a social environment in which people interact with one another, the social conflict theory is appropriate for this study. (Sarpong et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref38">42</reflink>]; Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref39">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref40">1</reflink>]). The two parties in an organisational environment, such as workers and their employers/management, interact in this situation. The conflict between labour and management is inevitable given their opposing objectives (Segbenya et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref41">44</reflink>]). It is a typical component of the relationship between labour and management. Marxist‐based social theory, known as "social conflict theory," contends that society's many social classes and individuals have varying amounts of material and intangible resources. Owners are viewed as exploiting employees when they pay less than their labour is worth increasing their profits (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref42">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>]). The roots of industrial strife are found here. According to conflict theory, conflict exists in every social structure due to inequalities in value, power, and status, where those in positions of authority (employers) attempt to subjugate those in inferior positions (workers) (Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>]). According to conflict theorists, this relationship is unfairly used in owners' favour (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref45">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref46">1</reflink>]). Marx maintained that the outcome of class conflicts guided societal progress through a dialectic process. Marxism contends that this conflict, which results from powerful and wealthy exploitation of the weak and poor, is the central theme of human existence. From this perspective, workers are exploited to earn money (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref47">53</reflink>]). It has been claimed that a factory owner must pay his employees less than they are worth making money. When workers realise that they are taking advantage of it, they get angry, resulting in agitation (Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref48">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref49">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Thus, the interaction between management and employers of workers at various Colleges of Education and the various staff at these colleges exist in the institutional environment. Social conflict theory suggests that conflict in terms of strikes is bound to happen because it is a human institution characterised by the employer who wants to make more profit by giving little to the workers and labourers who sell their labour and want more because there are poor, vulnerable, and dependent on the employer. Thus, strikes at Colleges of Education could adduce the feeling among workers that they are being cheated by their employers (Sarpong et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref50">42</reflink>]; Taylor [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref51">53</reflink>]; Abiwu [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second theory to be reviewed is the <bold>Industrial relation theory</bold>. A thorough framework for comprehending the interactions between employers, employees, and regulatory agencies in higher education institutions—particularly in developing nations—is provided by industrial relations theory. This theory places a strong emphasis on the value of labour rights, collective bargaining, and the function of unions in employment negotiations. According to studies, ineffective negotiating procedures frequently cause faculty and staff unhappiness, which in turn inspires strikes as a form of protest against perceived injustices in the context of industrial strikes (Garcia [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref53">16</reflink>]). According to the theory, financial hardships like funding shortages and budget cuts intensify tensions, hence it's critical that educational institutions set up efficient labour relations procedures to reduce hostilities.</p> <p>The application of Industrial Relations Theory to higher education in developing nations highlights major issues in labour dispute management. Conflicts over pay, working conditions, and job security can arise from institutions' limited resources, which is frequently the result of economic instability (Smith and Jones [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref54">51</reflink>]). Moreover, weak labour laws and regulations can make collective bargaining processes less effective, which raises tensions and increases the chance of strikes (Johnson [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref55">26</reflink>]). This theory emphasises how important it is to have a strong regulatory framework that facilitates just negotiations and takes into account the unique difficulties that educational institutions have in developing countries.</p> <p>The Industrial Relations Theory has an impact on the educational system and the economy as a whole, in addition to specific institutions. Higher education strikes have the potential to reduce academic output and lower educational quality, which will ultimately impact the economy's ability to find skilled workers (Thompson et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref56">54</reflink>]). For policymakers hoping to promote stability and expansion in the higher education sector, it is imperative that they comprehend the relationship between industrial relations and educational outcomes. Through the application of this theory, scholars can discern efficacious approaches to augment labour relations, mitigate the frequency of strikes, and ameliorate the overall performance of institutions in developing economies.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-5">Economic Causal Factors of Industrial Strikes and Productivity of Colleges of Education</hd> <p>Conflicts are said to develop from the deadlock in negotiations for collective agreements, daily worker concerns, and the interpretation of collective agreements (Amegee [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref57">4</reflink>]). To resolve these disputes, the employer and his employees typically engage in counter‐proposal or negotiation, with the goal of striking the best possible deal. The Industrial Relations Act 299, as amended by Ghana's Labor Act, 2003 (Act 651) for example, mandated both employees and employers to negotiate the terms and conditions of the employment relationship in good faith to minimise labour unrest. Despite the legal provisions, strikes are nonetheless common in Ghana's higher education landscape, and in other African countries, especially in recent years (Murwirapachena and Sibanda [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref58">32</reflink>]).</p> <p>Strikes have a variety of causes (Visser [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref59">56</reflink>]). Several studies have uncovered some of the factors that contribute to labour unrest. Amegee ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref60">4</reflink>]) concurs that many factors contribute to conflicts and support the ILO's conclusion. In their research, they concluded that the causes of strikes could be categorised into disputes over facts, goals, or processes. In his study, Obeng‐Fosu ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref61">34</reflink>]) cited causal factors such as the dismissal of union representatives, demand for management staff to be fired, a pay raise, a delay in salary payment, payment of severance pay, better working conditions, and failure to adhere to terms of collective bargaining agreement negotiations. Prasad ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref62">39</reflink>]) found the causes of strikes in India to include variations in working conditions, such as workers' pay, benefits, and allowances for permanent and casual workers. All of these factors have been further categorised into two economic and non‐economic causal factors.</p> <p>The economic causes of industrial strikes frequently have a major impact on productivity. Since employees commonly want greater compensation and resources in light of rising living costs and inflation, budgetary restrictions and inadequate funding are the main causes of labour disputes (Dor [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref63">14</reflink>]). These financial strains may cause tensions between academics and administration to rise, which may then result in strikes that impede academic work. Therefore, it is essential to address the underlying economic factors—such as fair compensation negotiations and sustainable funding models—in order to preserve a favourable learning environment and guarantee the long‐term productivity of colleges of education. Despite several studies on the economic causal factors of strikes, a lot is not known in the higher education landscape especially in the Colleges of Education in a developing economy. It is for this reason that this study hypothesised that:</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-6">1 Hypothesis</hd> <p> <emph>Economic causal factors of industrial strikes significantly affect the productivity of Colleges of Education</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-7">Non‐economic Causal Factors of Industrial Strikes and Productivity of Colleges of Education</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183654445-8">Effect of Strikes</hd> <p>Workplace strikes are largely influenced by non‐economic issues, which are frequently caused by poor communication, a hostile work environment, and poor management techniques. Good communication is essential to preserving a positive work atmosphere; miscommunication and animosity can arise when staff members don't feel informed about organisational changes or procedures. Uncertainty generates mistrust, according to Thompson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref64">54</reflink>]), while miscommunication can erode views of a leader's efficacy and foster a hostile environment, according to Garfinkel ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref65">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>The morale and engagement of employees are significantly influenced by the workplace culture. According to Johnson ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref66">26</reflink>]), a poisonous culture marked by prejudice or favouritism can exacerbate tensions and result in strikes. Labour disputes are more frequent when employees feel excluded or unsupported by their firm, as this reduces their commitment to it. On the other hand, businesses that value diversity and tolerance typically have lower conflict levels because these cultures encourage cooperation and lessen antagonistic dynamics (Smith and Brown [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref67">50</reflink>]).</p> <p>One of the most important non‐economic elements affecting strikes is management practices, which include decision‐making procedures and employee involvement. According to research by Garcia ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref68">16</reflink>]), participatory management approaches can reduce conflict, while removing workers from decision‐making can cause emotions of helplessness and disengagement. Furthermore, it is critical to have engaged employees since they are more likely to be devoted and satisfied, which lowers the likelihood of labour unrest (Thompson et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref69">54</reflink>]). Organisations can mitigate the danger of strikes and boost employee satisfaction by using inclusive practices, enhanced communication, and a positive workplace culture to address non‐economic issues. Despite these findings, a lot is not known in the higher education landscape especially in the Colleges of Education in a developing economy. It is for this reason that this study hypothesised that:</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-9">2 Hypothesis</hd> <p> <emph>Non‐economic causal factors of industrial strikes significantly affect the productivity of Colleges of Education</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-10">Effect of Strike on Colleges of Education and the General Effect of Industrial Strikes on an...</hd> <p>The individual, the industry, and the economy are all greatly impacted by industrial strikes by workers all over the world (Chukwudi et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref70">11</reflink>]). One of the results of labour strikes is that management is forced to adapt because it requires labour to help with production. This raises labour expenses and, in the long run, production costs for the organisation. In such situations, management decisions made during union negotiations and strikes affect shareholder value (Amegee [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref71">4</reflink>]). When pay negotiations begin, management has two options: negotiating and satisfying the unions' demands or allowing its people to go on strike. Any of these two well‐considered choices should be made per the option that will best protect the shareholders' assets (Chukwudi et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref72">11</reflink>]). However, because this does not always happen, losses to stockholders are larger. Short‐term earnings losses, market losses owing to potential customer losses, damage to equipment, plant, and other property, a decline in shareholder opinion of management, strained labour relations, and general harm to the company's reputation have all been highlighted as examples of these losses (Chukwudi et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref73">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Strikes have a number of negative effects on society, including decreased output or production, interruption of essential services, underutilization of capacity, scarcity, and high pricing of necessities, as well as higher unemployment and a declining labour force (Addison [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref74">2</reflink>]). International investors are unlikely to flock to a strike‐prone nation. It might be useful to keep in mind that, whether the dispute is resolved successfully or unsuccessfully, it is obvious that some harm must have been caused, and parties and the public must bear the costs (Addison [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>]). Numerous productive hours are lost during strike actions because of picketing, sit‐ins, and drawn‐out discussions. Time is wasted in protracted debates and talks between management and workers' representatives, where labour will undoubtedly want more while businesses will make concessions. The number of lost working hours increases as the strike lasts longer. When workers are unhappy, labour unrest can also result in a sharp decrease in customer loyalty and retention. This is due to dissatisfied employees' lack of enthusiasm for carrying out their responsibilities and playing their parts to ensure client loyalty. They fail to treat customers respectfully and engage them in productive dialogue, as they ought to. Customers who experience this have a bad opinion of the company, which causes them to go to one of its rivals in the market. A strike could be detrimental to the nation's economy by reducing the volume of trade on the Stock Exchange Market floor. Amegee ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref76">4</reflink>]) revealed that strikes negatively influence society by causing a lack of goods and services, loss of profit for businesses, loss of tax revenue for the government, reduced productivity for employers, and loss of jobs for employees. This contributes to societal problems. The effect on the general economy of a developing economy could differ from a developed economy. It is for this reason that this study hypothesised that:</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-11">3 Hypothesis</hd> <p> <emph>The effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education is significantly related to the general effect of strikes on other sectors of the national economy</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-12">The Mediating Role of the Effect of Strikes on Colleges' Productivity on the Relationship Bet...</hd> <p>Taylor ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref77">53</reflink>]), Abiwu ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref78">1</reflink>]), and Ige‐Akindele ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref79">23</reflink>]) are just a few of the studies that have been conducted in Africa to look at the consequences of strike action on the tertiary education landscape where Colleges of Education are also found. According to these studies, strikes have a number of adverse effects and consequences for public institutions worldwide. The first impact of strikes on the organisational productivity of Colleges of Education is poor student performance. Students are also impacted by strike action, in addition to universities. Second, the disruption of teaching and learning also occurs as a consequence of strikes at educational colleges. One of the detrimental effects of strike action in Colleges of Education worldwide has been highlighted as the disruption of efficient learning. Numerous studies in Ghana, South Africa, and other countries have discovered that persistent strike activities hamper learning over time (Wills [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref80">57</reflink>]). Learning is one of the main components of teacher‐training institutions, especially Colleges of Education (Asaolu [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref81">6</reflink>]). The emotional and psychological states of learners are always disrupted when there is a strike on campus, making their learning ineffective and unstable. Asaolu ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref82">6</reflink>]) asserted that disruption occurs when significant hindrances to academic tasks result from strike action by teachers of Colleges of Education.</p> <p>The third effect of strikes on the productivity of the College of Education is the disruption of the academic calendar or program. Unless a strike occurs while the legs are on vacation, there is never a strike action that does not interfere with the academic schedule. Researchers have found a link between strikes and the academic calendar (Olakunle [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref83">37</reflink>]). Students experience emotional and psychological effects when an academic program is disrupted as a result of a strike, particularly if they anticipate that the strike may force them to stay at school longer than expected (Olakunle [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref84">37</reflink>]). Learners may become demotivated by disruptions in academic programs, which discourage them from learning. When there is a strike, the Colleges must temporarily close, which could have an impact on educational programs. The fourth effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education is the delay in student graduation. Olakunle ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref85">37</reflink>]) found that a delay in graduation is one of the detrimental effects of strike action in public tertiary institutions. Strikes and student graduation have been found to correlate (Ige‐Akindele [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref86">23</reflink>]). Ige‐Akindele ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref87">23</reflink>]) asserted that protracted strikes at public tertiary institutions have delayed student graduation over time.</p> <p>Understanding how both economic and non‐economic factors influence the larger consequences of strikes on the whole economy depends on the mediating role that strikes play in college productivity. Budgetary restrictions and pay inequality are two examples of economic variables that frequently act as triggers for strikes, which cause major interruptions to academic activity (Garcia [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref88">16</reflink>]). However, non‐economic elements also have a significant impact on igniting labour unrest, such as workplace conditions, job satisfaction, and institutional governance (Smith and Jones [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref89">51</reflink>]). These strikes' effects on productivity have the potential to lower educational standards and postpone graduation, which will harm the economy's ability to find competent workers (Johnson [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref90">26</reflink>]). This decrease in production might cause greater societal unrest and discontent with educational programs in addition to making the already severe economic problems worse (Thompson et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref91">54</reflink>]). Thus, creating policies that support stability in educational institutions and lessen their detrimental consequences on the whole economy requires a knowledge of how strikes moderate the effects of both economic and non‐economic elements. Despite all these findings, it is not clear how the effect of strikes on Colleges' productivity mediates the relationship between economic, and non‐economic factors and the effect of strikes on the general economy of a developing economy like Ghana. It is for these reasons that this study hypothesised that:</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-13">4 Hypothesis</hd> <p> <emph>Effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education significantly mediates the relationship between non‐economic causal factors of strikes and the general effect of strikes on other sectors of the national economy</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-14">5 Hypothesis</hd> <p> <emph>Effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education significantly mediates the relationship between economic causal factors of strikes and the general effect of strikes on other sectors of the national economy</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-15">Conceptual Framework</hd> <p>The conceptual framework showed that strikes have both causes and effects. This study examines the effect of strikes on institutional productivity at the Colleges of Education in Ghana. Thus, the causes of strikes were the independent variable and these causes were divided into economic factors and non‐economic factors. The dependent variable of the study was the general effect of strikes on the economy of a developing economy. The mediating variable in this study productivity of Colleges of Education which is also the specific effect of strikes. Thus, both the specific effect and the general effect of strikes are the constructs of the effect of strikes in this study in the higher education landscape. Thus, the mediating results in the PLS‐SEM to be presented earlier will constitute the indirect effect representing Hypotheses 4 and 5 while Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 are the direct relations (Figure 1).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/EJE/01mar25/ejed70026-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="ejed70026-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Conceptual Framework of the study. Note: CoE = Colleges of Education, ECOF = Economic factors, NON‐ECOF = Non‐economic factors." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183654445-17">Methodology</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183654445-18">Context</hd> <p>The context of this study is Ghana, a developing country in West Africa. Ghana has several tertiary institutions such as Colleges of Education, Technical Universities, and Academic Universities. This study was limited to Colleges of Education that trained teachers in both basic and secondary schools in the country. These Colleges of Education are located in all the 16 administrative regions of the country.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-19">Study Design and Population</hd> <p>This study employs a positivist philosophical position and a quantitative approach. A descriptive survey research design was adopted for this study to enable the researcher to adequately and methodically describe the population, circumstances, or phenomena (Segbenya and Anokye [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref92">45</reflink>]). What, where, when, and how inquiries are also advantages of adopting a descriptive survey design for this study (Donkor and Segbenya [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref93">13</reflink>]; Husain et al. [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref94">22</reflink>]). This study collected data from 523 staff members of 30 Colleges of Education (out of 46 Colleges of Education in the country) in a developing economy situated in Africa. Simple random and stratified sampling techniques were deployed for this study because of the need to ensure that all staff of the Colleges of Education had equal chances of being selected and to gather data from the various strata in the population, such as gender and various Colleges of Education (Segbenya et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref95">44</reflink>]). Simple random was used after attaining the sample frame in terms of the total population for the entire 30 Colleges of Education (5023). Thus, the use of simple random was used to obtain the 523 randomly from a study population of 5023 (1–5023). The stratified sampling technique was also used to cater to the various strata in the population such as gender and various Colleges of Education. Thus, the sample of 523 was proportionately distributed among the various Colleges of Education, and the male–female gender dimension within the various Colleges of Education. The stratified sampling technique therefore allowed the study to get responses from both genders and various Colleges of Education considered in this study.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-20">Data Collection</hd> <p>The data collection was done with both open‐ and closed‐ended items questionnaire. The questionnaire was measured on a four‐point scale, with one (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref96">1</reflink>) denoting strong disagreement, two (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref97">2</reflink>) denoting disagreements, three (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref98">3</reflink>) denoting agreement, and four (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref99">4</reflink>) denoting strong agreements. The four‐point Likert scale was used in place of the more common five‐point one because the researchers did not want participants to choose neutral or indecisive answers because such answers could not be linked to agreement or disagreement (Sullivan and Artino [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref100">52</reflink>]; Bishop, Tuchfarber, and Oldendick [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref101">9</reflink>]; Krosnick and Presser [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref102">28</reflink>]; Finstad [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref103">15</reflink>]). More conclusive evidence and more lucid insights into opinions may result from this four‐point Likert Scale. Furthermore, if neutral responses on a five‐point Likert scale are added to the results, such responses can exaggerate the mean and standard deviation. The lack of a neutral choice can make it easier to interpret the findings (Minadzi and Segbenya [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref104">29</reflink>]; Segbenya et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref105">49</reflink>]; Segbenya and MensahMinadzi [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref106">47</reflink>]). Appendix S1 contains a sample of the questionnaire.</p> <p>The questionnaire was employed for quantitative analysis in this instance. The questionnaire was divided into two sections: questions regarding the study's primary goals and the demographic data of the respondents. The validity and reliability of the instrument through the pre‐test results, as shown in Table 1, revealed that the variables and the instrument for data collection met the acceptable threshold of 0.70 and above (Segbenya [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref107">43</reflink>]). Data Collection started from 1st July 1, 2023, and ended on 23rd December 23, 2023. A Google form version was sent to the WhatsApp platforms of teachers in the various 30 Colleges of Education used for this study through their leadership where individuals decided to participate or not. Those who participated then provided their responses which were recorded in the database of the questionnaire. Thus the 523 respondents of this study were teachers who consented to respond to this study out of 5023 study population. The 523 therefore was the sample size of the study representing 10% of the study population of 5023. The 523 sample of the study therefore represented respondents from the 30 Colleges of Education considered in this study.</p> <p>1 TABLE Pre‐test results.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">Variable</th><th align="center">Cronbach's alpha</th><th align="center">No of items</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">1</td><td align="center">Economic factors/causes</td><td align="center">0.833</td><td align="center">6</td></tr><tr><td align="left">2</td><td align="center">Non‐economic factors/causes</td><td align="center">0.797</td><td align="center">5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">3</td><td align="center">The general effect of strikes</td><td align="center">0.799</td><td align="center">8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">4</td><td align="center">Specific effect of strikes on Coe productivity</td><td align="center">0.870</td><td align="center">5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">5</td><td align="center">All variables</td><td align="center">0.916</td><td align="center">24</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Source:</emph> Field data (2023).</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-21">Data Collection Procedure</hd> <p>Data were collected from workers at various Colleges in 2023. This occurred barely 12 months after an industrial strike in this category of workers in the country. This time was chosen for data collection so that the strike actions embarked on by this category of workers did not influence their responses. Teachers in the 46 colleges belong to an association called the Colleges of Education Teachers Association of Ghana (CETAG), with a membership of about 5023 as of 2021. The CETAG union requires these teachers to negotiate with the government and other stakeholders for better working conditions, promote the professional development of teachers, and advocate for the rights of teachers in the Colleges of Education in Ghana. The study also focused only on the main or core staff of the Colleges of Education, who were academic or teaching staff. Apart from focusing on these teachers, only workers belong to the CETAG Union.</p> <p>This study ensured that all ethical guidelines and standards were followed to prevent responders from experiencing bodily or psychological harm. Specifically, there was an agreement to engage anonymously and consent to withdraw, even after the procedure had started. Additionally, this study ensured the privacy of the study participants. A verbal consent was obtained from respondents before data was gathered from them and respondents were free to leave at any time, even after the process had begun. The Department of Business Studies, College of Distance Education, granted ethical clearance to the first author of this manuscript (reference number CoDE/DBP/R.4/VOL.1/0737) on behalf of the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cape Coast.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-22">Data Analysis and Statistical Tools</hd> <p>Data analysis was performed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS‐SEM).</p> <p>Structural Equation Modelling with Partial Least Square Analysis was used to analyse the data for the hypotheses (PLS‐SEM). Over time, it has been demonstrated that PLS‐SEM is more reliable and efficient for analysing the association between variables than using SPSS software for regression analysis. In addition to effect size (f2) and coefficient of determination (R2), the model supports Importance Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) and predictive relevance (Q2). As a result, the model offers a more accurate goodness‐of‐fit test for quantitative data analysis. The alpha criterion of 0.05 will be used to calculate the significance. Additionally, by processing a range of data types, such as nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data, PLS‐SEM offers versatility in data analysis (Hair et al. [[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref108">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref109">19</reflink>]]). The other benefits of utilising PLS‐SEM, according to Hair et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref110">20</reflink>]) and Hair et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref111">19</reflink>]), include the constrictive assumptions of the CB‐SEM (covariance‐based SEM). These presumptions include the following: the study is centred on theoretical development and prediction; some of the variables are formative measures; the sample size is limited; and the normalcy assumption is not met. According to Hair et al. a larger sample size is preferable in order to precisely reflect the population and yield more precise model estimate results, even though PLS‐SEM functions with a small sample size. The ability of PLS‐SEM to normalise data for further analysis is a noteworthy advantage.</p> <p>Therefore, PLS‐SEM is good at modelling complex interactions involving multiple components and indicators. It is suitable for formative and reflective elements of exploratory research where theory is still being established, as it can handle models with a lot of variables. Unlike traditional SEM methods, which require large sample sizes to produce reliable results, PLS‐SEM can produce valid results with fewer samples. This is useful in fields where collecting data is expensive or time‐consuming. This flexibility allows researchers to work with a wider range of datasets. Because PLS‐SEM emphasises the prediction and explanation of variance in dependent variables, it is highly useful for applied research. For the purpose of developing strategies and making decisions in the actual world, researchers find it useful to assess the prediction strength of their models.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-23">Results of the Study</hd> <p>The pre‐test results for the instrument used for the data collection are presented before the main results are presented. The pre‐test results as shown in Table 1 have several implications and impact on the data collection instrument used for the study. That is, the results mean that all the variables of the study had overall Cronbach's Alpha values of.916 which was above the minimum threshold of 0.70 established for this study. The results mean that the data collection instrument attained reliability and validity threshold and could be used for the main data collection. For this reason, the main data was then collected using the questionnaire because it was adjudged valid and reliable.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-24">The Main Results of the Study</hd> <p>The two components of the presentation of the results are the demographic characteristics of the respondents and the main results of the hypotheses guiding the study. The demographic characteristics are presented in Table 2. The main demographic characteristics presented in Table are gender, age, and tenure. The results revealed that most of the respondents in this study were male (71.3%), were 41–50 years old (31.7%), and had worked with Colleges of Education for 1–5 years (61.4%).</p> <p>2 TABLE Demographic characteristics of respondents.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Demographic variable</th><th align="center">Frequency</th><th align="center">%</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Gender</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Male</td><td align="center">373</td><td align="center">71.3</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Female</td><td align="center">150</td><td align="center">28.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="center">523</td><td align="center">100.0</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Age</td></tr><tr><td align="left">20–30</td><td align="center">134</td><td align="center">25.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left">31–40</td><td align="center">140</td><td align="center">26.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left">41–50</td><td align="center">165</td><td align="center">31.7</td></tr><tr><td align="left">51 and above</td><td align="center">84</td><td align="center">15.8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="center">523</td><td align="center">100.0</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Tenure</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">1–5 years</td><td align="center">321</td><td align="center">61.4</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6–10 years</td><td align="center">103</td><td align="center">19.8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">11 years and above</td><td align="center">99</td><td align="center">18.8</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="center">523</td><td align="center">100.0</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <p>The results for the main hypotheses were preceded by a preliminary analysis using Construct Reliability and Validity, Discriminant Validity, and multicollinearity presence. The results of the first preliminary analysis, which assessed Construct Reliability and Validity, are shown in Table 3. The table shows four indices, and the first three were measured at a minimum threshold of 0.70 criteria suggested by Segbenya et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref112">46</reflink>]). The last indicator was also judged with a suggested criteria of 0.50 by Segbenya and Anokye ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref113">45</reflink>]). The results, as shown in Table 3, revealed that the values obtained for the first indicator (Cronbach's alpha) ranged from 0.762 to 0.892 for the four study variables. The values obtained for the second index (rho_A) also ranged from 0.786 to 0.902, and the third index (Composite Reliability) recorded values between 0.850 and 0.921 for the four variables of the study. It is also important to note that the last indices (Average Variance Extracted (AVE)) also recorded values between 0.638 and 0.771. The results for all four indices revealed that the four variables met the Construct Reliability and Validity requirements because the values were far above the minimum suggested threshold.</p> <p>3 TABLE Construct reliability and validity.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">Cronbach's alpha</th><th align="center">rho_A</th><th align="center">Composite reliability</th><th align="center">Average variance extracted (AVE)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">ECOF</td><td align="center">0.811</td><td align="center">0.827</td><td align="center">0.875</td><td align="center">0.638</td></tr><tr><td align="left">EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.762</td><td align="center">0.786</td><td align="center">0.850</td><td align="center">0.589</td></tr><tr><td align="left">NONECOF</td><td align="center">0.851</td><td align="center">0.852</td><td align="center">0.910</td><td align="center">0.771</td></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.892</td><td align="center">0.902</td><td align="center">0.921</td><td align="center">0.702</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <p>In terms of item loading for each of the variables presented in Table 3, the results are presented in Figure 2. The results revealed that all the items presented in Figure 2 loaded well, as their values were above the 0.70 minimum thresholds suggested by Donkor and Segbenya et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref114">46</reflink>]).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/EJE/01mar25/ejed70026-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="ejed70026-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 EFA and algorithm. Field survey (2023)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>The second preliminary analysis conducted on discriminant validity also produced the results shown in Table 4. Both the Fornell‐Larcker Criterion and Heterotrait‐Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) were used to determine discriminant validity, and the threshold used was based on Segbenya et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref115">46</reflink>]) maximum threshold of 0.850. The results obtained for the Fornell‐Larcker criterion ranged from 0.553 to 0.848, and the values obtained for the Heterotrait‐Monotrait Ratio ranged from 0.650 to 0.840. The results indicated that the PLS‐SEM model attained discriminant validity.</p> <p>4 TABLE Discriminant validity.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">ECOF</th><th align="center">Effect of Strike</th><th align="center">NON‐ECOF</th><th align="center">PRODCOE</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Fornell‐Larcker Criterion</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ECOF</td><td align="center">0.799</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">Effect of Strike</td><td align="center">0.561</td><td align="center">0.768</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">NON‐ECOF</td><td align="center">0.555</td><td align="center">0.555</td><td align="center">0.848</td><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.618</td><td align="center">0.729</td><td align="center">0.553</td><td align="center">0.838</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Heterotrait‐Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">ECOF</td></tr><tr><td align="left">EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.690</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">NONECOF</td><td align="center">0.650</td><td align="center">0.693</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.701</td><td align="center">0.840</td><td align="center">0.634</td><td align="center" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <p>The final preliminary analysis was a multicollinearity test, and the results are presented in Table 5. The maximum threshold used for determining acceptance or rejection was 3.30, as suggested by Segbenya and Oppong ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref116">48</reflink>]). The results presented in Table 3 ranged from 1.000 to 1.444, which means that the PLS‐SEM used did not experience any multicollinearity among the variables used in the study.</p> <p>5 TABLE Collinearity Statistics (VIF).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">ECOF</th><th align="center">EFFECT OF STRIKE</th><th align="center">NON‐ECOF</th><th align="center">PRODCOE</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">ECOF</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center">1.444</td></tr><tr><td align="left">EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">NON‐ECOF</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center">1.444</td></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center" /><td align="center">1.000</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-26">Results for Hypotheses Guiding the Study</hd> <p>The results for the five hypotheses guiding the study (three direct and two indirect) are presented in Table 6. The results show that all five hypotheses guiding the study have been accepted, since they all attained a statistically significant status. Specifically, economic causal factors of strikes (ECOF) are significantly related to Productivity at the Colleges of Education (PRODCOE) for Hypothesis 1 (<emph>β</emph> = 0.448, <emph>t</emph> = 4.634, <emph>p</emph> < 0.000). Hypothesis 2 was also accepted because non‐financial causal factors (NONECOF) were statistically significantly related to PRODCOE for hypothesis two at (<emph>β</emph> = 0.305, <emph>t</emph> = 2.517, <emph>p</emph> < <bold>0.012</bold>). Furthermore, Hypothesis 3 was also accepted because there was a statistically significant relationship between the effect of the strike on college productivity and the effect of strikes on general or national productivity (<emph>β</emph> = 0.692, <emph>t</emph> = 15.880, <emph>p</emph> < <bold>0.000</bold>). In terms of indirect relationships, Hypothesis 4 was also accepted because <bold>PRODCOE</bold> also significantly mediated the relationship between non‐economic causal factors of strikes at the College (NONECOF) and the general or national effect of strikes at the national level (<bold>EFFECT OF STRIKE</bold>) (<emph>β</emph> = 0.211, <emph>t</emph> = 2.462, <emph>p</emph> < <bold>0.014</bold>). Lastly, Hypothesis 5 of the study also established that the effect of the strike on productivity at the Colleges of Education significantly mediated the relationship between economic causal factors of strike and the general national effect of strike at (<emph>β</emph> = 0.310, <emph>t</emph> = 4.278, <emph>p</emph> < <bold>0.000</bold>).</p> <p>6 TABLE Path coefficients.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">Original sample</th><th align="center">Sample mean</th><th align="center">Standard deviation</th><th align="center"><italic>T</italic> Statistics</th><th align="center"><italic>p</italic></th><th align="center">Confidence intervals</th></tr><tr><th align="center">2.5%</th><th align="center">97.5%</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">H1: ECOF ‐ > PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.448</td><td align="center">0.450</td><td align="center">0.097</td><td align="center">4.634</td><td align="center">0.000</td><td align="center">0.219</td><td align="center">0.617</td></tr><tr><td align="left">H2: NONECOF ‐ > PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.305</td><td align="center">0.301</td><td align="center">0.121</td><td align="center">2.517</td><td align="center">0.012</td><td align="center">0.077</td><td align="center">0.563</td></tr><tr><td align="left">H3: PRODCOE ‐ > EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.692</td><td align="center">0.696</td><td align="center">0.044</td><td align="center">15.880</td><td align="center">0.000</td><td align="center">2.5%</td><td align="center">97.5%</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Specific indirect</td></tr><tr><td align="left">H4: NONECOF ‐ > PRODCOE ‐ > EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.211</td><td align="center">0.210</td><td align="center">0.086</td><td align="center">2.462</td><td align="center">0.014</td><td align="center">0.050</td><td align="center">0.398</td></tr><tr><td align="left">H5: ECOF ‐ > PRODCOE ‐ > EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.310</td><td align="center">0.313</td><td align="center">0.073</td><td align="center">4.278</td><td align="center">0.000</td><td align="center">0.153</td><td align="center">0.442</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <p>A pictorial view of the path relationship established and presented in Table 6 is shown in Figure 3. The pictorial view presented in Figure 3 further confirms the significant path relationship that was established earlier. Thus, both direct and indirect significant path relationships are shown in Figure 3.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/EJE/01mar25/ejed70026-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="ejed70026-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Bootstrapping analysis. Field survey (2023)." /> </p> <p></p> <p>The total contribution of all the variables of the study, as explained by the model, is denoted by R‐square and supported with R‐square adjusted are presented in Table 7 with the effect size of the established significant path relationship. The results revealed that the PLS‐SEM model used for this analysis significantly predicted an approximately 53% variance in the general national effect of strikes in Colleges of Education. Additionally, PLS‐SEM also predicted an approximately 45% variance effect of the strike on productivity at Colleges of Education.</p> <p>7 TABLE Total contribution of the variables explained by the model.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="center">ECOF</th><th align="center">Effect of strike</th><th align="center">NONECOF</th><th align="center">PRODCOE</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">f<sup>2</sup></td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">ECOF</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center">0.252</td></tr><tr><td align="left">EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">NONECOF</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center">0.116</td></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center" /><td align="center">1.135</td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="center" /><th align="center"><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></th><th align="center" /><th align="center"><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup> Adjusted</th><th align="center" /></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">R<sup>2</sup></td><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">EFFECT OF STRIKE</td><td align="center">0.532</td><td align="center" /><td align="center">0.527</td><td align="center" /></tr><tr><td align="left">PRODCOE</td><td align="center">0.446</td><td align="center" /><td align="center">0.434</td><td align="center" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 <emph>Source:</emph> Field survey (2023).</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-28">Discussion of Results</hd> <p>The finding that economic causal factors significantly influenced the productivity of Colleges of Education established for hypothesis one means that any percentage increase in economic causal factors will lead to the same percentage increase in the effect of the strike on productivity at the Colleges of Education. The economic factors identified by this study were dissatisfaction with the rate of wages/salaries, challenges with a single spine salary structure, and poor working conditions at Colleges of Education. This means that if the conditions under which the staff of the Colleges of Education continue to worsen and their salary and single spine pay structure are not revised, strikes at the colleges will continue to increase. The results therefore revealed that the increase in the strike at the colleges will also increase the effect on colleges' productivity. Some specific productivity‐related challenges that were affected by strikes at the Colleges of Education were academic activities such as teaching and learning as well as research and publications slowing down, and the negative effect on student performance in the Colleges of Education due to strikes. The findings of this study are in agreement with those of Oladosu ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref117">36</reflink>]), who also found that economic factors are responsible for most strikes in Africa. This adds to the knowledge that economic factors are equally responsible for strikes in higher education in developing economies.</p> <p>The results for hypothesis two that non‐economic causal factors significantly influenced productivity at the Colleges of Education also means that apart from economic factors identified under hypothesis one, there are other non‐economic factors responsible for strikes at the Colleges of Education. The results also indicate that any percentage increase in non‐economic causal factors has a greater impact on productivity in Colleges of Education. The non‐economic causal factors identified in this study were poor handling of workers' grievances, failure of the government to honour its agreement with workers on time, and mismanagement of the economy. The results further suggest that politicians' mismanagement of the economy suggests that resources abound for other workers to demand more, hence embarking on strikes. In addition, the government's refusal to honour the agreement between workers also infuriated workers from going on strikes. These industrial strikes also further affected colleges' productivity in terms of disruption of the academic calendar and delay in students' graduation. The findings indicate that as the staff of the college and the government contended for what should be given to the staff of the Colleges of Education, the students ended up suffering the brunt of the teachers' displeasure with their non‐financial causal factors. The results confirm the earlier findings of Mozu ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref118">31</reflink>]) that non‐economic factors also affect strikes among workers in developing economies.</p> <p>The third hypothesis also established that the effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education significantly influenced national productivity. This points to the fact that Colleges of Education are a microcosm of the higher education landscape and the country as a whole. Thus, when the subsector suffers, these effects are translated into the general economy because the Colleges of Education teachers further prepare graduates who serve in all sectors and spheres of national development. This means that any percentage increase in the effect of strikes on the productivity of Colleges of Education (such as the closure of teaching and learning activities, suspension of the academic calendar, and delay in the graduation of graduates), the higher the effect on national productivity in terms of huge lost revenue to the government and damage to the image of the country. The results are in agreement with the earlier findings of Isaiah and Damilola ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref119">24</reflink>]) that the effect of strikes by academics has a serious cascading effect on other sectors of the economy, since the education sector remains one sector that produces professionals for almost all other sectors of every country.</p> <p>The findings for hypothesis four are that the effect of strikes on college productivity significantly mediates the relationship between the non‐economic causal factors of strikes and the general effect of strikes. The results indicate that the relationship between the non‐economic causal factors of strikes and the general effect of strikes share their potency or predictive power with the effect of strikes on college productivity. This means that the lower the effect of strikes on college productivity, the better the relationship between non‐economic causal factors and the general national effect of strikes. Additionally, the findings for hypothesis five also revealed that the effect of strikes on college productivity significantly mediated the relationship between economic causal factors and the general national effect of strikes. This further reveals that the effect of strikes on college productivity significantly mediates the relationship between both non‐economic and economic factors and the general national effect of strikes. The results for hypotheses four and five suggest a relationship between the general national effect of strikes and both economic and non‐economic causal factors of strikes at Colleges of Education in developing economies share their potency with the effect of strikes on colleges' productivity. The findings of this study further confirm those of Jolayemi and Fatomilola ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref120">25</reflink>]) that the failure of Colleges of Education to achieve their academic goals due to strikes had serious repercussions on the general education sector and its ability to graduate students in various sectors of the national economy.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-29">Theoretical and Practical Implications</hd> <p>This study's findings have several practical and theoretical implications. The theoretical implication of the findings of the study for the social conflict theory used in this study is that the results of this study have confirmed that when workers feel taken for granted, they get angry and strike. This study contributes to this theory by revealing that anger workers or causes strikes in higher education are both economic and non‐economic causal factors. However, the economic causal factors were more influential than the non‐economic factors. This study further contributes to the social conflict theory that the effect of strikes embarked on by workers at Colleges of Education does not affect the two contending parties as compared to the students and the country as a whole. Thus, studies using social conflict theory must consider the differences in causal factors and the level of the effect of industrial actions.</p> <p>The findings of this study have several practical implications. That is, strikes had several cascading effects on both productivity at college and on the country as a whole. This means that practical steps must be taken to address the root causes. Managers of Colleges of Education who also represent the central government need to respect the conditions of service and collective bargaining agreements with the staff of Colleges of Education. The two (conditions of service and collective bargaining agreements) capture several aspects of the working life of the staff at the Colleges of Education, and addressing them could both address the non‐economic and economic causal factors of strikes for better industrial harmony.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-30">Long Term Implications and Potential Solutions</hd> <p>In terms the long‐term implications or potential solutions to mitigate the effects of strikes in higher education, along with how the findings could inform policy changes within labour relations in developing economies and it is recommended that Collective Bargaining Systems should be Improved. Strong collective bargaining frameworks can be developed and put into place to drastically lower the frequency and effects of strikes. Stakeholders can handle concerns proactively by setting clear parameters for talks between academic institutions and faculty unions. Regular consultation procedures that facilitate candid discussion of the economic and non‐economic variables affecting labour relations are part of this. The establishment of legal frameworks that facilitate equitable and open collective bargaining methods in higher education ought to be a top priority for policymakers. This can entail providing administrators and union representatives with instruction on successful negotiating and conflict‐resolution tactics. By fostering mutual trust between the parties, such actions would lessen the chance of strikes and improve institutional stability.</p> <p>Secondly, Investing in Support Systems and Institutional Resources is also recommended. Many of the economic constraints that result in strikes can be reduced by allocating sufficient funds and infrastructure. This entails giving academics and staff better pay, benefits, and working conditions in addition to allocating sufficient funds for buildings and educational initiatives. Policies that guarantee fair funding for colleges of education should be developed by governments and educational authorities, especially in developing nations. This can require reallocating expenditures, increasing public financing, or forming collaborations with private sectors to gain greater resources. Institutions have the potential to improve productivity and decrease the incentives for strikes by tackling the economic reasons that were found in the study.</p> <p>Thirdly, the entire Systems of Conflict Resolution should be revamped. Putting in place thorough conflict resolution procedures can assist in resolving disagreements before they become strikes. This includes mediation and arbitration processes that employ neutral third parties to encourage discussions and identify mutually acceptable solutions. It is recommended that policymakers establish protocols for resolving conflicts in higher education, including requiring the creation of committees or agencies specifically tasked with settling labour issues. Professional development initiatives might incorporate negotiation and conflict management training for administrators. The detrimental effects of strikes can be lessened by promoting a collaborative culture and proactive problem‐solving, which will eventually benefit students, teachers, and the community at large.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-31">Conclusion and Recommendations</hd> <p>This study examined the causes and levels of the effect of industrial strikes on higher education from a developing economy perspective. The study found that strikes in the higher education subsector of a developing economy are influenced by both economic and non‐economic factors. These factors subsequently affected productivity at Colleges of Education, subsequently affecting students, teachers, and the country as a whole. The study also concluded that productivity at the College of Education significantly mediated the relationship between the economic and non‐economic causal factors of strikes and the general effects of strikes on the county as a whole.</p> <p>Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the management of Colleges of Education that also double as the representatives of the employer or government should improve the condition of service for employees at the college by enhancing their salary, other allowances, and fringe benefits. This will go a long way to curtail the influence of economic factors on college strikes. Management should respect and enforce collective bargaining agreements between employees and employers and handle employee grievances very well. This is required to ensure that non‐economic factors do not continue to influence college strikes. Finally, it was recommended that trade union leaders ensure that they achieve a better collective bargaining agreement for their union members. This will require the work of experts, suggesting that union leaders should always bring the experts into collective agreement negotiations on board when engaging the employer and his representatives at the negotiation table.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-32">Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies</hd> <p>This study was limited to Colleges of Education in a developing economy, and the findings cannot represent the entire tertiary subsector of the education industry. Thus, further studies could compare the influence of economic and non‐economic factors on productivity in various categories of tertiary institutions such as Colleges of Education, technical universities, and academic universities. Further studies could also compare the causes and effects of strikes across sectors or across countries in terms of developed and developing economies.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-33">Author Contributions</hd> <p>Moses Segbenya led and participated in the methodology, software, validation, data curation, main analysis, writing the original draft, and project administration of this paper. Edna Addo participated and contributed in the conceptualisation, data collection, validation, writing – review and editing of the paper. Samuel Ampofo's contribution has been literature review, written the research report, providing leadership for the investigation and entire work.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-34">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>We wish to express our profound appreciation to all the staff of the College of Education in Ghana who took time off their busy schedules to respond to the instrument for data gathering.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-35">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>The Department of Business Studies, College of Distance Education, granted ethical clearance to the first author of this manuscript (reference number <bold>CoDE/DBP/R.4/VOL.1/0737</bold>) on behalf of the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cape Coast.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-36">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0183654445-37">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The datasets for this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.</p> <p>GRAPH: Appendix S1.</p> <ref id="AN0183654445-38"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref30" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abiwu, L. 2016. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Industrial Strikes in Higher Education: Ascertaining Causes and the Levels of Effect from Developing Economy Perspectives
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Edna+Addo%22">Edna Addo</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Moses+Segbenya%22">Moses Segbenya</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0065-2183">0000-0003-0065-2183</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Samuel+Yaw+Ampofo%22">Samuel Yaw Ampofo</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6510-2858">0000-0001-6510-2858</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22European+Journal+of+Education%22"><i>European Journal of Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 60(1).
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Strikes%22">Teacher Strikes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Faculty%22">College Faculty</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Developing+Nations%22">Developing Nations</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Economic+Factors%22">Economic Factors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Productivity%22">Productivity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Schools+of+Education%22">Schools of Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Salaries%22">Teacher Salaries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Fringe+Benefits%22">Fringe Benefits</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/ejed.70026
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0141-8211<br />1465-3435
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study examined industrial strikes in higher education: Ascertaining causes and the levels of effect from a developing economy perspective. The study adopted the positivist philosophical position and a quantitative approach to collect data from 523 staff members of 30 Colleges of Education in a developing economy situated in Africa. Data analysis was performed using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The study found that strikes among higher education staff in developing economies were influenced by both economic and non-economic factors. These factors subsequently affected productivity at Colleges of Education and subsequently affected students, teachers and the country as a whole. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the management of Colleges of Education that also doubles as the representatives of the employer or government should improve the condition of service for employees at the college by enhancing their salary, other allowances and fringe benefits.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1461364
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1461364
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/ejed.70026
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Strikes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Faculty
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Higher Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Developing Nations
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Economic Factors
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Productivity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Schools of Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Salaries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Fringe Benefits
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Industrial Strikes in Higher Education: Ascertaining Causes and the Levels of Effect from Developing Economy Perspectives
        Type: main
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          Name:
            NameFull: Edna Addo
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            NameFull: Moses Segbenya
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            NameFull: Samuel Yaw Ampofo
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 03
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0141-8211
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              Value: 1465-3435
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              Value: 60
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              Value: 1
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            – TitleFull: European Journal of Education
              Type: main
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