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Teachers' Perspectives on Including Children with Disabilities in Virtual Motor Play Activities during Online Learning

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Title: Teachers' Perspectives on Including Children with Disabilities in Virtual Motor Play Activities during Online Learning
Language: English
Authors: W. Catherine Cheung (ORCID 0000-0002-9286-9576), Panpan Chen, Michaelene M. Ostrosky
Source: British Journal of Special Education. 2025 52(1):27-36.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Preschool Education
Descriptors: Teacher Attitudes, Inclusion, Motor Development, Social Development, Students with Disabilities, Distance Education, Preschool Teachers, Computer Simulation, Physical Development, Social Integration, Learning Activities, Allied Health Personnel, Occupational Therapy, Interdisciplinary Approach, Parent Teacher Cooperation
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8578.12567
ISSN: 0952-3383
1467-8578
Abstract: Structured motor play is crucial to the motor and social development of children with disabilities. However, many teachers report that including children with disabilities in motor play is challenging, especially during virtual learning. The purpose of this interview study was to explore 26 preschool teachers' perspectives on engaging children with disabilities in motor play in virtual environments and the strategies they used to involve students. Teachers believed that including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities is important for their physical development, sense of belonging, and exploration of potential. Teachers also indicated that understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and making adaptations to support each child during virtual motor play is important. Additionally, seeing therapists as resources for motor play ideas and sharing resources with parents were strategies suggested by participants to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning. Findings suggest that an interdisciplinary approach to teaching motor play is crucial for children with disabilities regardless of the service delivery model.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1461710
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184014404;bmp01mar.25;2025Mar27.06:33;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184014404-1">Teachers' perspectives on including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities during online learning </title> <p>Structured motor play is crucial to the motor and social development of children with disabilities. However, many teachers report that including children with disabilities in motor play is challenging, especially during virtual learning. The purpose of this interview study was to explore 26 preschool teachers' perspectives on engaging children with disabilities in motor play in virtual environments and the strategies they used to involve students. Teachers believed that including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities is important for their physical development, sense of belonging, and exploration of potential. Teachers also indicated that understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and making adaptations to support each child during virtual motor play is important. Additionally, seeing therapists as resources for motor play ideas and sharing resources with parents were strategies suggested by participants to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning. Findings suggest that an interdisciplinary approach to teaching motor play is crucial for children with disabilities regardless of the service delivery model.</p> <p>Keywords: children with disabilities; motor; online learning; teachers</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-2">Key points</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities is important for their physical development, sense of belonging and exploration of their potential.</item> <p></p> <item> Instead of a focus on developmental appropriateness when engaging children with disabilities in motor play, teachers reported that understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and making adaptations to support each child during virtual motor play are more important.</item> <p></p> <item> Participants suggested viewing therapists as resources for motor play ideas and sharing these resources with parents as strategies to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning.</item> <p></p> <item> An interdisciplinary approach to teaching motor play is crucial for children with disabilities, regardless of the service delivery model.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0184014404-3">INTRODUCTION</hd> <p>Motor play (i.e. structured physical activities led by an adult) is related to children's motor, cognitive, social and emotional development, and academic achievement (van der Fels et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref1">35</reflink>]). When children are physically active and participate in motor play, they learn how to engage with their environments, they learn about their bodies and the space around them, and they learn to interact with their peers (Favazza et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref2">17</reflink>]). In addition, participation in motor play increases children's sense of belonging and optimises their use of social and physical skills (Tant & Watelain, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref3">31</reflink>]). Furthermore, research has shown that children with disabilities who have better motor skills demonstrate higher social–emotional skills and academic performance (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref4">11</reflink>]). Moreover, motor play has the potential to facilitate the neural development of a specific area in the brain that alters thinking, decision making and behaviour, which is then tied to executive functioning (Kopp, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref5">22</reflink>]). Executive functioning skills are essential for developing adaptive behaviour (Cristofori et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref6">15</reflink>]). Adaptive behaviour consists of conceptual, social and practical skills, and refers to an individual's ability to carry out everyday tasks needed to manage environmental demands, interact with others, and engage in activities (Ditterline et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref7">16</reflink>]). Adaptive behaviour skills are necessary for daily living and independent functioning for children with disabilities. However, some children with disabilities demonstrate less effective adaptive behaviours than their typically developing peers; lower levels of participation in motor play may be a contributing factor to limited adaptive behaviours (Case et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]). Many children with disabilities experience motor delays or disabilities, which can then impact their participation in motor play with peers (Van Damme et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref9">34</reflink>]). To this end, it is essential that caregivers support the development of the motor skills of children with disabilities by facilitating their participation in physical activities.</p> <p>The preschool years (ages three to five years) are an important time for establishing motor play habits and developing other critical skills (Gerber et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref10">19</reflink>]). Preschoolers demonstrate rapid growth and changes in neurodevelopmental and physical areas (Gerber et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref11">19</reflink>]). Given the potential benefits of motor play, the World Health Organisation (WHO, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref12">37</reflink>]) and the US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref13">33</reflink>]) recommend that preschoolers spend at least 60 min in structured motor play daily. Despite these recommendations, it is well documented that children with disabilities engage in relatively lower levels of motor play compared to their typically developing peers (Case et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref14">8</reflink>]). Many children with disabilities depend on teachers to create opportunities and provide support for them to participate in motor play and engage with peers. Teachers play an important role in guiding and motivating children with disabilities during motor activities, to facilitate their motor and social development. However, even prior to the Covid‐19 pandemic, teachers reported that including young children with disabilities in motor play could be challenging in inclusive settings due to a lack of resources and professional training (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref15">10</reflink>]). During the Covid‐19 pandemic, research revealed that it was difficult for many teachers to engage children with disabilities in virtual environments (Al Lily & Alhazmi, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref16">2</reflink>]; Patel, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref17">28</reflink>]). Working with children with disabilities often requires direct contact (Bakkaloglu & Ergin, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]); thus participants reported that it was challenging to engage them in motor play without opportunities to guide them (Verulava et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref19">36</reflink>]). On the other hand, some children with disabilities did better academically when learning online, because they were more comfortable being at home on the computer than at school (Verulava et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref20">36</reflink>]). To our knowledge, there is no research that explores the participation of preschoolers with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning.</p> <p>Pandemics are part of the world's landscape and in the event of future pandemics, virtual learning may be needed. Additionally, virtual learning has become more common in situations such as public health emergencies (e.g. disease outbreaks) and weather‐related closures (e.g. snowstorms), or in the event of safety concerns; virtual learning can ensure that educational activities continue. It is essential to support children with disabilities during structured motor play activities so they can access curricula during virtual learning. It should be noted that motor play is a major learning activity in preschool education, and one in which many developmental domains can be addressed (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref21">10</reflink>]). In the current study, we explored teachers' perspectives about including children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning and the strategies they used to engage preschoolers. Specifically, three research questions were targeted:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> What are preschool teachers' perceptions of the importance of including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities?</item> <p></p> <item> What are preschool teachers' perceptions of the developmental appropriateness of engaging children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities?</item> <p></p> <item> Based on preschool teachers' virtual teaching experiences, what strategies do they report using to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0184014404-4">METHODS</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184014404-5">Researcher identity</hd> <p>Two of the three authors of this study have had extensive experience working in inclusive preschool settings, which was a strength in conducting this study and analysing the data. One author is a doctoral student in Sports Science, and another is a former physical therapist. Two of the researchers co‐authored a motor curriculum. These characteristics highlight the researchers' strong interests in and knowledge related to early motor development and physical activities. Finally, the interviewer had a background in early childhood education and special education, as a graduate student and teacher. Her teaching experiences helped establish rapport with participants during the interview process.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-6">Participants</hd> <p>Following approval from the university institutional review board, 26 participants were recruited to participate in this study. The same participants also participated in a study exploring the benefits and challenges that teachers faced as they attempted to embed motor play into their curriculum during virtual learning (Cheung et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref22">10</reflink>]). The inclusion criteria for participants were: preschool teachers across the USA, who taught virtually and had at least one student who received special education services (i.e. under Part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) in their inclusive classroom during the 2021/2022 school year. All individuals who expressed an interest in participating met the inclusion criteria. These criteria allowed us to explore teachers' perceptions of the engagement of children with disabilities in virtual inclusive environments.</p> <p>All participants were female, and 81% of them were White (see Table 1). Most participants were between 36 and 55 years of age and 54% of them had Master's degrees. Seventeen participants taught in public preschools; their preschool teaching experience ranged from one to 30 years. Most participants had between one and 10 preschoolers with disabilities in their classrooms. The types of disabilities represented in these 26 classrooms included autism, cerebral palsy, developmental delay, Down syndrome, intellectual disability, learning disability and speech delays/disabilities.</p> <p>1 TABLE Participant demographics.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left">% (<italic>N</italic> = 26)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Age</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Younger than 25</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">25–35</td><td align="char" char="(">15.38% (4)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">36–45</td><td align="char" char="(">23.08% (6)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">46–55</td><td align="char" char="(">19.23% (5)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Older than 55</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No response</td><td align="char" char="(">19.23% (5)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Race</td></tr><tr><td align="left">White or Caucasian</td><td align="char" char="(">80.77% (21)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Black or African American</td><td align="char" char="(">15.38% (4)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Asian or Pacific Islander</td><td align="char" char="(">3.85% (1)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Educational background</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Associate's degree</td><td align="char" char="(">7.69% (2)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Specialist credential</td><td align="char" char="(">7.69% (2)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Bachelor's degree</td><td align="char" char="(">30.77% (8)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Master's degree</td><td align="char" char="(">53.85% (14)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Total annual income</td></tr><tr><td align="left">$25,000 to $34,999</td><td align="char" char="(">7.69% (2)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">$35,000 to $49,999</td><td align="char" char="(">30.77% (8)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">$50,000 to $74,999</td><td align="char" char="(">15.38% (4)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">$75,000 or above</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No response</td><td align="char" char="(">34.62% (9)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Preschool setting</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Public school</td><td align="char" char="(">65.38% (17)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Private school</td><td align="char" char="(">3.85% (1)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Head Start</td><td align="char" char="(">23.08% (6)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No response</td><td align="char" char="(">7.69% (2)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Teaching experience (years)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1–5</td><td align="char" char="(">26.92% (7)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6–10</td><td align="char" char="(">23.08% (6)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">11–15</td><td align="char" char="(">3.84% (1)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">16–20</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">21–25</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">25–30</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No response</td><td align="char" char="(">11.54% (3)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">No. of children with disabilities or developmental delays</td></tr><tr><td align="left">1–5</td><td align="char" char="(">42.31% (11)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">6–10</td><td align="char" char="(">53.84% (14)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">11–15</td><td align="char" char="(">3.85% (1)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0184014404-7">Recruitment</hd> <p>Participants were recruited using a flyer that was shared on social media and relevant websites. They received a $20 e‐gift card after completing the interview and a $10 e‐gift card after completing the member check.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-8">Procedures</hd> <p>Individuals contacted the research team to express interest in the study, and then they were screened to ensure that they met the inclusionary criteria. If an individual met these criteria, we scheduled an interview at a date and time preferred by the individual. All interviews were conducted over Zoom. Prior to the interview, each participant completed a demographic questionnaire (described later). On average, the interviews lasted 40 min (range 21–64 min). During each interview, the interviewer took detailed field notes (for instance, the interviewer recorded the tone of the participant's voice, e.g. excitement). For example, one participant was very excited when describing that she found that music was particularly helpful and engaging for the students in her classes. After each interview, the interviewer emailed a one‐ to two‐page summary to each participant as an initial member check, to ensure the accuracy of the content. We asked participants if the summary reflected their perspectives and what, if any, changes should be made. All participants agreed with their interview summary and made no suggestions for changes. All interviews were audio‐recorded and auto‐transcribed using Zoom. All transcripts were checked for accuracy against the recordings prior to data analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184014404-10">Demographic questionnaire</hd> <p>Each participant completed a demographic questionnaire that included 12 items such as gender and race; it took approximately five minutes to complete.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-11">Interview protocol</hd> <p>The interview protocol was informed by the literature on motor play (e.g. Aronson‐Ensign et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref23">3</reflink>]; Cheung & Ostrosky, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref24">9</reflink>]). It was piloted with a teacher who had taught in an inclusive preschool programme, and then changes were made to simplify the wording of certain questions based on the pilot participant's feedback. Data from the pilot are not included in this study.</p> <p>The interview protocol included six questions with multiple prompts and probes (see Table 2). Two questions were related to the importance of motor play, while other questions were related to implementing motor play. Teachers were also asked to describe strategies they used to engage preschoolers with disabilities in virtual motor play. Finally, two questions focused on the appropriateness of motor play during virtual learning for preschoolers with disabilities.</p> <p>2 TABLE Interview protocol.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Areas of focus</th><th align="left">Interview questions</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Importance of motor play</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Do you think it is important for preschoolers to have structured motor play as a part of their virtual learning experience? Why or why not?</p></list-item><list-item><p>Do you think it is important for preschoolers with disabilities to have structured motor play as a part of their virtual learning experience? Why or why not? (Example: yoga, freeze dance)</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Implementing motor play</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Have you ever conducted teacher‐led motor activities for preschoolers with disabilities during virtual learning sessions? Why or why not?</p><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>What type of structured motor play do you, or have you, embed(ded) in your curricula?</p></list-item><list-item><p>On average, how many minutes each day do your preschool students with disabilities have structured motor play, if at all?</p></list-item><list-item><p>How do you deliver motor play during virtual sessions? (i.e. Turn on a video? Model actions? Verbally prompt children to do 'games like Simon Says'?).</p></list-item></list></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Strategies</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Do you feel preschoolers with disabilities engage with you? If yes, describe the strategies you use to engage with preschoolers with disabilities in virtual motor play.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Appropriateness</td><td align="left"><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Do you think it is developmentally appropriate for preschoolers with disabilities to engage in structured motor play during virtual class sessions? Why or why not?</p></list-item><list-item><p>Do you think it is developmentally appropriate for preschoolers with disabilities to engage in structured motor play during in‐person learning? Why or why not?</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0184014404-12">Data analysis</hd> <p>To analyse the transcripts, the authors used constant comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref25">20</reflink>]) and emergent coding (Patton, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref26">29</reflink>]). After becoming familiar with the data, two of the researchers individually read each transcript multiple times (Tesch, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]); then they each coded three interviews. Each transcript line was coded and annotated using a phrase (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref28">14</reflink>]); multiple codes were used if needed per line. New data were compared with the previously coded data to see if they represented a novel idea or if they fit under an existing code. The researchers then met to compare codes and reach consensus on any differences, while they began creating a codebook. Next the researchers independently coded three additional interviews, comparing their codes, looking for redundancies and making sure that each code was distinct, and that all codes fit logically within the larger coding framework. Once all transcripts were coded, the codes were refined and combined, as needed. This process resulted in the development of themes representing content of broader significance (Braun & Clarke, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref29">7</reflink>]). Finally, the researchers re‐read the entire dataset to re‐examine and confirm that all data and themes were constructed in a logical manner. Notably, all research team members had experience collecting and analysing qualitative data prior to conducting this study. Participant names were replaced with pseudonyms and identifiable information was removed.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-13">Fidelity and trustworthiness</hd> <p>All interviews were examined for fidelity to the interview protocol by two doctoral students in special education; they determined that 100% of the interview questions were asked of each participant. Additionally, several efforts were made to ensure the trustworthiness of the data. First, we conducted negative case analyses to ensure that the themes were accurately identified (Brantlinger et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref30">6</reflink>]). We also triangulated across data sources (e.g. transcripts, demographic questionnaire, field notes) and across researchers (e.g. several researchers analysed the data independently). We engaged in reflexivity by continually reflecting on our own experiences and beliefs. Finally, we conducted member checks.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-14">FINDINGS</hd> <p>Preschool teachers discussed their perspectives on the importance of including children with disabilities in structured motor play during virtual learning, the developmental appropriateness of virtual motor play, and strategies to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in virtual motor play. Key findings are shared in the following sections, along with relevant quotes from the teachers.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-15">Importance of including children with disabilities in virtual motor play</hd> <p>All participants believed it is important for children with disabilities to engage in motor play as part of their virtual learning experience, given the benefits related to: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref31">1</reflink>) body development, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref32">2</reflink>) children feeling included, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref33">3</reflink>) children exploring their own potential.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-16">Body development</hd> <p>Most participants reported that motor play is the foundation for body development. For example, Marie believed that '<emph>in order for any child to learn [motor skills]... and the very basic foundational ones [such as walking and running], they are [performing] how they are feeling physically</emph>.' Similarly, Malia stated, '<emph>I think that it [physical activity] gives them [children with disabilities] other ways of communicating and how to use their body and know their body in space so that eventually they can ... learn in other ways too</emph>.' Some participants reported that physical activity not only strengthens muscles but can also provide a context for teachers to assess a child's motor needs. For example, Jenny said, '<emph>It's a lot of ways that we can strengthen those muscles and strengthen those skills and be able to work on that and figure out more if something else is going on</emph>.'</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-17">Children feel included</hd> <p>Some participants reported that physical activity can make children feel included and increase their sense of belonging. For instance, MaryEllen stated:</p> <p>When you're dealing with preschoolers who have disabilities ... they may have some limitations, but you never want a child to feel like they're excluded from something, or they can't try, or their way just isn't right. So, I think that it is, but at the same time, I like them to feel included. I want them to feel like I could do anything.</p> <p>In a similar vein, Dana said, <emph>'I think it's just a good thing for them to be part of and be included</emph>.'</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-18">Children can explore their potential</hd> <p>Some participants believed that structured motor play provides opportunities for children with disabilities to find out what they can do. For example, Paige shared that <emph>'Scaffolding them, they [children with disabilities] don't do it because nobody has done it with them, or it's not something they thought of, and maybe they can do it they just don't know they can do it</emph>.' Similarly, Amy stated, <emph>'I think I had one [student] whose gross motor skills was kind of in that gray area. So just give them different activities to do. Mostly, sometimes the parents just don't know that their kid can stand on one foot for five seconds or, because we don't do that</emph>.'</p> <p>Although most participants reported that motor play is important for children with disabilities during virtual learning, some participants reported that they did not have time to include motor play in the virtual curriculum. For example, Mary stated, <emph>'I get so focused on their IEP [individual education program] goals and most of the time don't involve motor or unless they get OT [occupational therapy] or PT [physical therapy]</emph>.' Also, some teachers indicated that it was difficult to notice changes in the motor movements of children with disabilities through Zoom. For example, Nancy reported, <emph>'There are a lot of like little motor things that it had been noted in their evaluations and in their IEPs [to] kind of keep an eye on, that I wasn't really able to see on Zoom that now I'm seeing a lot in person, like I've got a lot of toe walkers</emph>.'</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-19">Developmental appropriateness of engaging in virtual motor play</hd> <p>The majority of participants believed that it is developmentally appropriate for children with disabilities to engage in motor play during virtual learning. For example, Chole stated, <emph>'Disability is, to me, not really a disability, it's just you're doing it in a different way. Your way may not be my way, your way is your way, so I think it is very important. They [children with disabilities] can do anything. It just may look a little different than how I do it, but they can still do it</emph>.' Instead of a focus on developmental appropriateness, teachers reported that (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>) understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref35">2</reflink>) making adaptations to address a student's needs are the main determinants for engaging children with disabilities in virtual motor play.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-20">Children's motor skills</hd> <p>Many teachers reported that the implementation of structured motor play in a virtual environment needs to match the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities. For instance, Cecilia stressed the importance of understanding these children's abilities to engage in motor play: <emph>'Some were things [motor activities] that they [children with disabilities] physically can't do and shouldn't do because they would physically hurt themselves trying to do it</emph>.' Similarly, Kendall believed that she needed to know a child's motor abilities because these are the building blocks for other skills. She stated, <emph>'We have to see those skills, we have to know where they are, because those are precursors to other things that they're going to be learning</emph>.' Likewise, Chole noted, <emph>'I just feel like you have to meet them [children with disabilities] where they are at</emph>.'</p> <p>Besides understanding a child's motor abilities and their interests, some teachers reported that it was challenging to find motor activities that matched the physical skills and interests of some children with disabilities. For example, Susan was open to including children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning; she just needed to find physical activities that these children could participate in and enjoy. She stated, <emph>'You know you can find one that they can do and enjoy. Again, find the ones that they [children with disabilities] like and I roll with them</emph>.'</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-21">Adaptations</hd> <p>Many participants believed that making adaptations is the key to including children with disabilities in motor play. Mary believed that it is developmentally appropriate for children with disabilities to engage in motor play but that teachers need to adapt activities to students' motor abilities so they can be successful. She stated, <emph>'As long as it's tailored to what they [children with disabilities] can do and what is in their zone of development</emph>.' Likewise, Ariana described how she worked with children who use wheelchairs: <emph>'We have students who are using wheelchairs, so you just adjust [the activity] and do what they can do</emph>.' Similarly, Malia said, <emph>'Sometimes even if they can't physically do it, they can modify [it] and do their version of it</emph>.'</p> <p>On the other hand, some teachers described challenges in adapting motor activities to match the needs of children with disabilities. For example, Paige noted, <emph>'Because the needs of the kids vary so much, that would have been hard to adapt, to really do a structured group motor play</emph>.' Likewise, Ariana was challenged to modify activities to meet all her students' needs. She shared that one of her students really did not like a specific song because it was too overwhelming for her and she would get really upset, but that song was another student's favorite song. Ariana said, <emph>'My inclination was "oh my gosh she's [the student is] upset, we need to stop."'</emph></p> <hd id="AN0184014404-22">Questioning the developmental appropriateness of motor play</hd> <p>A few teachers believed that not all motor play activities are developmentally appropriate for children with disabilities, especially for those with physical disabilities. For example, Caroline mentioned <emph>'Students who are in back braces or leg braces or in a wheelchair, and I am just trying to think of the most physically constrained students, who are non‐developmentally appropriate for them [engaging in motor play]</emph>.' Similarly, Susan stated, <emph>'For most of them [children with disabilities], yes [motor play is developmentally appropriate], especially if it's not like a physical disability</emph>.'</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-23">Strategies to engage children with disabilities in motor play</hd> <p>On average, the 26 participants conducted 20 min (range: five to 60 min) of structured motor play in their inclusive classes each day during virtual learning. The majority of participants did yoga, stretching, strengthening exercises and dance. For example, Kendall stated, <emph>'Strengthening, we were trying to like incorporate these yoga moves but hold [onto] our tables and trying to balance the beanbag on your belly, without making it fall off and just kind of having those games, through Zoom'</emph>. When teachers were asked about strategies used to engage children with disabilities during virtual motor play, participants' responses fell into two categories: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>) therapists as resources for motor play and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref37">2</reflink>) sharing resources with parents.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-24">Therapists as resources</hd> <p>Most participants reported that their programme's physical therapist (PT) was a major resource in terms of motor play. For instance, Dana stated, <emph>'We have a PT who would upload activities once a week, and she would assign it to everyone, not just her students. Some were very general and easy for all the kids, some probably were too easy, but we did have that, but probably not as much as we could have'</emph>. Likewise, Deana mentioned that her programme's PT was a great resource. She stated:</p> <p>I explicitly asked the PT to design a motor plan, which was awesome, which was like a sheet; it showed references, what the movement is like, step up on a rock or you know whatever the example may be. And then she kind of made like a chart and we'd send that home to the families ... and I think it serves as a great reference for the parent.</p> <p>In addition to therapists serving as resources, Erin described how she collaborated with her PT: <emph>'She [PT] would always kind of work on some of those skills, one‐on‐one with them so that they would be a little more confident when we did them in a group'</emph>. Deana also worked with her PT on some movements, describing how:</p> <p>She [PT] would put up on the screen, like 'hook the child' and 'We are going to do froggy drops'. She showed the visual of a frog, and then she would model it. The child would imitate it. She tried to hook the child in and make a connection to the movement, which worked really well for our class.</p> <p>Similarly, Kendall mentioned how she worked with her occupational therapist (OT). She said, <emph>'We did yoga. I also sent home a beanbag that my OT made for each of my students ... and we sent [them] home and so then we were doing toss and catch over Zoom and kind of made it play‐based'</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-25">Sharing resources with parents</hd> <p>Some participants shared resources with parents to facilitate their involvement in motor play. For instance, Susan noted that she put resources (i.e. gross motor choice boards) on her slides to share with parents. She said, <emph>'I'm not sure a lot of my family accessed those [choice boards] ... a lot of times like it was whether putting out pillows or going outside or things like that. We had even made the movement rooms that had like some "</emph>Go Noodle<emph>" like videos in there to share with parents'</emph>. Similarly, Eva shared her lesson plans and teaching strategies with parents prior to the lessons. She said, <emph>'Teaching Strategies has a platform to share with the parents, it will share the lesson and let them [parents] know, "I need to do this [to get them involved] and these are the skills that my child will obtain from it"'</emph>.</p> <p>Instead of focusing on the developmental appropriateness of a specific activity, teachers indicated that understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and making adaptations to support each individual child in virtual motor play were most important. Seeing therapists as resources for motor play ideas and sharing resources with parents were strategies suggested by participants to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-26">DISCUSSION</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to explore preschool teachers' perspectives on including children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning and the strategies they used to engage their students. Four main findings are worthy of further discussion.</p> <p>First, almost all teacher participants believed that promoting physical development was an important reason to include children with disabilities in structured motor play during virtual learning. Regular physical activity improves development across domains for children with disabilities, including cardiovascular capacity, gross motor skills and social skills (Lee & Jin, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref38">23</reflink>]). Children with disabilities can practice other important skills during motor play (i.e. cognitive skills), which positively contributes to the development of daily living skills and promotes the development of more complex motor skills (MacDonald et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref39">24</reflink>]).</p> <p>Participants' perspectives are supported by the extant literature (cf. Straker et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref40">30</reflink>]), which shows that children with disabilities require access to motor play activities to practice motor skills and explore what they can and cannot do. All children need a certain level of skills to participate in specific motor play activities (e.g. balance and coordination , strength and endurance). The Covid‐19 pandemic has led researchers to pay attention to virtual reality activities (e.g. exergames) as alternative opportunities for children with disabilities to practice motor skills at home. Their findings showed that exergames resulted in significant increases in children's locomotor skills, but not their ball skills or physical activity levels (Lee & Jin, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref41">23</reflink>]). The researchers suggested that virtual reality exergames supplemented with an adult‐led motor play programme might have resulted in greater increases in children's motor skills, for it is well known that adults (e.g. teachers, family members) play an important role in creating opportunities for children with disabilities to practice motor skills and learn new skills (Lee & Jin, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref42">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Second, the majority of participants believed that children with disabilities are physically able to engage in motor play virtually, but that the creation of opportunities for them to do so depends on a teacher's understanding of children's motor abilities and how to make adaptations, if needed. Some teachers reported having difficulty making adaptations to include children with disabilities in virtual motor play. For example, some participants described children with disabilities who wear back or leg braces or use a wheelchair as being unable to participate in virtual motor play activities. This ableist perspective may be influenced by service delivery models in which students are receiving pull‐out therapy instead of having therapy embedded within the classroom curriculum. Research has revealed that the severity of a student's disability was the strongest predictor of the modality in which services were provided (i.e. embedded therapy in natural environments versus pull‐out therapy; Clevenger et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref43">12</reflink>]). For example, students with moderate disabilities (including students who used assistive devices for walking) were provided with the least number of embedded services. Meanwhile, students with severe disabilities received the greatest number of services in their classrooms, possibly due to PTs' focus on positioning, which is more easily embedded into natural routines than mobility activities (Clevenger et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref44">12</reflink>]; Jeffries et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref45">21</reflink>]). It should be noted that some PTs may use pull‐out therapy sessions to address balance, muscle strength and gait training, which could be difficult to embed in a student's routines and activities (Palisano & Murr, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref46">27</reflink>]). The modality of PT service delivery provided to children with disabilities may impact a teacher's perspectives on these children's abilities to engage in motor activities and may limit learning opportunities for children with disabilities.</p> <p>Third, participation in motor play increases the sense of belonging of children with disabilities, and optimises their engagement with peers with and without disabilities. Motor play seems to be an ideal context in which to facilitate inclusion because these activities are often paired with music, are done with peers, and are typically fun for children (Tant & Watelain, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref47">31</reflink>]). Inclusion considers heterogeneity as a chance to teach all students about the positive aspects of diversity (Booth & Ainscow, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref48">5</reflink>]). Teachers play a significant role in adapting activities so that children with disabilities can engage in virtual motor play with their peers. Research has revealed that teachers who had positive attitudes toward inclusion consistently used several practices and various types of interventions to teach their students (i.e. adaptations to meet the needs of all students; Tant & Watelain, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref49">31</reflink>]). In contrast, negative attitudes toward inclusion focused on the participation of students with disabilities in traditional sports and physical activities that were not adapted (Combs et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref50">13</reflink>]). One's perceived teaching competence is the most influential factor for a teacher's positive attitude toward including students with disabilities (Gallego‐Ortega & Rodriguez‐Fuentes, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref51">18</reflink>]). As such, experience teaching children with disabilities could influence teachers' attitudes, and contribute to their feelings of confidence and competence. However, research has shown that even experienced educators lacked the knowledge and skills to provide quality online learning in inclusive environments (Adedoyin & Soykan, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref52">1</reflink>]). Although teachers reported that they attempted to embed motor play into their virtual curriculum, they faced challenges in implementing it effectively (Cheung & Ostrosky, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref53">9</reflink>]). Given that teachers' perceived competence is one of the major factors that contributes to their attitudes toward inclusion, it is important to provide professional development that addresses teachers' needs related to implementing structured motor play in virtual environments.</p> <p>Finally, therapists play an important role in implementing motor play, especially in virtual settings. Most participants in the current study described their collaborations with therapists and the important role that therapists played in sharing resources with them. This finding is consistent with previous research. Although preschool teachers are often responsible for directing children's motor skills programming (Murata & Tan, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref54">26</reflink>]), many of them have limited knowledge about motor development (i.e. motor imitation, bilateral co‐ordination), which facilitates the development of preschool readiness skills. In fact, motor skills programmes are too complex to be handled by a single specialisation. Children with disabilities often have multiple needs, and the services provided to them tend to be interrelated. A transdisciplinary approach is an effective way to serve children with disabilities. PT and OT interventions and research‐based teaching methods can help preschool teachers develop comprehensive motor programmes for children with disabilities. However, there is limited information available about the efficacy of professional collaboration with a focus on motor skills (provided in person or virtually). The successful engagement of children with disabilities in virtual motor play requires that preschool teachers collaborate with other professionals to improve children's educational outcomes and life skills (Menear & Davis, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref55">25</reflink>]). As we learn more about what works during virtual learning, especially related to motor play, we need to enhance pre‐service and in‐service programmes, so that teachers can provide children with access to learning opportunities across domains regardless of the service delivery model implemented.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-27">Limitations and directions for future research</hd> <p>There are several limitations in this study. First, all participants were female, which may have resulted in gender bias. Second, most participants were White; this lack of racial diversity means that the voices of many teachers are missing and should be included in future research. Third, the findings are based on one interview during the Covid‐19 pandemic. Teachers' experiences including children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning may have changed over time; therefore conducting interviews at other points in time would be helpful in identifying challenges and strategies to include children with disabilities in motor play and assisting in the development of guidelines for promoting inclusion in virtual contexts. Future researchers should consider conducting interviews over time to assess whether changes do in fact occur as teachers become more comfortable with providing virtual instruction. Findings from the current study represent only teachers' perspectives; future research should examine the perspectives of therapists on collaborating with teachers in support of motor play within virtual environments.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-28">Implications for practice</hd> <p>An interdisciplinary approach to teaching is crucial when working with children with disabilities. Teachers in the current study reported that they faced challenges in making adaptations so that children with disabilities could be engaged in motor play in virtual environments. Not only is professional training in this area needed, but promoting interdisciplinary teaming is important and necessary as well. When therapists and teachers collaborate, they can better understand children's motor abilities and subsequently make adaptations to activities so all children can be engaged in motor play regardless of the service delivery model used.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-29">FUNDING INFORMATION</hd> <p>This project was supported by a COVID Seed grant from the University of Illinois Urbana‐Champaign.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-30">CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0184014404-31">DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. 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  Data: Teachers' Perspectives on Including Children with Disabilities in Virtual Motor Play Activities during Online Learning
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  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22W%2E+Catherine+Cheung%22">W. Catherine Cheung</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9286-9576">0000-0002-9286-9576</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Panpan+Chen%22">Panpan Chen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Michaelene+M%2E+Ostrosky%22">Michaelene M. Ostrosky</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22British+Journal+of+Special+Education%22"><i>British Journal of Special Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 52(1):27-36.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 10
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Early+Childhood+Education%22">Early Childhood Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Preschool+Education%22">Preschool Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Motor+Development%22">Motor Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Development%22">Social Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Distance+Education%22">Distance Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Preschool+Teachers%22">Preschool Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Simulation%22">Computer Simulation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Development%22">Physical Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Integration%22">Social Integration</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learning+Activities%22">Learning Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Allied+Health+Personnel%22">Allied Health Personnel</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Occupational+Therapy%22">Occupational Therapy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interdisciplinary+Approach%22">Interdisciplinary Approach</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Teacher+Cooperation%22">Parent Teacher Cooperation</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/1467-8578.12567
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0952-3383<br />1467-8578
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Structured motor play is crucial to the motor and social development of children with disabilities. However, many teachers report that including children with disabilities in motor play is challenging, especially during virtual learning. The purpose of this interview study was to explore 26 preschool teachers' perspectives on engaging children with disabilities in motor play in virtual environments and the strategies they used to involve students. Teachers believed that including children with disabilities in virtual motor play activities is important for their physical development, sense of belonging, and exploration of potential. Teachers also indicated that understanding the motor abilities and interests of children with disabilities and making adaptations to support each child during virtual motor play is important. Additionally, seeing therapists as resources for motor play ideas and sharing resources with parents were strategies suggested by participants to facilitate the engagement of children with disabilities in motor play during virtual learning. Findings suggest that an interdisciplinary approach to teaching motor play is crucial for children with disabilities regardless of the service delivery model.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1461710
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1461710
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/1467-8578.12567
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 27
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Inclusion
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Motor Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Distance Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Preschool Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Computer Simulation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Integration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learning Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Allied Health Personnel
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Occupational Therapy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interdisciplinary Approach
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Teacher Cooperation
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Teachers' Perspectives on Including Children with Disabilities in Virtual Motor Play Activities during Online Learning
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Panpan Chen
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            NameFull: Michaelene M. Ostrosky
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              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0952-3383
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1467-8578
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 52
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            – TitleFull: British Journal of Special Education
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