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A Whole-Population Comparative Study of the School Experience and Its Association with Depressive Symptoms among Immigrant-Origin and Native Preadolescents

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Title: A Whole-Population Comparative Study of the School Experience and Its Association with Depressive Symptoms among Immigrant-Origin and Native Preadolescents
Language: English
Authors: Rekar Abdulham (ORCID 0000-0003-2900-5203), Lauri Hietajärvi, Reija Klemetti, Kirsti Lonka
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(4):1196-1216.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Grade 4
Intermediate Grades
Grade 5
Middle Schools
Descriptors: Depression (Psychology), Comparative Analysis, Immigrants, Mental Disorders, Symptoms (Individual Disorders), Educational Experience, Grade 4, Grade 5, Elementary School Students, Peer Groups, Incidence, Sense of Community, Social Integration, Risk, Student Surveys, Student Attitudes
DOI: 10.1002/pits.23385
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: In European studies, immigrant-origin adolescents report more mental health symptoms than natives do. The school is an important developmental context for them, and more research is needed about how their school experience is related to their mental health symptoms, and whether these relations vary by group. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of depressive symptoms, and their association with the school experience among native and immigrant-origin preadolescents attending the fourth and fifth grades of primary school. Whole-population surveys of three time points (2017, 2019, 2021, N = 259,382, of which N = 14,930 immigrant-origin) were used. Immigrant-origin preadolescents were grouped by their birth country and their parents to first- and second-generation, and to forced and voluntary immigrant groups. Depressive symptoms were most often reported by first-generation immigrant preadolescents followed by their second generation counterparts. Sense of school belonging was the most important protective factor and bullying the most important risk factor in relation to depressive symptoms. Positive school experiences were more beneficial for the mental health of natives than their immigrant-origin counterparts. In turn, negative school experiences were more detrimental for the mental health of immigrant-origin preadolescents.
Abstractor: As Provided
Notes: http://findata.fi/en
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1461706
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183755639;pis01apr.25;2025Mar19.05:33;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183755639-1">A Whole‐Population Comparative Study of the School Experience and Its Association With Depressive Symptoms Among Immigrant‐Origin and Native Preadolescents </title> <p>In European studies, immigrant‐origin adolescents report more mental health symptoms than natives do. The school is an important developmental context for them, and more research is needed about how their school experience is related to their mental health symptoms, and whether these relations vary by group. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of depressive symptoms, and their association with the school experience among native and immigrant‐origin preadolescents attending the fourth and fifth grades of primary school. Whole‐population surveys of three time points (2017, 2019, 2021, N = 259,382, of which N = 14,930 immigrant‐origin) were used. Immigrant‐origin preadolescents were grouped by their birth country and their parents to first‐ and second‐generation, and to forced and voluntary immigrant groups. Depressive symptoms were most often reported by first‐generation immigrant preadolescents followed by their second generation counterparts. Sense of school belonging was the most important protective factor and bullying the most important risk factor in relation to depressive symptoms. Positive school experiences were more beneficial for the mental health of natives than their immigrant‐origin counterparts. In turn, negative school experiences were more detrimental for the mental health of immigrant‐origin preadolescents.</p> <p>Summary: Depressive symptoms were more common among immigrant‐origin preadolescents compared to natives. Teachers and other school personnel should bear this in mind, as depressive symptoms negatively affect both academic achievement and social functioning.A positive school experience was more likely to benefit native students, but a negative school experience was even more harmful for immigrant‐origin preadolescents than their native counterparts. Teachers and other school personnel should consider in their practice the various factors that may contribute to this in their context, for example, feelings of otherness, alienation, and lack of representation in school and in society.Facilitating a sense of school belonging and reducing bullying are paramount for promoting mental health in school.</p> <p>Keywords: depressive symptoms; immigrant preadolescents; school experience</p> <p>The school is a prominent developmental context for children and adolescents, where they spend most of their waking hours (Eccles and Roeser [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref1">31</reflink>]). But is the school experience equal for natives and immigrants, and how are their school experiences related with their mental health? In European studies, children and adolescents of immigrant‐origin tend to show a higher rate of mental health symptoms compared to their host national peers (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref2">1</reflink>]; Delaruelle et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref3">26</reflink>]; Dimitrova, Chasiotis, and van de Vijver [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref4">29</reflink>]; Rodríguez‐Ventosa, Muñoz‐San, and Roldán Franco [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref5">77</reflink>]). The present study aims to address this mental health disparity by examining the role that positive (or negative) school experiences play on depressive symptoms among native and immigrant‐origin preadolescents.</p> <p>Preadolescence marks the beginning of a turbulent period of rapid physical, cognitive and social development in the life of minors who become increasingly autonomous (Crone and Dahl [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>]; Forbes and Dahl [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref7">37</reflink>]; Gowers [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref8">39</reflink>]). This period in their life is also critical for the onset of mental health issues, as adolescents are diagnosed with depression more often than children are (Powell, Ocean and Stanick [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref9">75</reflink>]). World Health Organization ([<reflink idref="bib101" id="ref10">101</reflink>]) considers depression a dominant contributor for global disability, predicting a decline in social relationships, low income, several physical disorders, and suicide (Kessler [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref11">46</reflink>]; Colman and Ataullahjan [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref12">22</reflink>]). The age‐of‐onset of a major depressive episode is usually in late adolescence and early adulthood (Kessler and Bromet [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref13">47</reflink>]), with the peak onset of any mental health disorder being at 14.5 years of age (Solmi et al. [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref14">86</reflink>]).</p> <p>In addition to general developmental tasks of childhood and adolescence, such as academic achievement and success in peer relationships (Masten et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref15">58</reflink>]; Motti‐Stefanidi and Masten [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref16">66</reflink>]), minors of immigrant families face the challenges and demands of acculturation (Suárez‐Orozco et al. [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref17">87</reflink>]). First, they need to learn a new language. Second, they need to adapt to a new culture and values, and do all this while developing an identity and self‐concept. Third, all this takes place in the intersections of two or more cultures; there is a need to negotiate between home and host nation traditions, and moreover, adjust into a new kind of school culture. These many demands may add to the emotional burden of these minors, contributing to mental problems and even depressive symptoms. The school is the main arena of acculturation for children and adolescents (Motti‐Stefanidi, Pavlopoulos, and Asendorpf [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref18">68</reflink>]; Motti‐Stefanidi [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref19">65</reflink>]), and the experience of the school environment may therefore play a crucial role explaining the mental health disparity. Thus, investigating how the school experience is related with depressive symptoms is paramount to advance knowledge on the mental health disparities.</p> <p>Symptom presentation of depression in childhood and adolescence differs from adulthood, and can rather be displayed through irritability, aggressive behavior, and low frustration tolerance (Powell, Ocean, and Stanick [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref20">75</reflink>]). Many "difficult" young people may simply be depressed: The question is not merely about "behavioral problems," but instead, mental distress. Therefore, the depression of children and preadolescents might often be overlooked and be misinterpreted as deviant and undesired behavior by teachers in school settings, risking exacerbating teacher–student relations for a negative developmental cycle. However, research on how the school experience is associated with depression symptoms among immigrant preadolescents are relatively scarce.</p> <p>Immigrants are a heterogenous group, and we aim to address this heterogeneity by considering migrant histories and origins of immigrant families, as refugee and asylum‐seeking backgrounds are a special risk factor for mental health (e.g., Dangmann, Dybdahl, and Solberg [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref21">24</reflink>]; Parviainen et al. [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref22">72</reflink>]). In Finland, forced immigrants (Donà and Young [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref23">30</reflink>]) such as asylum seekers and refugees originate most often from Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and Somalia, and immigrants from these countries predominantly immigrate on either humanitarian bases or via family reunification (Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref24">90</reflink>]). Thus, children originating from these countries were considered as forced immigrants and grouped separately from children originating from other countries. Moreover, the immigrant experience of first‐ and second‐generation differs, as the former have migrated themselves, whereas the latter have born in the host country. Thus, their experience of foreignness is intertwined with their interaction with their parents, their developing ethnic identity, and by how the society encounters, includes, and excludes them in everyday lives (Berry [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref25">9</reflink>]; Bourhis et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref26">12</reflink>]; Liebkind et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref27">54</reflink>]). Indeed, both first‐ and second‐generation immigrants report more mental health symptoms compared to natives in Finland, but second‐generation less than the first‐generation does (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-2">How Common Are Depressive Symptoms and What Are Their Known Risk Factors?</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-3">Prevalence of Depression and Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p>Over time, people reporting depressive symptoms as well as the incidence (diagnoses) of depression has increased globally (Filatova et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref29">36</reflink>]; Moreno‐Agostino et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref30">64</reflink>]; Shorey, Ng, and Wong [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref31">83</reflink>]; Torikka et al. [<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref32">96</reflink>]). However, there is large variability in the estimates between studies. The global estimates of depression prevalence among minors varies depending on measurement instrument (i.e., assessment of elevated symptoms or exceeding a clinically set cut‐off), type of data (i.e., self‐report survey, clinical interviews), and concept of display (i.e., point prevalence, 12‐month prevalence, lifetime prevalence). In a recent meta‐analysis (Shorey, Ng, and Wong [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref33">83</reflink>]), elevated depressive symptom prevalence among adolescents around the globe were estimated as high as 34%, and 1‐year prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) 8%. The present study assessed the point prevalence, that is, prevalence during a specific point in time, of elevated depressive symptoms.</p> <p>Depression is often more common among females than males (see Kuehner [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref34">50</reflink>]; Thapar et al. [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref35">93</reflink>]). For example, in Finland, by the age of 25, 10% of females and 5% of males were diagnosed with depression (Filatova et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]). This gap between males and females has been found among refugee minors as well (Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref37">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>Among refugee and asylum‐seeking adolescents, the pooled mean prevalence of depression was found to be 13.8% globally (Blackmore et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref38">10</reflink>]). In European studies the prevalence varies from 10.3 to 32.8% (Kien et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref39">49</reflink>]), depending on the research instrument used in assessment. Moreover, depressive symptom prevalence was found to be higher among adolescents living in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa in comparison to adolescents living in Europe (Shorey, Ng, and Wong [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref40">83</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-4">Risk Factors of Depression</hd> <p>Generally, factors associated with the risk and onset of depressive episodes include negative affect and neuroticism (Kwong et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref41">52</reflink>]; see also Powell, Ocean, and Stanick [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref42">75</reflink>]), genetic risk due high heritability (Sullivan, Neale, and Kendler [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref43">88</reflink>]), parents' depression (Goodman et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref44">38</reflink>]; see also Parviainen et al. [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref45">72</reflink>]), adverse environmental factors, and stressful life events (Kwong et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref46">51</reflink>]; Wankerl et al. ([<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref47">98</reflink>]); see also Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref48">35</reflink>]). Moreover, traumatic childhood events can lead to hyperreactivity of the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system, causing dysregulation of distress (Heim [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref49">41</reflink>]; Heim et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref50">42</reflink>]) which predisposes for depressive symptoms. Burns, Jakcon, and Harding ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref51">18</reflink>]) suggested that experiences of maltreatment and traumatic events can inhibit the learning of emotional regulation.</p> <p>Indeed, emotional dysregulation among refugees who have experienced early life stress is a critical antecedent of psychological symptoms among them (Demir et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref52">28</reflink>]). The possible predispositions to stressful and traumatic life events contribute to the explanation of the elevated prevalence of psychological symptomology especially among refugee and asylum‐seeking minors who often have experienced more adversities compared to their peers (see Bager et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref53">8</reflink>]; Fazel [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref54">34</reflink>]). Moreover, acculturation‐related stressors and discrimination among migrant children, in general, may explain the higher prevalence of these symptoms (see Rogers‐Sirin, Ryce, and Sirin [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref55">78</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-5">Proximal Social Relations as Protective and Risk Factors for Mental Health: The Role of Schoo...</hd> <p>Children and adolescents spend most of their waking hours in schools, making it a developmental context of a great importance for their development and well‐being (Eccles and Roeser [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref56">31</reflink>]). Therefore, understanding how the school experience is associated with mental health among children and adolescents is paramount. Indeed, perceived school environment predicts depressive symptoms among adolescents, with slightly larger effects among girls than boys (Brière et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>]). Yet, how this relation is manifested among immigrant‐origin populations is unclear. Schools are considered the central domain where immigrant minors acculturate (Motti‐Stefanidi, Pavlopoulos, and Asendorpf [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref58">68</reflink>]; Motti‐Stefanidi [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref59">65</reflink>]). Thus, comparing the relations of the school experiences, such as school belonging and student–teacher relations between immigrant‐origin and host national preadolescents may help us to advance understanding of the mental health disparities between these groups.</p> <p>Previous studies have identified several protective and risk factors of mental health for migrant and refugee minors in their proximal social relations and contexts (i.e., <emph>microsystems</emph>, Bronfenbrenner and Morris [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref60">17</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref61">16</reflink>]). In a review by Arakelyan and Ager ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref62">7</reflink>]), good parent–child interaction, family cohesion, positive peer relations, and access to and an uninterrupted path of education were found as protective microsystem factors. Furthermore, in a comprehensive review (Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref63">35</reflink>]) assessing protective and risk factors for refugee minors' mental health, for example, self‐reported positive school experience (i.e., sense of school belonging), parental support and family cohesion were found to be protective factors. However, acculturation discrepancy (Schwartz et al. [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref64">81</reflink>]), for children acculturate more swiftly than their parents do, and the consequential acculturation gap (Telzer [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref65">92</reflink>]) between generations may risk children acquiring needed and timely parental support (see also Rogers‐Sirin, Ryce, and Sirin [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref66">78</reflink>]). This is demonstrated by immigrant adolescents not discussing personal matters with their parents, which is related with depressive symptoms and generalized anxiety (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref67">1</reflink>]). Consequently, the school environment as a socio‐developmental arena may become even more important for promoting and protecting mental health among immigrant‐origin children and adolescents.</p> <p>Teacher's role in promoting resilience protecting from risk factors, being supportive and attentive to children's emotions is considered important (Polat and Kröner [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref68">74</reflink>]). In the USA positive student–teacher relationship was an important protective factor against depression among Somali youth (Wilhelm et al. [<reflink idref="bib100" id="ref69">100</reflink>]). Unfortunately, according to research on 29 European countries, teacher's support was not as protective against mental health symptoms among immigrant adolescents as it was for their native counterparts (Delaruelle et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref70">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>Experiences of peer victimization, discrimination and racism, and other challenges in peer relations, such as participating in bullying, may risk favorable development of children (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>]; Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref72">35</reflink>]; Xu et al. [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref73">102</reflink>]). The existing literature addressing whether peer victimization in school has the same impact on mental health regardless of immigration origin and generation is scant, and the question will be analyzed in the present study.</p> <p>Considering the paramount role of the school environment for the possibility of either promoting and protecting, or in the worst case, even risking the mental health of immigrant‐origin children and adolescents, there are surprisingly few comparative studies that address how perceived school environment is associated with depressive symptoms among various groups. We aim to fill this gap, and with a comparative view, examine moderation by country of origin (i.e., origins in countries with predominantly forced emigration vs. other countries) and generation in a referral to host national children. Hereby, we contribute to addressing the question whether positive and negative school experiences are equally related to depressive symptoms among immigrant‐origin and native preadolescents. Previous research suggests that the relations and risks of social factors with mental health may vary between male and female immigrant minors (e.g., Oppedal, Røysamb, and Heyerdahl [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref74">71</reflink>]; Sirin et al. [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref75">84</reflink>]). Thus, in the present study we are considerate of the possible differences between male and female preadolescent experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-6">The Present Study</hd> <p>In the present study, we aimed at assessing the prevalence of elevated depressive symptoms, and estimating the association of the school experience with depressive symptoms among host national and immigrant‐origin children who attend fourth and fifth grades of lower‐level comprehensive school (i.e., primary school) in Finland. Immigrant‐origin youth were grouped by their birth country to the first and second generations. "<emph>First generation"</emph> refers to those who themselves have migrated to Finland and both of their parents are immigrants, whereas "<emph>second generation"</emph> refers to those born in Finland to immigrant parents. To address the heterogeneity of immigrant populations, they were split to two groups: Those emigrating from refugee generating (Iraq, Iran, Somalia, and Afghanistan, later "MENAP," as an acronym for "<emph>Middle East Plus</emph>," or "<emph>Greater Middle East</emph>") and those from other countries (later "OCO"). The former group are predominantly forced migrants, representing the most common countries of origin for asylum seekers and refugees in Finland (Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref76">90</reflink>]). In contrast, for the OCO‐group reasons of migration are predominantly voluntary, such as employment (Immigration Department [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref77">44</reflink>]; Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref78">90</reflink>]). Family reunification is an important reason for migration in both immigrant groups.</p> <p>The following research questions were examined:</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-7">RQ1.</hd> <p>Are elevated depressive symptoms more common among first‐generation, forced immigrant preadolescents as compared to second‐generation, voluntarily immigrated, and native preadolescents? Previous research on immigrant adolescents suggest that first‐generation immigrant minors demonstrate higher prevalence of depressive symptoms compared to the second generation, whom in turn demonstrate higher prevalence than natives (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref79">1</reflink>]). Presumably, this is the case among the age group in the present study too. Moreover, we expect the MENAP immigrant group to have a higher prevalence than their counterparts from other countries (e.g., Dangmann, Dybdahl, and Solberg [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref80">24</reflink>]; Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref81">35</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-8">RQ2.</hd> <p>How are the school experience factors related to elevated depressive symptoms among first‐ and second‐generation immigrant and native preadolescents, and are the patterns similar among males and females? We expected all indicators of the school experience factors to be significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Moreover, we expected the overall school experience to explain depressive symptoms more among girls, as previous research suggests (Brière et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref82">15</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-9">RQ3.</hd> <p>Does immigrant background moderate the effect of the school experience on depressive symptoms? Previous research has demonstrated that teachers' support is more promotive for the mental health of native students than their immigrant‐origin counterparts (Delaruelle et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref83">26</reflink>]). We expect that teacher's support along with other factors in their school experience too to show a similar effect, that is, native students benefitting more from a positive school experience.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-10">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-11">Participants and Demographics</hd> <p>The data of the present study is from a whole‐population‐based survey, the school health promotion study (SHP), conducted by the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. These biennially carried surveys are disseminated to schools throughout Finland, and the results are used to inform municipalities, schools, and policymakers based on a variety of health and well‐being indicators. When surveying children, time taken for the survey should be kept as short as possible (Borgers, De Leeuw, and Hox [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref84">11</reflink>]; Omrani et al. [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref85">70</reflink>]). Thus, short scales and simple single direct‐question items with good content validity are optimal for reducing survey time and interrupted responses, and are increasingly promoted (Allen, Iliescu, and Greiff [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref86">5</reflink>]; Grygiel et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref87">40</reflink>]; Matthews, Pineault, and Hong [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref88">59</reflink>]), which has been the standard for the School Health Promotion Study.</p> <p>In the present study, we used data gathered in 2017, 2019, and 2021 of children attending fourth and fifth grades of lower‐level comprehensive school. As the year 2021 was exceptional due to the global Covid‐19 pandemic, it was controlled for in the modeling. The coverage of these data was exceptionally good on international standards, as 81% in 2017, 84% in 2019, and 87% in 2021 of all fourth and fifth grade pupils in Finland participated in the survey. Of the combined data from these years (<emph>N</emph> = 297,963), altogether 14,930 were first‐ or second‐generation immigrants. The "<emph>2.5 generation"</emph> immigrant‐origin preadolescents, that is, those with one immigrant and one Finnish parent (<emph>N</emph> = 23,074) were omitted in the present study. The children who did not report their sex (0.49%), were omitted.</p> <p>The children were asked their birth countries and of both of their parents. Using this information, we coded the immigrant children to first‐ and second‐generation and further into two distinct groups: First, those originating from Iraq, Iran, Somalia, and Afghanistan (MENAP) that are countries of predominantly forced migration to Finland, and second, those of other countries of origin (OCO), which are predominantly voluntary migrant groups (Immigration Department [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref89">44</reflink>]; Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref90">90</reflink>]). The group sizes and gender distributions were as follows: MENAP first generation (<emph>N</emph> = 1215; 49.9% female), MENAP second generation (<emph>N</emph> = 1447; 52.8% female), OCO first generation (<emph>N</emph> = 6067; 51.6% female), OCO second generation (<emph>N</emph> = 6201; 52.2% female). Finnish native (host national or native; used interchangeably) adolescents (<emph>N</emph> = 244,455; 50.4% female) were included as a reference group. The coding of the immigrant groups was done so that any missing information of birth countries (i.e., not reporting birth country for both parents and themselves), or mixed groupings between MENAP and OCO countries were conditions for dropping them out from final groupings. This provided for robust groupings and reduced self‐report biases, omitting 1223 participants.</p> <p>Of the children, altogether 49.7% were attending fourth grade and 50.3% fifth grade of lower comprehensive school. Age was not inquired, but as children in Finland enter school the year they turn seven, on average fourth and fifth graders are 10–12 years old. However, first‐generation immigrants who have migrated during schoolyears are sometimes assigned to lower grades (i.e., one grade lower than what would be expected by their age) to support their language learning. Hence, the age range among first‐generation immigrants is approximately 10–13 years. Among the first‐generation children in MENAP‐group, 13.4% had lived in Finland for 10 or more years, 47.9% 5–10 years, 34.3% 1–4 years and 4.3% less than a year. Among first‐generation children in OCO‐group the numbers were 18.6%, 52.4%, 26.2% and 2.9%, respectively. Concerning living arrangements, 78.5% reported living with both parents, whereas 19.1% indicated that their parents were living separately. Only 1.9% reported of being placed outside the home (i.e., in foster care facilities or foster families), and 0.5% reported living with their grandparents, other relatives or did not specify.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-12">Ethical Considerations</hd> <p>The present study was conducted in compliance with the 1964 Helsinki declaration. The data used was secondary data and was completely anonymous. The procedure of the School Health Promotion Study has been evaluated by the ethical committee of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-13">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-14">Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p>Depressive symptoms were measured with the Finnish short version of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (FsMFQ), specifically developed to be used in the biennial SHP survey in lower‐level comprehensive schools (Talja et al. [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref91">91</reflink>]), measuring the point prevalence of elevated depressive symptoms in the last 2 weeks. The respondents were asked to "<emph>Think about the last 2 weeks. How true are the following statements of you</emph>?" The instrument consists of six items (e.g., "<emph>I was desperate or unhappy</emph>," "<emph>I did not enjoy anything"</emph>), where response options were "<emph>true," "sometimes</emph>," and "<emph>not true</emph>." For the purposes of the present study, those who reported "<emph>true"</emph> to one or more items, or "<emph>sometimes</emph>" to all items were considered having elevated symptoms of depression and coded as 1, and those who reported less, or no symptoms were coded to 0. Cronbach's alpha (α) for FsMFQ raw scores among migrant children in this study was 0.82 (CI 95% = 0.82–0.83) and among all children, including host nationals 0.82 (CI 95% = 0.82–0.82). Comparative psychometric properties (i.e., measurement invariance) of this scale were assessed by multigroup confirmatory factor analysis using alternative fit indices such as comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) (Chen [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref92">21</reflink>]). The scale showed strict invariance (i.e., invariance of slopes, intercepts, and residuals) between groups of origin. However, only metric invariance was supported between males and females, indicating noninvariance of the intercepts (Supporting Information S1: Table 1). Thus, gender was either controlled for in modeling or modeled separately.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-15">The School Experience</hd> <p>To assess the school experience, we used z‐scores of the following variables. Peaceful class was assessed by asking "<emph>Is it peaceful in your class?</emph>." Chance to express opinions in classroom was assessed by asking "<emph>When something is talked about in class, do you dare express your opinion?</emph>" The response options for these two variables were "<emph>often</emph>," "<emph>sometimes</emph>," and "<emph>never</emph>." Getting along with school mates was assessed by asking "<emph>How well do you get along with your schoolmates?</emph>," and getting along with teachers by "<emph>How well do you get along with your teachers?</emph>." The response options to these two variables were "<emph>well," "fairly well," and "poorly</emph>." The variable of Teacher's concern for students was assessed by "<emph>Are teachers interested in how you are doing?</emph>," with response options of "<emph>often," "sometimes," and "never</emph>."</p> <p>We assessed the sense of school belonging with two items as follows: "<emph>I feel I am an important part of...," "Classroom community</emph>," and "<emph>School community</emph>," with response options of "<emph>agree," "neither agree nor disagree," and "disagree</emph>," which were used as a composite‐variable. Cronbach's alpha (α) and Spearman–Brown (SB) (Eisinga, Grotenhuis, and Pelzer [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref93">32</reflink>]) coefficient for sense of school belonging was α = 0.79 (CI 95% α = 0.78–0.80), SB = 0.79 among migrant children, and α = 0.80 (CI 95% α = 0.79–0.80), SB = 0.80 among host national children.</p> <p>Maladaptive peer‐relations were asked with two questions. The respondents were first given a definition of bullying before the questions as follows: "<emph>In this questionnaire, bullying refers to the harassment of a pupil by another pupil or a group of pupils either verbally or physically. Teasing a pupil repeatedly in ways he or she does not like is also considered bullying. An argument between two roughly equal pupils is not considered bullying</emph>." Being a bully victim was inquired as follows: "<emph>How often have you been bullied at school during this semester?</emph>," and being a bully perpetrator was inquired as follows: "<emph>How often have you participated in bullying other pupils during this semester?</emph>," given the following response options: "<emph>several times a week," "about once a week," "less frequently," and "not at all</emph>."</p> <p>Finally, we assessed whether the child reported literacy challenges by two items inquiring "<emph>Do you have difficulties with reading?," and "Do you have difficulties with writing?"</emph> with response options "<emph>not at all</emph>," "<emph>some</emph>," and "<emph>a lot</emph>." These two items were used as a composite variable due to their high collinearity (<emph>r</emph> = 0.46) with <emph>α</emph> = 0.63 (CI 95% for α = 0.61–0.64), and SB = 0.63 among migrant children and slightly lower with host nationals included (α = 0.58, CI 95% for α = 0.58–0.58; SB = 0.58).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-16">Analysis and Procedures</hd> <p>First (RQ1), we assessed the prevalence of depressive symptoms by cross‐tabulating country‐of‐origin and gender, and then examined effect sizes with Pearson standardized residuals. A Pearson standardized residual equal or larger than ± 1.96 is considered indicating a significantly larger or lower than expected cell count at <emph>p</emph> = 0.05 level (Agresti [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref94">2</reflink>]). Additionally, group differences were analyzed by logistic regression with depressive symptoms as the response variable and immigrant background as the explanatory variable, adjusting for gender, survey year, and length of residence.</p> <p>Second (RQ2), we estimated the main effects of the perceived school experience (e.g., sense of school belonging, teacher–student relations) on depressive symptoms among these children by logistic regressions, controlling for gender, survey year, and length of residence. Main effects were first calculated for everyone, and then stratified by group and gender. These models were plotted as forest plots (Figures 1 and 2), where odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals for logistic regression explanatory variables were reported, and additionally a corresponding table made available in Supporting Information S1: Table 3.</p> <p>The model fits were assessed by means of McFadden's R<sups>2</sups>. According to McFadden ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref95">60</reflink>]), R<sups>2</sups><subs>McFadden</subs> value of ≥ 0.20 represents an excellent fit. Additionally, we calculated the area under the curve (AUC) score (Pintea and Moldovan [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref96">73</reflink>]) and its confidence interval using the DeLong‐method (DeLong, DeLong, and Clarke‐Pearson [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref97">27</reflink>]; Sun and Xu [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref98">89</reflink>]) for the combined main effects model. AUC represents the probability of the model classifying a person, if randomly selected, to the correct class (Hsu [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref99">43</reflink>]; McFall and Treat [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref100">61</reflink>]). An AUC score of 0.70 ≤ 0.80 represents acceptable performance, 0.80 ≤ 0.90 excellent performance and ≥ 0.90 outstanding performance (Bradley [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref101">13</reflink>]; Lemeshow et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref102">53</reflink>]). Multicollinearity in the models were found to be very low, assessed by inter‐item correlations and generalized variance‐inflation factor (GVIF). To further address multicollinearity, explanatory variables were used as z‐scores (Aiken and West [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref103">3</reflink>]).</p> <p>Finally (RQ 3), we estimated the moderating effects of immigrant background with each variable on depressive symptoms, adjusting for gender, the survey year, and length of residence. These moderation models were used for calculating and plotting the conditional mean probability (i.e., marginal effects) of elevated depression symptoms per group for each school variable holding the non‐focal variables (gender, survey year, and length of residence) constant. The probabilities range from 0 to 1, where 0 denotes a 0% probability, and 1 denotes a 100% probability for elevated depressive symptoms. We plotted the probability of depressive symptoms at Mean and ±1 SD (Figure 3). Additionally, probabilities at minimum and maximum values of explanatory variables were made available in Table 3.</p> <p>Generally, we had low levels of missing data. However, the central instruments of depressive symptoms (FsMFQ) and Sense of School Belonging had the highest prevalence in missingness ranging from 2.9% to 9.9% (Supporting Information S1: Table 2). Among immigrants who had more missing data than host nationals, the MCAR‐test indicated that missingness was not completely at random, but the violation was minor as the normed χ<sups>2</sups> was low when assessed only among migrants (1.23), and slightly higher when with host nationals (1.58). Thus, we multiple imputed the data with five draws using the Random Forest method for multiple imputation by chained equations, which has demonstrated a low bias (Shah et al. [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref104">82</reflink>]), using all variables used in this study accompanied by additional variables (loneliness, parental support and parent–child relations, number of friends) to enhance imputation accuracy. All procedures, analyses, and plots were conducted in R statistical software (version 4.1, RStudio version 2023.03.1 + 446) with complementary packages (e.g., "Tidyverse," Wickham et al. [<reflink idref="bib99" id="ref105">99</reflink>]; "ggeffects," Lüdecke [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref106">55</reflink>]; "mice," van van Buuren and Groothuis‐Oudshoorn [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref107">19</reflink>]; "lavaan," Rosseel [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref108">79</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-17">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-18">How Common Elevated Depressive Symptoms Were? (RQ1)</hd> <p>Table 1 shows that as expected, the first‐generation immigrants reported depressive symptoms the most often. As many as 30.7% of the forced immigrants (MENAP), and 27.9% of voluntary immigrants (OCO), reported elevated depressive symptoms. Second‐generation preadolescents reported less elevated depressive symptoms than the first‐generation, but more than their native counterparts did. Within the second‐generation, symptoms of elevated depression were reported more often among those originating from other countries (25.9%) than those originating from MENAP countries (22.7%).</p> <p>1 Table Prevalence of elevated depressive symptoms (FsMFQ) among children grouped by origin and gender in school health promotion study in 2017–2021 in Finland.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Group</th><th>% of <italic>N</italic> reported elevated Depressive symptoms</th><th align="center">Std. residual among</th><th align="center"><italic>N</italic></th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th>All</th><th>Male</th><th>Female</th><th>All</th><th>Immigrants</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>HN</td><td>17.4</td><td>15.5</td><td>19.4</td><td>−15.30</td><td>NA</td><td>244,455</td></tr><tr><td>MENAP 1st</td><td>30.7</td><td>30.1</td><td>31.5</td><td>25.92</td><td>6.77</td><td>1215</td></tr><tr><td>MENAP 2nd</td><td>22.7</td><td>21.6</td><td>23.5</td><td>10.28</td><td>−7.36</td><td>1447</td></tr><tr><td>OCO 1st</td><td>27.9</td><td>27.9</td><td>27.8</td><td>44.50</td><td>4.07</td><td>6067</td></tr><tr><td>OCO 2nd</td><td>25.9</td><td>25.7</td><td>25.9</td><td>35.78</td><td>−3.46</td><td>6201</td></tr><tr><td>Total</td><td>17.9</td><td>16.1</td><td>19.8</td><td /><td /><td>259,385</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> = 879.83, df = 4, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 (All).</p> <ulist> <item>2 <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> = 175.52, df = 3, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 (Immigrants only).</item> <item>3 Abbreviations: 1st = first generation; 2nd = second generation; HN = host national youth born in Finland with both parents of Finnish origin. MENAP = immigrant children with origins in Iraq, Iran, Somalia, or Afghanistan, OCO = immigrant children with origins elsewhere.</item> </ulist> <p>When analyzing group differences across immigrant‐origin groups by logistic regression adjusting for gender, survey year, and length of residence, we found that among the first‐generation, difference between MENAP and OCO groups in reporting elevated depressive symptoms was not significant (95% CI for OR 0.77–1.02). However, among second‐generation the OCO‐group were more likely than MENAP‐group to report depressive symptoms (95% CI for OR 1.01–1.33).</p> <p>We analyzed generational differences grouped by their origin and found that they were significant only among the MENAP group as the first‐generation as opposed to second‐generation were more likely to report depressive symptoms (95% CI for OR 1.04–1.50). In the OCO group, generational differences were not statistically significant. Finally, we found that girls were likely to report more elevated depressive symptoms only among host nationals (<emph>p</emph> < 0.001), whereas among immigrant preadolescents the differences between males and females were not significant (<emph>p</emph> = 0.60).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-19">Promotive and Risk Factors in School and Their Association With Elevated Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-20">Main Effects: Combined Results (RQ2)</hd> <p>On a general level (See Table 2 and Figure 1 Model: "<emph>All"</emph>), the main effects show that sense of school belonging was the most important preventive factor for not experiencing depressive symptoms (OR = 0.69) and being bullied (OR 1.55) the most important risk factor in school. Yet, all analyzed indicators remained significant with all other variables held constant, meaning that all the indicators measuring the school experience assessed have an independent role in relation to depressive symptoms. The results show that despite of controlling indicators measuring the school experience, immigrant background remained a risk factor for elevated depressive symptoms. Thus, other factors in addition to the school environment are needed to explain further their higher risk for depressive symptoms relative to host nationals. The results also show an elevating trend of depressive symptoms, with increasing odds ratios in years 2019 and 2021, illuminating the devastating effect of the Covid‐19 year had. The model fit was good indicated by McFadden's R<sups>2</sups> = 0.19, and the area under the curve AUC = 0.79.</p> <p>2 Table Protective and risk factors of depressive symptoms (FsMFQ), logistic regression main effects among all preadolescents.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>OR</th><th>SE</th><th>95% CI</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Variables</td></tr><tr><td>Intercept</td><td>0.11</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.09–0.15</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Background</td></tr><tr><td>Host nationals</td><td>ref</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>MENAP 1st</td><td>1.53</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.30–1.81</td></tr><tr><td>MENAP 2nd</td><td>1.17</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.01–1.35</td></tr><tr><td>OCO 1st</td><td>1.32</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.21–1.44</td></tr><tr><td>OCO 2nd</td><td>1.34</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.26–1.43</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Time of residence</td></tr><tr><td>< 1 year</td><td>ref</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>1–4 years</td><td>0.87</td><td>0.15</td><td>0.64–1.19</td></tr><tr><td>5–10 years</td><td>0.81</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.61–1.07</td></tr><tr><td>> 10 years</td><td>0.97</td><td>0.14</td><td>0.56–0.99</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Gender</td></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>ref</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>1.71</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.67–1.75</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Survey year</td></tr><tr><td>2017</td><td>ref</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2019</td><td>1.18</td><td>0.02</td><td>1.15–1.22</td></tr><tr><td>2021</td><td>2.06</td><td>0.01</td><td>2.01–2.12</td></tr><tr><td align="left">School factors</td></tr><tr><td>Peaceful class</td><td>0.84</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.83–0.85</td></tr><tr><td>Chance to express opinions in classroom</td><td>0.87</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.86–0.88</td></tr><tr><td>Getting along with schoolmates</td><td>0.82</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.81–0.83</td></tr><tr><td>Getting along with teachers</td><td>0.79</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.78–0.80</td></tr><tr><td>Teacher's concern for students</td><td>0.90</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.89–0.91</td></tr><tr><td>Sense of school belonging</td><td>0.69</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.68–0.70</td></tr><tr><td>Bully victim</td><td>1.55</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.53–1.57</td></tr><tr><td>Participated in bullying</td><td>1.11</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.09–1.12</td></tr><tr><td>Literacy challenges</td><td>1.26</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.24–1.27</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td /><td /><td>259,385</td></tr><tr><td>R<sup>2</sup><sub>McFadden</sub></td><td /><td /><td>0.19</td></tr><tr><td>χ<sup>2</sup> (19)</td><td /><td /><td>45,497.85</td></tr><tr><td>AUC</td><td /><td /><td>0.79</td></tr><tr><td>CI 95% of AUC</td><td /><td /><td>0.79–0.79</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note:</emph> R<sups>2</sups> McFadden, <emph>X</emph><sups>2</sups> model fits and AUC for the are pooled averages.</item> <item>5 Abbreviations: 95% CI = 95% confidence interval for odds ratio, OR = Odds ratio, SE = Standard error.</item> </ulist> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01apr25/pits23385-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23385-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Main effects of school experience by origin. Note: "All" model adjusted additionally for country of origin. Corresponding table is Supporting Information S1: Table 3. Abbreviations: HN = host national youth born in Finland with both parents of Finnish origin. MENAP = immigrant children with origins in Iraq, Iran, Somalia, or Afghanistan, OCO = immigrant children with origins elsewhere, 1st = first generation, 2nd = second generation." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-22">Stratified Main Effects (RQ2)</hd> <p>Based on comparing the models stratified by gender, immigrant group and generation, the overall school experience was more strongly related to depressive symptoms among girls (R<sups>2</sups>McFadden = 0.15–0.25) than boys (R<sups>2</sups>McFadden = 0.12–0.17). Importance of the overall school experience was specifically high among second‐generation MENAP girls (R<sups>2</sups>McFadden = 0.25), indicating stronger correlates of the school experience with depressive symptoms among this group compared to others, which was specifically explained with the strong relation of being bullied (R<sups>2</sups>McFadden = 0.13). R<sups>2</sups>McFadden's for each group are reported in Supporting Information S1: Table 3.</p> <p>Figure 1 shows that some group level differences in the main effects of variables emerged, which concerned mainly the MENAP group. When other variables were held constant, the peacefulness of the classroom and getting along with teachers were not negatively related to depressive symptoms among first‐generation MENAP preadolescents. Among second‐generation MENAP preadolescents, peaceful classroom, teacher's perceived care and participation in bullying were not significantly related with depressive symptoms when other variables were held constant.</p> <p>Figure 2 shows the results stratified by immigrant group and gender. We found that the patterns were mostly similar across genders with some exceptions specific for the MENAP group. Moreover, to examine the differences in stratified main effects, specifically the reasons for nonsignificant relations of variables when others were held constant, ad‐hoc analyses by immigrant group and gender were conducted to reveal contributing variables, which are elaborated as follows.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01apr25/pits23385-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23385-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 Main effects of school experience by origin and gender. Note: "All" model adjusted additionally for country of origin. Corresponding table is Supporting Information S1: Table 3. Abbreviations: HN = host national youth born in Finland with both parents of Finnish origin. MENAP = immigrant children with origins in Iraq, Iran, Somalia, or Afghanistan; OCO = immigrant children with origins elsewhere, 1st = first generation, 2nd = second generation, M = Male, F = Female." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-24">Peaceful Classroom</hd> <p>Peacefulness of classroom was not significantly related to depressive symptoms in the main effects model for neither of MENAP groups. Among first‐generation boys, this was explained via getting along with schoolmates, and among girls in addition to this variable, sense of school belonging. This nonsignificant relation among second‐generation MENAP boys was also explained by the aforementioned, with the addition of chance to express oneself in classroom, whereas for girls there were no clear covariates.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-25">Chance to Express Opinions in Classroom</hd> <p>Contrary to other groups, second‐generation MENAP girls had a nonsignificant relation of the chance to express opinions in classroom with depressive symptoms, which was explained by holding sense of school belonging and getting along with school mates constant.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-26">Getting Along With Schoolmates</hd> <p>Among MENAP boys in first‐generation getting along with schoolmates was not significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Holding the items of being bullied and the possibility to speak in class constant (each individually) contributed to this nonsignificant effect.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-27">Getting Along With Teachers</hd> <p>Among first‐generation MENAP boys, getting along with teachers was not significantly related to depressive symptoms even as a single variable. Among girls this variable turned insignificant when teachers care, speaking in class, and getting along with school mates were held constant. Moreover, for first‐generation MENAP boys, the relation of perceived teacher's care with depressive symptoms turned insignificant when we held speaking in class and getting along with school mates constant.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-28">Sense of School Belonging</hd> <p>Among first‐generation MENAP boys, sense of school belonging was not significantly related to depressive symptoms, unlike among girls. Among MENAP boys, getting along with school mates and the chance to express opinions in classroom were the two indicators held constant that made the relation insignificant.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-29">Participating in Bullying</hd> <p>Among second‐generation MENAP preadolescents, participating in bullying was not significantly related to depressive symptoms. This relation turned insignificant when we held being a bully victim and getting along with school mates variables constant. Also, among females in the OCO‐group, this relation was not significant either. Among second‐generation OCO females, the same variables as in the MENAP group contributed to this result. Among first‐generation OCO females, it was more complex: Adjusting for being a bully victim, having literacy challenges, and getting along with teachers contributed for this insignificant relation.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-30">Literacy Challenges</hd> <p>While literacy challenges were not positively related with depressive symptoms among first‐generation MENAP girls, they were so among boys. Among girls, this relation turned insignificant when bully victim and possibility to speak in classroom variables were held constant.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-31">Immigrant Background as a Moderator: Probabilities for Depressive Symptoms by Variable (RQ3)</hd> <p>Results of moderation models and conditional effects are presented in both Figure 3 and Table 3. Highlighted results are presented by explanatory variables as follows.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01apr25/pits23385-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23385-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Probabilities of depressive symptoms at mean ± 1 SD by group. Note: Probabilities are based on conditional means calculated from adjusted logistic regression moderation models (Table 3). For clarity of confidence intervals, groups at Mean and ±1 SD were dodged. At the X‐axis −1.0 represents −1 SD from the mean, 0 the mean and 1.0 + 1 SD from the mean for each explanatory variable. The Y‐axis denotes the predicted probability of elevated depressive symptoms according to the FsMFQ scale. Some variable labels were shortened for plotting purposes." /> </p> <p></p> <p>3 Table Adjusted single predictor moderation effects of immigrant background and model based predicted probability of depressive symptoms (FsMFQ) at mean ± 1 SD, MIN and MAX values by group.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th /><th>Adjusted single variable moderation</th><th /><th align="center">95% CI for Probability of depressive symptoms, when response of explanatory variable is at:</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th>Explanatory variable</th><th /><th>OR</th><th>SE</th><th>CI 95%</th><th>Group</th><th>−1 SD</th><th>Mean</th><th>+1 SD</th><th>MIN</th><th>MAX</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Peaceful class</td><td /><td>0.64</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.63–0.64</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.26</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.20–0.32</td><td>HN</td><td>0.24–0.34</td><td>0.17–0.24</td><td>0.12–0.17</td><td>0.38–0.49</td><td>0.10–0.15</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.83</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.59–2.12</td><td>M1</td><td>0.31–0.43</td><td>0.27–0.38</td><td>0.22–0.34</td><td>0.36–0.54</td><td>0.20–0.32</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.40</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.23–1.60</td><td>M2</td><td>0.28–0.41</td><td>0.22–0.32</td><td>0.16–0.26</td><td>0.37–0.56</td><td>0.13–0.23</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.55</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.43–1.68</td><td>O1</td><td>0.31–0.42</td><td>0.24–0.33</td><td>0.18–0.27</td><td>0.42–0.55</td><td>0.16–0.24</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.61</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.51–1.71</td><td>O2</td><td>0.31–0.43</td><td>0.25–0.34</td><td>0.19–0.27</td><td>0.42–0.56</td><td>0.16–0.25</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>1.26</td><td>0.06</td><td>1.11–1.42</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.10</td><td>0.07</td><td>0.96–1.25</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.10</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.03–1.18</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.11</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.04–1.19</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Chance to express opinions in classroom</td><td /><td>0.70</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.67–0.68</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.125</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.21–0.32</td><td>HN</td><td>0.22–0.31</td><td>0.17–0.24</td><td>0.12–0.18</td><td>0.34–0.46</td><td>0.13–0.19</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.67</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.43–1.94</td><td>M1</td><td>0.32–0.45</td><td>0.25–0.36</td><td>0.17–0.28</td><td>0.45–0.63</td><td>0.18–0.29</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.32</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.16–1.52</td><td>M2</td><td>0.26–0.38</td><td>0.20–0.31</td><td>0.15–0.25</td><td>0.35–0.53</td><td>0.16–0.26</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.44</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.33–1.57</td><td>O1</td><td>0.28–0.38</td><td>0.22–0.32</td><td>0.18–0.26</td><td>0.39–0.52</td><td>0.18–0.26</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.40–1.59</td><td>O2</td><td>0.29–0.40</td><td>0.23–0.33</td><td>0.18–0.26</td><td>0.41–0.54</td><td>0.18–0.27</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>0.97</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.86–1.11</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.05</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.93–1.19</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.06</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.00–1.12</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.04</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.98–1.10</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Getting along with schoolmates</td><td /><td>0.58</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.58–0.59</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.15–0.25</td><td>HN</td><td>0.21–0.30</td><td>0.13–0.20</td><td>0.08–0.13</td><td>0.66–0.76</td><td>0.11–0.17</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.57–2.10</td><td>M1</td><td>0.28–0.40</td><td>0.21–0.32</td><td>0.16–0.25</td><td>0.53–0.76</td><td>0.19–0.29</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.33</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.16–1.52</td><td>M2</td><td>0.23–0.35</td><td>0.17–0.26</td><td>0.11–0.19</td><td>0.55–0.77</td><td>0.14–0.22</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.51</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.39–1.63</td><td>O1</td><td>0.25–0.35</td><td>0.19–0.27</td><td>0.14–0.21</td><td>0.54–0.69</td><td>0.17–0.25</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.57</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.49–1.69</td><td>O2</td><td>0.26–0.37</td><td>0.20–0.29</td><td>00.14–0.21</td><td>0.59–0.73</td><td>0.17–0.25</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>1.20</td><td>0.05</td><td>1.08–1.33</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.11</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.99–1.31</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.19</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.99–1.23</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.16</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.14–1.25</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Getting along with teachers</td><td /><td>0.61</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.60–0.61</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.20</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.16–0.26</td><td>HN</td><td>0.21–0.30</td><td>0.14–0.20</td><td>0.09–0.14</td><td>0.58–0.69</td><td>0.11–0.17</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.80</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.56–2.09</td><td>M1</td><td>0.26–0.38</td><td>0.22–0.32</td><td>0.17–0.28</td><td>0.40–0.64</td><td>0.20–0.30</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.34</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.17–1.53</td><td>M2</td><td>0.25–0.37</td><td>0.17–0.26</td><td>0.11–0.19</td><td>0.56–0.78</td><td>0.14–0.23</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.56</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.44–1.68</td><td>O1</td><td>0.27–0.37</td><td>0.20–0.29</td><td>0.14–0.22</td><td>0.55–0.70</td><td>0.17–0.25</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.64</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.54–1.74</td><td>O2</td><td>0.28–0.39</td><td>0.21–0.30</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.57–0.72</td><td>0.18–0.26</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>1.27</td><td>0.06</td><td>1.14–1.42</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.02</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.91–1.14</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.12</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.06–1.18</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.10</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.97–1.09</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Teacher's concern for students</td><td /><td>0.70</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.69–0.71</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.25</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.20–0.32</td><td>HN</td><td>0.22–0.31</td><td>0.17–0.24</td><td>0.12–0.18</td><td>0.31–0.42</td><td>0.12–0.17</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.82</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.56–2.10</td><td>M1</td><td>0.32–0.45</td><td>0.26–0.37</td><td>0.20–0.31</td><td>0.40–0.58</td><td>0.19–0.30</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.47</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.30–1.66</td><td>M2</td><td>0.28–0.41</td><td>0.22–0.33</td><td>0.17–0.27</td><td>0.35–0.53</td><td>0.16–0.26</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.60</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.48–1.73</td><td>O1</td><td>0.30–0.41</td><td>0.24–0.34</td><td>0.19–0.28</td><td>0.38–0.51</td><td>0.18–0.27</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.68</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.58–1.78</td><td>O2</td><td>0.31–0.42</td><td>0.25–0.35</td><td>0.20–0.29</td><td>0.39–0.53</td><td>0.19–0.28</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>1.04</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.92–1.17</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.03</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.91–1.17</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.16</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.99–1.12</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.06</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.99–1.12</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Sense of School Belonging</td><td /><td>0.52</td><td>0.01</td><td>0.51–0.52</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.23</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.18–0.29</td><td>HN</td><td>0.26–0.36</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.08–0.13</td><td>0.51–0.63</td><td>0.08–0.13</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.93</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.67–2.24</td><td>M1</td><td>0.32–0.45</td><td>0.25–0.36</td><td>0.18–0.29</td><td>0.44–0.63</td><td>0.19–0.29</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.51</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.32–1.72</td><td>M2</td><td>0.30–0.43</td><td>0.21–0.31</td><td>0.13–0.22</td><td>0.46–0.67</td><td>0.13–0.22</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.58</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.46–1.72</td><td>O1</td><td>0.30–0.41</td><td>0.22–0.31</td><td>0.15–0.23</td><td>0.46–0.59</td><td>0.15–0.23</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.69</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.59–1.81</td><td>O2</td><td>0.32–0.44</td><td>0.23–0.33</td><td>0.16–0.24</td><td>0.49–0.63</td><td>0.16–0.24</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>1.35</td><td>0.06</td><td>1.20–1.51</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.17</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.02–1.34</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>1.27</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.19–1.35</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>1.22</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.15–1.30</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Bully victim</td><td /><td>1.91</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.90–1.93</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.22</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.17–0.29</td><td>HN</td><td>0.08–0.13</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.25–0.35</td><td>0.10–0.16</td><td>0.65–0.76</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.60</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.36–1.86</td><td>M1</td><td>0.14–0.24</td><td>0.21–0.32</td><td>0.29–0.42</td><td>0.17–0.27</td><td>0.54–0.72</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.19</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.03–1.38</td><td>M2</td><td>0.10–0.17</td><td>0.17–0.26</td><td>0.27–0.39</td><td>0.12–0.20</td><td>0.61–0.78</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.50</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.38–1.63</td><td>O1</td><td>0.14–0.21</td><td>0.21–0.30</td><td>0.30–0.41</td><td>0.16–0.24</td><td>0.60–0.74</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.47</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.37–1.57</td><td>O2</td><td>0.13–0.20</td><td>0.20–0.30</td><td>0.30–0.41</td><td>0.15–0.23</td><td>0.62–0.75</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>0.80</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.73–0.89</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>0.95</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.85–1.05</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>0.86</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.81–0.90</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>0.88</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.83–0.92</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Bully perpetrator</td><td /><td>1.39</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.38–1.40</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.22</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.18–0.28</td><td>HN</td><td>0.11–0.17</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.20–0.28</td><td>0.13–0.20</td><td>0.54–0.65</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.52</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.31–1.77</td><td>M1</td><td>0.16–0.25</td><td>0.21–0.31</td><td>0.27–0.38</td><td>0.18–0.28</td><td>0.57–0.78</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.27</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.11–1.45</td><td>M2</td><td>0.14–0.23</td><td>0.18–0.27</td><td>0.22–0.32</td><td>0.16–0.25</td><td>0.41–0.67</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.47</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.36–1.59</td><td>O1</td><td>0.16–0.24</td><td>0.21–0.29</td><td>0.26–0.36</td><td>0.18–0.27</td><td>0.59–0.74</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.53</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.44–1.63</td><td>O2</td><td>0.17–0.25</td><td>0.21–0.31</td><td>0.26–0.37</td><td>0.19–0.28</td><td>0.54–0.70</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.91–1.08</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>0.92</td><td>0.04</td><td>0.85–1.00</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.94–1.03</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>0.94</td><td>0.02</td><td>0.90–0.99</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Literacy challenges</td><td /><td>1.49</td><td>0.01</td><td>1.48–1.51</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>Intercept</td><td>0.22</td><td>0.12</td><td>0.17–0.28</td><td>HN</td><td>0.10–0.16</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.21–0.29</td><td>0.12–0.17</td><td>0.51–0.62</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M1</td><td>1.65</td><td>0.08</td><td>1.41–1.94</td><td>M1</td><td>0.17–0.27</td><td>0.22–0.32</td><td>0.27–0.39</td><td>0.18–0.29</td><td>0.46–0.67</td></tr><tr><td /><td>M2</td><td>1.30</td><td>0.07</td><td>1.14–1.49</td><td>M2</td><td>0.11–0.19</td><td>0.18–0.27</td><td>0.26–0.38</td><td>0.13–0.22</td><td>0.59–0.82</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O1</td><td>1.41</td><td>0.04</td><td>1.30–1.53</td><td>O1</td><td>0.15–0.22</td><td>0.20–0.28</td><td>0.26–0.36</td><td>0.16–0.24</td><td>0.52–0.66</td></tr><tr><td /><td>O2</td><td>1.47</td><td>0.03</td><td>1.38–1.56</td><td>O2</td><td>0.14–0.22</td><td>0.20–0.29</td><td>0.27–0.38</td><td>0.16–0.24</td><td>0.58–0.73</td></tr><tr><td /><td>* M1</td><td>0.90</td><td>0.05</td><td>0.81–0.99</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* M2</td><td>1.10</td><td>0.06</td><td>0.97–1.24</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O1</td><td>0.95</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.90–0.99</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td /><td>* O2</td><td>0.99</td><td>0.03</td><td>0.95–1.06</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>6 <emph>Note:</emph> Each moderation model is adjusted for gender, length of residence, and the survey year. Host national children are as a reference group in the regression models. Predicted probabilities of depressive symptoms are calculated by model based conditional mean predictions.</item> <item>7 Abbreviations: HN = Host national children, M1 = MENAP 1st generation, M2 = MENAP 2nd generation, O1 = OCO 1st generation, O2, OCO 2nd generation. Some variable labels were shortened for plotting purposes.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183755639-33">Peaceful Classroom</hd> <p>When classroom was peaceful, natives were less likely to show depressive symptoms compared to other groups, however, among second‐generation MENAP the variation was larger. In contrast, when classroom was not experienced that peaceful (i.e., −1 SD from the mean), depressive symptom likelihood was slightly larger among migrants than for host nationals. This indicated larger heterogeneity and a larger detrimental effect on some immigrants.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-34">Chance to Express Opinions in Classroom</hd> <p>First‐generation MENAP preadolescents had the highest probability of depressive symptoms, when they experienced not having a chance of expressing opinions in classroom, with depressive symptom likelihood ranging from 45% to 63% among this group. The manifestation of depressive symptoms in not speaking in class was more common for this group compared to others.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-35">Getting Along With schoolmates</hd> <p>At minimum value of this variable, probabilities of depressive symptoms among groups overlapped and therefore did not strongly differentiate any of the groups. However, those host national preadolescents who reported getting along relatively well with schoolmates (i.e., value at mean and above the mean) had a lower probability of depressive symptoms than first‐generation MENAP and second‐generation OCO preadolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-36">Getting Along With Teachers</hd> <p>Host nationals benefitted of good teacher–student relations more compared to other groups, as their likelihood of depressive symptoms were smaller when they reported average or good teacher–student relations. However, when the students did not get along well with their teachers, likelihood of depressive symptoms were high among all groups, yet, among first‐generation MENAP group the variability was larger (40%–64% likelihood).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-37">Teacher's Concern for Students</hd> <p>Teacher's care was more likely to benefit host nationals. However, at the same time the lack of experienced teacher's concern was likely to be more harmful to immigrants than host nationals.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-38">Sense of School Belonging</hd> <p>The lack of sense of school belonging was as detrimental to all groups. However, there was a benefit gap, as higher sense of school belonging was linked to lower probability of depressive symptoms among host nationals compared to immigrants.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-39">Bully Victimization</hd> <p>Experienced bullying was as detrimental to all groups.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-40">Bully Perpetrator (Participated in Bullying)</hd> <p>The association of having bullied others with the probability of depressive symptoms was equal among all groups, apart from second‐generation MENAP adolescents, among whom variability was larger. Some in this group reporting having bullied others a lot were less likely to report depressive symptoms compared to other groups.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-41">Literacy Challenges</hd> <p>Having a lot of literacy challenges (i.e., maximum value) was linked with high probability of depressive symptoms among all groups, being highest among second‐generation MENAP preadolescents. Among first‐generation with a lot of literacy challenges, likelihood of depressive symptoms was lower compared to their second‐generation counterparts.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-42">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-43">Main Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183755639-44">Elevated Depressive Symptom Prevalence</hd> <p>Elevated depressive symptoms were more frequently reported among first‐generation than second‐generation immigrant‐origin preadolescents. Host nationals reported depressive symptoms less than any of the immigrant groups. First‐generation immigrants originating from MENAP‐countries had depressive symptoms slightly more often than immigrants originating from other countries, but the difference was not significant. These results are in line with the immigration morbidity hypothesis, indicating that first‐generation immigrant‐origin preadolescents are more likely than subsequent generations and the host nationals to present mental health symptoms (e.g., Dimitrova, Chasiotis, and van de Vijver [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref109">29</reflink>]). In contrast to the immigrant paradox, wherein first‐generation have shown better adaptation than subsequent generations in some domains in the USA (see e.g., Marks, Ejesi, and García Coll [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref110">57</reflink>]; Tilley et al. [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref111">94</reflink>]), our results complement previous research conducted in Europe (Dimitrova, Chasiotis, and van de Vijver [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref112">29</reflink>]), by showing that immigrant morbidity concerns immigrant‐origin preadolescents in terms of their risk for presenting more mental health symptoms in the Finnish context. This indicates that the receiving context is healthy and supportive for the subsequent generations, yet disparities between the second‐generation immigrant‐origin and native populations remain.</p> <p>As the MENAP children have predominantly refugee and asylum‐seeking backgrounds whereas OCO‐children's migration histories are predominantly voluntary in nature (Immigration Department [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref113">44</reflink>]; Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref114">90</reflink>]), we expected to see a larger gap in their depressive symptom prevalence. Despite of possibly more stressful early‐life events and parents' emotional distresses among forced immigrants (Bager et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref115">8</reflink>]; Fazel [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref116">34</reflink>]), our results show that countries of origin and predominant reasons for migration in this age group did not contribute to differences in elevated depressive symptom prevalence in the Finnish context. Counterintuitively, in second generation, the MENAP group reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms than the OCO‐group. As their parents were forced immigrants, we expected them to report more depressive symptoms than the OCO‐group, as mental strains are more common among adults with a forced immigrant background (e.g., Castaneda et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref117">20</reflink>]), thus affecting the parent–child relations negatively. However, this was not the case, which possibly indicates resilience and availability of psychosocial support (Motti‐Stefanidi and Masten [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref118">67</reflink>]) in Finland among second‐generation MENAP minors.</p> <p>Depressive symptoms were associated with gender only among host nationals, but not among immigrant‐origin preadolescents. Previous research indicates that girls often report higher rates of depressive symptoms (see Fazel et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref119">35</reflink>]) and are more often diagnosed with depression than their male counterparts by the age of 25 (Filatova et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref120">36</reflink>]). Nevertheless, gender not being associated with depressive symptoms among immigrant populations has been found in a few previous studies, too (e.g., Ellis et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref121">33</reflink>]; Kia‐Keating and Ellis [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref122">48</reflink>]). Among general population in Finland, it has been found that depression incidence increases rapidly among females from the age onset of 11–12 to 15–16 years, whereas the increase among males is more stable (Filatova et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref123">36</reflink>]), suggesting that possibly, the incidence increase has not yet begun among the immigrant preadolescent female minors assessed in the current study.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-45">Main Effects of the School Experience</hd> <p>The association of each item examined in the main effect models were significant in relation to depressive symptoms when analyzed as single variables. Thus, analyzing them together (i.e., holding each constant) as a main effects model, like in the present study, revealed us how these variables function conjointly and if they remained independently significant in relation to depressive symptoms among these groups.</p> <p>In general, it was true that sense of school belonging was the most important promotive factor and being a bully victim the largest risk factor for depressive symptoms. These results were in line with previous research on general populations (Allen et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref124">4</reflink>]; Moffa, Dowdy, and Furlong [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref125">62</reflink>]). Also, in line with extant literature (Brière et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref126">15</reflink>]), we found that the overall school experience was more important for girls' than for boys' mental health in all groups, being most important for second‐generation girls. Thus, considering the school environment for promoting their mental health is paramount. Among second‐generation MENAP girls the association of peer victimization with depressive symptoms was highest amongst all, possibly indicating experience of bias‐based bullying due to the intersections of ethnicity, religion, and gender which is even more detrimental for mental health than other types of bullying (Russell et al. [<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref127">80</reflink>]; Xu et al. [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref128">102</reflink>]).</p> <p>The relations of the school experience as main effects with depressive symptoms varied among groups. For host nationals, all variables remained significant when held constant. However, among immigrants, specifically the MENAP group, we found a few exceptions.</p> <p>For instance, bully perpetration was not significantly linked with depressive symptoms among second‐generation MENAP preadolescents. We found that this nonsignificant relation was due to holding <emph>being a bully victim</emph> and <emph>getting along with schoolmates</emph> ‐variables constant. This was true among second‐generation OCO females, too. This indicates that those in these groups who participated in bullying, are more often also victims of bullying and were not getting along well with schoolmates. Among first‐generation OCO girls the association was more complex as in addition to reporting being bullied, they also more often had literacy challenges, and did not get along with teachers. This indicates that those first‐generation OCO girls who participate in bullying had both relational and academic adaptation challenges. Bully victims of immigrant‐origin are more likely to be overlooked by both teachers and parents (Morales [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref129">63</reflink>]). Thus, vicious cycles of victimhood and perpetration may be unnoticed, having cascading results for them. Mixed‐method studies are needed to better understand the victim‐perpetrator dynamics, and who participates in bullying (among) these groups.</p> <p>Another exception was that, for first‐generation MENAP boys, sense of school belonging turned insignificant when holding <emph>getting along with school mates</emph> and <emph>the chance to express opinions in classroom</emph> constant. Thus, sense of school belonging may be manifested among them differently. That is, they feel that they belong through experiencing participation in classroom discussions and through friendships, whereas the more general feeling of belonging remained significant among other groups conjointly with these variables. Depressive symptoms may specifically be manifested in not expressing oneself in classroom among first‐generation MENAP boys, as this was the most important promotive factor in their main effects model, with a stronger negative association with depressive symptoms compared to other groups. This is an important finding that may help teachers and practitioners to notice the students at risk for depression: not participating in classroom discussions among this group may not be just due to the lack of lingual competence in their second language, but rather, mental distresses.</p> <p>Among first‐generation MENAP boys holding the variables of <emph>getting along with school mates</emph> and <emph>the chance to express opinions in classroom</emph> constant were the reason for making <emph>perceived teachers care</emph> not significantly associated with depressive symptoms. However, getting along with teachers was not significant among this group even when analyzed as a single explanatory variable. This suggest that specifically for first‐generation MENAP boys, peer relations and possibly status in the peer group are more important than perceived adults (i.e., teacher's) care for their mental health.</p> <p>It is uncanny that among first‐generation MENAP boys getting along with teachers had no relation with depressive symptoms. This novel finding needs to be explored by further research to illuminate this relation to structure possibilities for mental health promotion by positive teacher–student relations. Possible research interests may concern for example the role that teacher's gender plays in this relation, as the patriarchal cultural structures in MENAP countries (Solati [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref130">85</reflink>]) could affect the relevance MENAP boys give for the student–teacher relationship with their female teachers, who constitute 80% of primary school teachers in Finland (OECD [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref131">69</reflink>]). However, it is important to note that this relation was not true among second‐generation MENAP boys, indicating that either acculturation (Vedder and Motti‐Stefanidi [<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref132">97</reflink>]) plays a role, or for instance, teachers have not been provided with enough training (see Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref133">1</reflink>]) in encountering first‐generation forced immigrant boys.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-46">Single‐Variable Moderation Models</hd> <p>Our results revealed that host national children benefitted more often of a positive school experience than their immigrant counterparts. Previous research indicates that teacher support is more beneficial for host national students' mental health (Delaruelle et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref134">26</reflink>]). Our results were in line with the extant literature and complemented it by revealing that the benefit gap of a positive school experience for mental health concerned other school related variables, too.</p> <p>The positive school experience and how it was linked to depressive symptoms is more similar than different among immigrant‐origin preadolescents. The trend of these relations deviated from host nationals whom both benefitted more of positive experiences and did not show as high probabilities of depressive symptoms with the lack of positive experiences as immigrant‐origin preadolescents did. However, confidence intervals considered, there is heterogeneity among immigrants: Some share their school experience and its association with depressive symptoms with host nationals, while for others, the experience diverges.</p> <p>For example, when we look at how school experiences were related with the probabilities of depressive symptoms, second‐generation MENAP youth were quite similar to host nationals, except when it comes to sense of school belonging. This means that their school experiences and how they may contribute to depressive symptoms are more alike than different compared to other immigrant groups. Nonetheless, there is a lot of variation in these experiences within this group. In many cases, the likelihood of having depressive symptoms within the second‐generation MENAP preadolescent group resembled both host national and other immigrant groups.</p> <p>Peer victimization (being bullied) was equally detrimental to all groups, except for the even stronger association among second‐generation MENAP girls. Participating in bullying was also related with equal probabilities with depressive symptoms. Thus, efforts in reducing and cutting peer victimization are beneficial and necessary for all. Yet, the dynamics between nonimmigrant and immigrant‐origin preadolescents may vary, as immigrant‐origin preadolescents who bullied others were also more likely to be bullied themselves. In culturally diverse schools, it is important to be informed of varying experiences, as for example, racial‐ and ethnic‐biased bullying (i.e., racism and ethnic discrimination) are more detrimental for the victim, and current intervention programmes are ineffective for minorities (Xu et al. [<reflink idref="bib102" id="ref135">102</reflink>]). Moreover, immigrant‐origin minors may also face ingroup peer‐pressure in their cultural adaptation, and for example, be accused or demeaned for acting like host nationals, which may even manifest as bully victimization (see Davis, Stadulis, and Neal‐Barnett [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref136">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Literacy challenges show mostly similar patterns in relation to depressive symptoms across groups. However, it is noteworthy that those who reported a lot of literacy challenges (maximum value) had higher probabilities of depressive symptoms in second generation (58%–82% probability of depressive symptoms) relative to other groups (51%–67%). This may be indicative of low parental involvement due to language barriers and familiarity with the educative system among their immigrant parents (Antony‐Newman [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref137">6</reflink>]; Makrooni [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref138">56</reflink>]). Yet, for children born in the host nation, immigrant parents may hold high expectations of academic achievement, among whom effort was considered the most salient factor for school achievement (Yamamoto and Holloway [<reflink idref="bib103" id="ref139">103</reflink>]). Thus, immigrant children who have challenges in learning, may not meet needed parental involvement, and yet, be urged to just try harder. Consequently, they may conceal their worries and rather not discuss about their personal matters with their parents (Abdulhamed et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref140">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Further studies should look onto what explains resilience and heterogeneity among second‐generation MENAP minors, and further, elucidate why immigrant children do not seem to benefit from protective factors in the school environment to the extent of host nationals. Such exploration calls for longitudinal and mixed‐methods research designs to clarify temporal relations, individual experiences, and moreover, exploration throughout childhood and adolescence to illuminate stability and change during different developmental periods.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-47">Limitations and Methodological Reflections</hd> <p>Using a large whole‐population survey from three time points gave us robust estimates for the link between school related variables and elevated depressive symptoms. However, the notably high prevalence of depressive symptoms calls for caution. Self‐report questionnaires for mental health symptomology risk the possibility of overestimation and false‐positive results due to differences in interpretation of items (see Blackmore et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref141">10</reflink>]). The original short MFQ has been found valid in cross‐cultural and cross‐national studies (see Talja et al. [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref142">91</reflink>]). The results of the invariance tests in the present study indicated that it indeed functions well across all groups. However, its discriminant validity for clinical screening purposes among children and preadolescents under the age of 13 has found to be inadequate (Jarbin et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref143">45</reflink>], but see Rhew et al. [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref144">76</reflink>]). The internal consistency of FsMFQ in this study was adequate, as the Cronbach's alpha was 0.82. Moreover, with such a large sample, we can regard the results implicating disadvantage of mental well‐being among children in immigrant families being trustworthy and considered a strength of this study. However, the prevalence of depressive symptoms as a reflection of reality should be considered with caution, considering the screening problems found with SMFQ in younger children and the yet missing convergent validity research of the novel FsMFQ with clinical screening instruments.</p> <p>Assessing children of immigrant families, grouped to first‐ and second‐generation groups and further by their countries of origin can be considered both a strength and a limitation. Assessing depressive symptoms and related factors by generation and country of origin may advance our understanding in heterogeneity of the needs among immigrant‐origin minors. However, the rough grouping by their countries of origin to MENAP and OCO‐groups precluded the possibility to identify special groups of interest that either need more support or are especially resilient. Regrettably, more precise groupings by country with the SHP data are not possible due to the high standards of protecting the anonymity of the respondents. Furthermore, a limitation to this study is that we did not have the information about the reasons for migration, and hence considered the MENAP‐group as a group of predominantly forced migrants (Immigration Department [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref145">44</reflink>]; Sutela and Larja [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref146">90</reflink>]).</p> <p>The multiple‐methods approach may be considered a strength of this study. We studied associations of the variables measuring the school experience with depressive symptoms in the present study by both main effects and stratified ad‐hoc analyses, and single adjusted moderation analyses. This provided for the possibility for in‐depth stratified analyses, advancing our knowledge on how the school experience is linked to depressive symptoms among immigrant‐origin and host national preadolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-48">Considerations for School Settings</hd> <p>To facilitate a school environment that can be promotive and protective in relation to mental health among immigran‐origin children, this study shows that an aim to facilitate a sense of school belonging, positive teacher–student, and peer relations with emotional safety (i.e., reduce the risk of being bullied) is needed.</p> <p>In school settings it is important to consider actions to enhance relations among immigrant‐origin pupils and teachers. Our results revealed that there are differences in how these children perceive and benefit from teacher's care. Host nationals who felt cared for, had lower probabilities of depressive symptoms than their immigrant‐origin counterparts. Moreover, probability for depressive symptoms was higher among immigrants than host nationals when they did not feel their teachers cared for them. Teachers and school personnel should be considerate of their (immigrant‐origin) students, showing them care and compassion by genuine interest for their worries and needs. Simply, regularly asking them how they are doing, and if they have something they would like to discuss about, can help in structuring trust, and show them that the school's adults are there for their best interest.</p> <p>Not daring to speak in class, specifically, express opinions when something is talked about, was associated with higher depressive symptoms among first‐generation MENAP children, specifically boys. This relation bears the question of its direction, as depressive mood may inhibit the motivation to engage in social interaction and discussions (Powell, Ocean, and Stanick [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref147">75</reflink>]). Facilitating a positive and inclusive atmosphere in classroom and encouragement to participate in joint discussions as a valued member is important, considering linguistic difficulties among children yet acquiring the host national language. Teachers can embrace their participation by creating a safe space to interact with developing second‐language skills. At the same time, teachers should be aware that not participating in class discussions among this group may be an expression of depressive symptoms, which calls for their further attention.</p> <p>The negative cognitive triad (i.e., negative views of self, the world, and the future) seems to either predispose depressive symptoms in later adolescence followed by peer‐rejection (Braet et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref148">14</reflink>]), or develop during depressive episodes predisposing to concurring depression episodes (Timbremont and Braet [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref149">95</reflink>]). Thus, in school contexts, promoting positive self‐concept among children, and constructing positive views of the world, and hope in a prosperous future, are important, especially during times of uncertainty such as pandemic(s), climate change, international unrest, and war. In addition, immigrant children may also have issues believing in a prosperous future due to facing discrimination, and lacking role models paving the path for the possibilities in working life. Examining negative cognitive triads and its links to perceived discrimination and other challenging experiences with a comparative view of immigrant and nonimmigrant minors should be investigated in further research.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-49">Conclusion</hd> <p>Depressive symptoms were most prevalent among first‐generation, but in this age group and in the Finnish context, the difference in prevalence was not significant between forced (MENAP) and voluntary (OCO) migrant groups. In second generation, depressive symptom prevalence was lower than in first generation, but higher than among host nationals. Those originating from MENAP countries had a lower depressive symptom prevalence than their counterparts with from other countries in second generation. These contradictive findings need to be replicated in further studies and assess whether these patterns stay consistent through adolescence.</p> <p>The school experience was more important for girls than boys in relation to their mental health. Host nationals more often benefitted from a positive school experience and were less likely to be negatively affected by the lack of positive experiences than their immigrant counterparts were. However, the school environment was not sufficient in explaining the mental health disparity between immigrant‐origin and nonimmigrant preadolescents in the Finnish context. Yet, school should be considered an important context in promoting mental health of immigrant‐origin minors.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-50">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This work was supported by Finnish Strategic Research Council [Grant Number 352545, recipient Kirsti Lonka] and The Research Fund of The Mannerheim League for Child Welfare (recipient Rekar Abdulhamed).</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-51">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>The procedure of SHP has been evaluated by the ethical committee of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-52">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0183755639-53">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>Data are available upon application and payment by the Finnish Social and Health Data Permit Authority, Findata. Findata grants permits for the secondary use of social and health care data and improves data protection for individuals. 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Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1461706
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: A Whole-Population Comparative Study of the School Experience and Its Association with Depressive Symptoms among Immigrant-Origin and Native Preadolescents
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Rekar+Abdulham%22">Rekar Abdulham</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2900-5203">0000-0003-2900-5203</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lauri+Hietajärvi%22">Lauri Hietajärvi</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Reija+Klemetti%22">Reija Klemetti</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kirsti+Lonka%22">Kirsti Lonka</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(4):1196-1216.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Elementary+Education%22">Elementary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Intermediate+Grades%22">Intermediate Grades</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+5%22">Grade 5</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Analysis%22">Comparative Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Immigrants%22">Immigrants</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Disorders%22">Mental Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Symptoms+%28Individual+Disorders%29%22">Symptoms (Individual Disorders)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Experience%22">Educational Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+4%22">Grade 4</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+5%22">Grade 5</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+School+Students%22">Elementary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Groups%22">Peer Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Incidence%22">Incidence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Sense+of+Community%22">Sense of Community</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Integration%22">Social Integration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Risk%22">Risk</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Surveys%22">Student Surveys</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Attitudes%22">Student Attitudes</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.23385
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: In European studies, immigrant-origin adolescents report more mental health symptoms than natives do. The school is an important developmental context for them, and more research is needed about how their school experience is related to their mental health symptoms, and whether these relations vary by group. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of depressive symptoms, and their association with the school experience among native and immigrant-origin preadolescents attending the fourth and fifth grades of primary school. Whole-population surveys of three time points (2017, 2019, 2021, N = 259,382, of which N = 14,930 immigrant-origin) were used. Immigrant-origin preadolescents were grouped by their birth country and their parents to first- and second-generation, and to forced and voluntary immigrant groups. Depressive symptoms were most often reported by first-generation immigrant preadolescents followed by their second generation counterparts. Sense of school belonging was the most important protective factor and bullying the most important risk factor in relation to depressive symptoms. Positive school experiences were more beneficial for the mental health of natives than their immigrant-origin counterparts. In turn, negative school experiences were more detrimental for the mental health of immigrant-origin preadolescents.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: Note
  Label: Notes
  Group: Note
  Data: http://findata.fi/en
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1461706
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1461706
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.23385
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 1196
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Analysis
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Immigrants
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mental Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 4
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 5
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Incidence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sense of Community
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Integration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Risk
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Surveys
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Attitudes
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Whole-Population Comparative Study of the School Experience and Its Association with Depressive Symptoms among Immigrant-Origin and Native Preadolescents
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Rekar Abdulham
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lauri Hietajärvi
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Reija Klemetti
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kirsti Lonka
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 04
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1520-6807
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 62
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
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