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Early Childhood Temperament Factors and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Preschool and School Aged-Children: A Systematic Narrative Review

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Title: Early Childhood Temperament Factors and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Preschool and School Aged-Children: A Systematic Narrative Review
Language: English
Authors: Vivian Chau (ORCID 0000-0002-6626-0951), Valsamma Eapen, Erinn Hawkins, Jane Kohlhoff
Source: Child & Youth Care Forum. 2025 54(2):353-373.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Children, Child Behavior, Student Behavior, Personality Traits, Interpersonal Competence, Psychological Patterns, Antisocial Behavior, Personality Problems, Behavior Problems, Causal Models, Infant Behavior, Toddlers, Predictive Measurement
DOI: 10.1007/s10566-024-09819-3
ISSN: 1053-1890
1573-3319
Abstract: Background: There is growing interest in research understanding the individual-specific predictors of child callous-unemotional (CU) traits, particularly in early childhood. Objective: This study reviewed evidence from studies that investigated the relationship between early child temperament factors (between 0 and 3 years) and CU traits in children aged 3 to 13 years. Methods: A systematic search conducted according to PRISMA guidelines yielded 8 peer-reviewed articles. Results: Analysis of the included articles suggested that there was emerging evidence to support links between early temperament factors (particularly, fearlessness and social affiliation) and child CU traits. Conclusions: The results of this review demonstrate the ongoing need for further research to clarify the temperamental profiles of children with CU traits, particularly across fearlessness, social affiliation, and general temperament dimensions.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1463264
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183813892;5jr01apr.25;2025Mar20.05:39;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183813892-1">Early Childhood Temperament Factors and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Preschool and School Aged- Children: A Systematic Narrative Review </title> <p>Background: There is growing interest in research understanding the individual-specific predictors of child callous-unemotional (CU) traits, particularly in early childhood. Objective: This study reviewed evidence from studies that investigated the relationship between early child temperament factors (between 0 and 3 years) and CU traits in children aged 3 to 13 years. Methods: A systematic search conducted according to PRISMA guidelines yielded 8 peer-reviewed articles. Results: Analysis of the included articles suggested that there was emerging evidence to support links between early temperament factors (particularly, fearlessness and social affiliation) and child CU traits. Conclusions: The results of this review demonstrate the ongoing need for further research to clarify the temperamental profiles of children with CU traits, particularly across fearlessness, social affiliation, and general temperament dimensions.</p> <p>Keywords: Callous-unemotional traits; Child temperament; Child behavioral problems; Medical and Health Sciences Public Health and Health Services</p> <p>Children with callous-unemotional (CU) traits represent a distinct subgroup of youth with severe and pervasive conduct problems (Frick, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref1">20</reflink>]; Frick et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref2">24</reflink>]). Children with CU traits are characterized by limited empathy and guilt, remorselessness, reduced emotional responsivity, and an insensitivity to threat and punishment cues (Frick et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref3">22</reflink>]; Kimonis et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref4">34</reflink>]). Evidence suggests that children with CU traits are at greater risk of violent and pervasive antisocial behaviour and psychopathy, and that they have poorer treatment responses and require unique intervention needs (Enebrink et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref5">16</reflink>]; Hawes & Dadds, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref6">31</reflink>]; McMahon et al., [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref7">45</reflink>]; Viding & McCrory, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref8">58</reflink>]). The impairments associated with CU traits have led to their inclusion as a specific subtype of conduct disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders ('<emph>Limited Prosocial Emotions</emph>') (American Psychiatric Association & Association, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref9">2</reflink>]). As approximately 30% of children with conduct problems also exhibit elevated CU traits (Frick & Viding, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref10">21</reflink>]), a comprehensive understanding of the developmental precursors to CU traits may shed insight into targetable constructs for early intervention and prevention.</p> <p>Temperament has been emphasized in theoretical models explaining the development of misconduct and externalizing behaviours in children (DeLisi & Vaughn, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref11">15</reflink>]), and may also be of relevance in developmental models of child CU traits. Temperament is observable from birth and can be defined as the relatively stable differences in which an individual reacts and regulates (Goldsmith et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref12">28</reflink>]; Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref13">51</reflink>]; Thomas et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref14">55</reflink>]). By studying temperament in infancy, we may be able to identify early child-related markers that precede CU traits. While four main models of temperament have been conceptualized (Bates, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref15">4</reflink>]; Buss & Plomin, [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref16">8</reflink>]; Chess & Thomas, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref17">11</reflink>]; Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref18">51</reflink>]), integrative approaches to temperament have converged on the key domains of behavioral inhibition/fear, positive emotionality, activity level, attention, and sensory sensitivity (Shiner et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref19">53</reflink>]; Zentner & Bates, [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref20">67</reflink>]). Generally, children with more 'difficult' temperamental styles are either high in fearfulness or fearlessness (e.g., shy or sensation seeking), have reduced propensity to seek positive emotions usually expressed through reduced approach behaviours (e.g., less playfulness), higher levels of negative emotions (e.g., irritability/frustration), are more highly active (e.g., sensation seeking), experience issues persisting in tasks that require sustained attention, and are more sensitive to aversive stimuli (e.g., loud noises) (MacNeill & Pérez-Edgar, [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref21">42</reflink>]; Thomas & Chess, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref22">54</reflink>]; Thomas et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref23">56</reflink>]). Temperament-based theories of antisocial behaviour and psychopathy have suggested that low-fear and high anger/irritability are developmental pathways to antisocial and criminal behaviours (DeLisi & Vaughn, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref24">15</reflink>]; Fowles, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref25">19</reflink>]). Empirical evidence supports these theoretical assertions. A 25-year longitudinal study conducted by Glenn and colleagues, for example, found that children who were less fearful and more sensation-seeking at age three showed greater levels of psychopathy at age 28 (Glenn et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref26">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Youth with CU traits present with unique cognitive, socioemotional, and personality characteristics (Loney et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref27">41</reflink>]) as well as abnormalities in processing threatening stimuli and responding to the distress of others (Kimonis et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref28">34</reflink>]; Mills-Koonce et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref29">46</reflink>]). Temperamental styles are thought to be present <emph>before</emph> cognitive and social components of personality (Goldsmith et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref30">28</reflink>]; Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref31">52</reflink>]), and so it is possible that temperamental dimensions may be early markers of CU traits, or that they may contribute to their emergence. The two temperament dimensions that have received the most attention with regard to the development and expression of CU traits are fearlessness and low social affiliative temperament dimensions (Blair, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref32">7</reflink>]; Waller & Wagner, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref33">62</reflink>]). Fearlessness, defined as a lack of reactivity and fear of harm or threat, is thought to contribute to CU trait development by interfering with the normal development of response to punishment or distress cues and the motivation to adapt and engage in rule-compliant behaviour (Kochanska, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref34">36</reflink>]). Social affiliation refers to the intrinsic valuing and enjoyment of close interpersonal bonds with others, and is evidenced by physical affection, vocalizations, and a desire to develop and maintain interpersonal bonds (Zieber et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref35">68</reflink>]). Theoretically, lower levels of social affiliation are thought to underpin CU trait development through interference with processes that facilitate the normal development of empathy, prosociality, and conscience (Viding & McCrory, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref36">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>Empirical evidence has supported the proposed links between fearlessness and low social affiliation, and CU traits. In terms of fearlessness, in a study of 10–17 year old children, those with high CU traits showed reduced subjective fear after recalling an emotionally evocative life event compared to youth with low CU traits (Marsh et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref37">44</reflink>]). With respect to social affiliation, in a cross-sectional study of 214 pre-school age boys (<emph>M</emph>age = 4.7 years), those with elevated CU traits appeared less attentionally oriented to the distress of others compared to their counterparts (Kimonis et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref38">35</reflink>]). Longitudinal research has found that children aged 3 to 4.5 years who exhibited less mutual responsiveness and positive affect with their parent were more likely to show greater levels of CU traits at 5.5 years (Kochanska et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref39">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>While much of research in this area has focused on middle-childhood and adolescence, there have, in recent years, been an increasing number of studies focusing on the early childhood period (Hyde et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref40">33</reflink>]; Romero et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref41">50</reflink>]). More recent research examining early life predictors of child CU traits have suggested several factors including early caregiving quality/characteristics (e.g., harsh, warm, parental feelings; Chau et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref42">10</reflink>]); attachment styles (e.g., insecure, disorganized) (Kochanska & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref43">37</reflink>]; Kohlhoff et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref44">40</reflink>]), and parasympathetic functioning (e.g., lower respiratory sinus arrhythmia) (Wagner et al., [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref45">60</reflink>]).</p> <p>With the rising interest in the role of early childhood factors as predictors of later child CU traits, it is important to also gain a clear understanding of the link between temperament in infancy and early childhood and the later emergence of child CU traits (Cardinale et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref46">9</reflink>]; Waller & Hyde, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref47">61</reflink>]). Careful understanding of these links may have important clinical implications. For example, identifying the temperamental predictors of CU traits at the earliest developmental point may help early risk identification and the development of novel targets for preventative interventions. Further, while fearlessness and social affiliation have received the most attention, it is possible that other temperament variables, observable in these earliest years of life, may be longitudinally associated with later child CU traits.</p> <p>As CU traits are observable by the age of three (Waller & Hyde, [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref48">61</reflink>]), the focus of the current study was to systematically review evidence regarding the longitudinal associations between temperamental dimensions in infancy and early childhood (0 to 3 years) and the development of CU traits in middle-to-late childhood (3 to 13 years). While much of research in this area has focused on middle-childhood and adolescence, there have, in recent years, been an increasing number of studies focusing on the early childhood period (Hyde et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref49">33</reflink>]; Romero et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref50">50</reflink>]). Based on the extant literature, we hypothesized that (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref51">1</reflink>) greater levels of fearlessness would be longitudinally associated with greater levels of child CU traits, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref52">2</reflink>) lower levels of social affiliation would be longitudinally associated with greater levels of child CU traits, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref53">3</reflink>) more 'difficult' general temperamental dimensions (across behavioral inhibition/fear, positive emotionality, activity level, attention, sensory sensitivity) would be longitudinally associated with greater levels of child CU traits.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-2">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183813892-3">Search Strategy</hd> <p>A systematic search of the available literature through to March 2024 was conducted to identify peer-reviewed studies that investigated the links between temperament factors assessed in the infant and toddler years (0–3 years) and CU traits assessed in childhood/early adolescence (3–13 years). The review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref54">47</reflink>]). Three search strategies were used to identify the relevant studies. First, electronic databases PsychInfo, EmBase, and PubMed were concurrently searched for entries containing any of the following terms in the Title, Abstract or Keyword search fields: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>) temperament* OR easy* OR "difficult" OR individual* OR social* OR prosocial* OR reactive* OR "reactivity" OR rhythm* OR withdraw* OR mood* OR inhibit* OR disinhibit* OR emotion* OR affect* OR fear* OR "impulsive" OR "impulsivity" OR "activity" OR adapt* OR "sensory" OR "regulation" OR dysregulate* OR sensitive OR sensitivity "attentive" OR "attention" OR "motor" OR "soothability" OR "perceptual" OR persist* OR "neonatal behavioural assessment scale" OR "infant behaviour questionnaire" OR "infant characteristics questionnaire" AND (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref56">2</reflink>) "callous-unemotional traits" OR callous* OR "CU traits" OR "unemotional" OR "antisocial" OR psychopath* OR sociopath* OR "Limited prosocial" OR "externalizing" OR "disruptive". The search was limited to entries that were conducted on "human" subjects, with age limits from birth to 18 years, published in an "English language", and peer reviewed. Second, the reference lists of selected articles were manually searched for additional studies. Third, google scholar was used to manually search for articles that were under the 'cited by' option of selected articles.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-4">Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria</hd> <p>Inclusion and exclusion criteria were determined prior to conducting searches. Articles were included if they met all of the following criteria: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>) child temperament factor/s that were examined between birth and 36 months of age, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>) CU traits that were examined in childhood (37 months to 13 years), (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref59">3</reflink>) examined the prospective longitudinal associations between early temperament factors and child CU traits, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref60">4</reflink>) used validated/previously published measures of temperament factors and child CU traits in order to test associations between these factors, and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref61">5</reflink>) was published in a peer-reviewed, English language journal. Articles were excluded if they were: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref62">1</reflink>) not available in English; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref63">2</reflink>) not data-based (e.g., reviews, articles, book); or (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref64">3</reflink>) were an unpublished dissertation. A restriction was placed on study design, in that only longitudinal studies were included.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-5">Quality Assessment and Data Analysis</hd> <p>The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to assess the quality of cohort studies based on their level of risk of bias (Herzog et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]; Wells et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref66">65</reflink>]). The NOS comprises of eight items concerning study selection, comparability, and outcome. Studies received a star/point for each item if they were classified as high quality, with the exception of the comparability items, which can receive up to two stars. Cohort studies were scored on scales of up to nine; scores of six stars or greater were considered to have a high methodological quality. All studies were given a star for criteria that was considered not applicable given the study design (e.g., demonstration that outcome of interest was not present at start of study).</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-6">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183813892-7">Number of Articles Identified</hd> <p>The initial search resulted in a total of 23,103 articles through databases, and an additional 10 articles were identified through manual searches. A total of 12,768 duplicates were removed, leaving 9,824 articles. After title and abstract screening, 31 articles remained. Among these, 3 were excluded as they could not be accessed, leaving 28 articles to be read in full. Of these, 20 records were excluded as they did not meet the inclusion criteria and the remaining 8 articles were included in the final stage of review (Fig. 1). The main reasons for the exclusion of the 20 records included: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref67">1</reflink>) studies were not longitudinal in design (<emph>k</emph> = 12), or (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref68">2</reflink>) did not meet the age criteria (<emph>k</emph> = 12), or (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref69">3</reflink>) did not measure infant temperament as a predictor of CU traits (<emph>k</emph> = 7). Two reviewers independently conducted title, abstract, full article screenings, and quality assessments (percentage of agreement for the full-text screenings = 93%; intraclass coefficient for quality assessments = 0.86) and then resolved any disagreements through discussion and consensus. A third reviewer was available if any disagreements between the first two reviewers could not be resolved. Data extraction was conducted by one reviewer, and the other reviewer checked this extraction to ensure accuracy.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 PRISMA flow diagram of included studies</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-8">Overview</hd> <p>Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of studies reported in the seven included papers. Most studies were conducted in either the UK or the USA (<emph>k</emph> = 7 studies) with the remainder conducted in the Netherlands (<emph>k</emph> = 1). Of the seven studies that assessed the relationship between child temperament characteristics and child CU traits, five also assessed for additional child psychopathology (e.g., conduct problems, externalizing problems, autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).</p> <p>Table 1 Characteristics of included studies</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Authors and Location</p></th><th align="left"><p>Sample size and type</p></th><th align="left"><p>Child characteristics (initial age; sex)</p></th><th align="left"><p>Ethnicity</p></th><th align="left"><p>Child Temperament construct</p></th><th align="left"><p>Measurement tool of temperament and aged assessed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Measurement tool of CU traits and age assessed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Additional factors, measures, and age assessed</p></th><th align="left"><p>Key Findings</p></th><th align="left"><p>Quality Rating</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Barker et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr3">2011</xref>); England</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 14, 451; population based</p></td><td align="left"><p>8 weeks gestation; sex not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fearlessness</p></td><td align="left"><p>Approach and adaptability subscales of the Carey Infant Scale (P); 2 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>6-item questionnaire (Moran et al., 2009) (P); 13 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Conduct problems; Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; 7, 10 and 13 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Maternal prenatal risks increased fearless temperament, conduct problems, and CU traits</p><p>● Fearless temperament associated with higher adolescent conduct problems and CU, above and beyond parenting and prenatal maternal risks.</p><p>● Follow-back analyses showed fearless temperament in boys manifested as lower response to punishment cues, while for girls this temperament was indexed by boldness toward novel situations and strangers, particularly for conduct problem/CU youth.</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Bedford et al., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">2019</xref>; United Kingdom</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 79, high (<italic>N</italic> = 42) and low (<italic>N</italic> = 37) familial risk for ASD;</p></td><td align="left"><p>7 months; sex not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Regulatory function</p></td><td align="left"><p>Infant Behaviour Questionnaire (P); 14-months</p></td><td align="left"><p>Inventory of Callous Unemotional traits (P); 7-years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Autism Spectrum Disorder; The Autism Observation Scale for Infants (O); 7 and 14 months, Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule- Second Edition (O) and Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised (I); 7 years</p><p>● Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; Conners-3 (P)</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Infant regulatory function was negatively associated with later traits of ASD and ADHD inattention but not hyperactivity or CU traits.</p><p>● RF moderated link between infant AOSI score and ASD traits, with a significant effect in those with low RF.</p><p>● Similarly, for ADHD, infant activity level was associated with later ADHD inattention in those with low but not high RF.</p><p>● For ADHD hyperactivity symptoms, activity level was predictive at both high and low RF levels.</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Dapprich et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr14">2022</xref>); Netherlands</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 125; community</p></td><td align="left"><p>15-months; sex not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Behavioural inhibition</p></td><td align="left"><p>Ratings of child behaviour to novel and stranger situations (O); 15 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>● ASEBA- Preschool Forms - Child Behaviour Checklist (P) (2, 5, 9, and 12 years).</p><p>● The Teacher Report Form (T) (5, 9, and 12 years).</p><p>● The Inventory of CU traits (Y) (14, 17, and 21 years)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Nil</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Infant behavioural inhibition at 15-months predicted lower CU-traits across development for girls.</p><p>● Boys showed higher increases in CU-traits than girls from childhood onward.</p><p>● No gender difference regarding infant behavioural inhibition.</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Goffin et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr26">2018</xref>); United States</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 102; community</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>n</italic> = 51 girls; 2 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mothers:</p><p>● 90% White</p><p>● 3% Hispanic</p><p>● 2% African-American</p><p>● 1% Asian</p><p>● 1% Pacific Islander</p><p>● 3% Non-white</p><p>Fathers:</p><p>● 84% White</p><p>● 8% Hispanic</p><p>● 3% African-American</p><p>● 2% Asian</p><p>● 2% Other</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fearless temperament; low concern about transgressions</p></td><td align="left"><p>Observations of novel to mildly threatening objects (O) (twice at 2,3,4.5 and 5.5 years); observation of child's concern about breaking valuable objects and hurting parent (O) (twice at 2,3, and 4.5 years)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Inventory of CU traits (P); 8, 10, 12 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>Externalizing problems; Child Symptom Inventory (8 and 10 years), Adolescent Symptom Inventory (12 years)</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Children's low concern about both types of transgressions predicted CU traits, but effects were qualified by the expected interactions with fearless temperament</p><p>● Among relatively fearless children, those unconcerned about transgressions were at the highest risk for CU traits, even after controlling for the strong overlap between CU traits and externalizing problems.</p><p>● No main effects of fearfulness on CU traits</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Mills-Koonce et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr46">2015</xref>)</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N =</italic> 1292; birth cohort, low socioeconomic status</p></td><td align="left"><p>6 months; sex not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fear</p></td><td align="left"><p>Observations of child responses to mask presentation task (O); 6 and 15 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>Inventory of CU traits (P); 1st grade</p></td><td align="left"><p>Salivary cortisol; Unstimulated Whole Saliva, Heart Period; Cardiac Interval Data, Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Children with greater high-intensity fear, higher pre-task and cortisol levels, and lower levels of heart period and saliva had greater levels of CP + CU in the 1st grade</p><p>● No group differences in children at 6 months of age.</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Perlstein et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr49">2022</xref>); United States</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 628; twins</p></td><td align="left"><p>47% girls; 2 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● 85.7% Caucasian</p><p>● 3.2% Black</p><p>● 4.8% Hispanic/Latino/a</p><p>● 1.9% Asian</p><p>● 7.3% mixed</p><p>● 1.6% other</p></td><td align="left"><p>Social affiliation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Bayley's Behaviour Rating Scale and Infant Behaviour Record (O); 2 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>ASEBA- Preschool Forms - Child Behaviour Checklist (P); 2 and 3 years.</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Parental positivity and negativity; Parent Feelings Questionnaire (P); 2 and 3 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Lower social affiliation at 2 years uniquely predicted CU behaviours, but not oppositional-defiant behaviours, at 3 years.</p><p>● Low social affiliation at 2 years predicted CU behaviours at 3 years specifically among children who experienced low levels of parental positivity.</p></td><td align="left"><p>5</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7. Waller et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr63">2017</xref>); United States</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 310; low socioeconomic families</p></td><td align="left"><p>100% boys; 18 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>Mothers:</p><p>● European-American (53%)</p><p>● African-American (36%)</p><p>● Biracial (5%)</p><p>● other races (6%)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fearlessness</p></td><td align="left"><p>Coding system based on Kochanska (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr36">1997</xref>) (O); 24 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>● ASEBA- Preschool Forms - Child Behaviour Checklist (P); 42 months</p><p>● The antisocial Process screening Device (P); 10 and 11 years</p><p>● The Prosociality/Empathy scale of the Child and Adolescent Disposition Scale (P); 12 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Late childhood delinquency (Y); The Self-Report Delinquency Questionnaire; 10 to 12 years</p><p>● Harsh and positive parenting (O); Early Parenting Coding System; 24 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Infant fearlessness at 24 months predicted CU behaviours at 42 months, but only with parents with low observed positive parenting.</p><p>● Interaction between fearlessness and low positive parenting indirectly predicted CU traits at 10–12 years via CU behaviours at 42 months.</p><p>● Low parent empathy at 24 months uniquely predicted higher callous-unemotional behaviours at 42 months</p><p>● Parental aggression at 18 months predicted CU, attention-deficit, and oppositional defiant behaviours at 42 months</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8. Waller et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr64">2021</xref>);United States</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>N</italic> = 310 pairs of twins</p></td><td align="left"><p>3 years; sex not provided</p></td><td align="left"><p>● 89.4% European-American</p><p>● 7% Hispanic/ Latino/a</p></td><td align="left"><p>Fearlessness</p><p>Social affiliation</p></td><td align="left"><p>NIH Toolbox</p><p>Cognitive Battery-Preschool Edition, Bracken School Readiness</p><p>Assessment, and nine tasks from the Laboratory Temperament</p><p>Assessment Battery-Preschool Version (O); 3 and 5 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>ASEBA- Preschool Forms - Child Behaviour Checklist (P); 3 and 5 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Harsh parenting; (P); 3 years</p><p>● Warm parenting (P); Parent Feelings Questionnaire; 3 years</p></td><td align="left"><p>● Fearlessness and low social affiliation uniquely predicted increases in CU behaviours, but not oppositional-defiant behaviours, from ages 3 to 5.</p><p>● There was a differential moderation of the fear pathway by harsh parenting, such that harsh parenting predicted greater CU behaviours in fearless children but increases in oppositional-defiant behaviours in fearful children.</p></td><td align="left"><p>6</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p> <emph>Note</emph> P = parent-reported. O = observational. T = teacher reported. Y = Youth reported</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-9">The Link between Early Temperament and Child CU Traits</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183813892-10">Fearlessness/Fearfulness/Behavioural Inhibition</hd> <p>Among the eight included studies, six assessed whether early fearlessness was directly or indirectly linked to child CU traits. Barker et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref70">3</reflink>]) conducted a large population-based sample (<emph>N</emph> = 14, 451) and that found that parent-reported child fearlessness at age two was prospectively linked to parent-reported adolescent CU traits and conduct problems at age 13 above and beyond parenting and prenatal risks (e.g., financial difficulties, psychopathology, criminal behaviour). One of the limitations of this study was that fearlessness was parent-reported, and so subject to reporter-bias (Van de Mortel, [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref71">57</reflink>]). Four subsequent studies examined the relationship between observed child fearlessness and parent-reported child CU traits. In a sample of 310 low socioeconomic families, Waller et al. ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref72">63</reflink>]) found that infant fearlessness in response to a threatening toy animal (e.g., scary gorilla) at 24 months predicted CU behaviours at 42 months but only among parents with lower observed levels of positive parenting (<emph>β</emph> = 0.31, <emph>SE</emph> = 0.09, <emph>b</emph> = 0.43, <emph>p</emph> <.001). In a sample of twins (<emph>N</emph> = 310) who were exposed to 11 behavioral episodes from the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (Goldsmith & Rothbart, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref73">27</reflink>]), Waller et al., ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref74">64</reflink>]) found that observed child fearlessness at 3 years of age uniquely predicted parent-reported CU behaviors among children at both 3 years and 5 years (β = −0.12, <emph>p</emph> <.01). In a community sample of children aged 15 months (<emph>N</emph> = 125), Dapprich et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref75">14</reflink>]) assessed child behavioural inhibition, defined as fearful responses and avoidance of unfamiliar stimuli, people or situations, a term often used synonymously with fearfulness in the child temperament literature (Coll et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref76">12</reflink>]). These authors found that in girls, greater levels of observed behavioral inhibition at 15-months predicted lower levels of parent, teacher, and youth reported CU traits across 2, 5, 9, 12, 14. 17 and 21 years (β = −0.01 (0.00), CI: −0.02, − 0.00). The same effect was not observed for boys (β = 0.00 (0.01), CI: −0.01, 0.02).</p> <p>In contrast to the above findings, Mills-Koonce et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref77">46</reflink>]) recruited a large birth cohort study (<emph>N</emph> = 1292) consisting of low socioeconomic families, and found that greater child observed fear intensity at 15 months was associated with greater levels of conduct problems and CU traits in the first grade, compared to children with conduct problems alone (β = 0.07 (0.02), <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref78">1</reflink>, 718) = 2.84, <emph>p</emph> =.005, <emph>Cohen's d</emph> = 0.60) and children without conduct problems (β = 0.04 (0.02), <emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref79">1</reflink>, 718) = 2.52, <emph>p</emph> =.012, <emph>Cohen's d</emph> = 0.32). Finally, Goffin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref80">26</reflink>]) examined the moderating role of observed child fear on the link between observed concerns about transgressions (e.g., hurting a parent, concern about breaking objects) in toddlers and preschoolers, and parent-reported CU traits in later childhood and pre-adolescence. The authors found that children who showed less concern about transgressions (both breaking objects and hurting others) at ages 2, 3, 4, 5 or 5.5 years were associated with greater parent-reported child CU traits at 8-, 10- and 12-years children. These links however were only significant in children who also showed greater levels of observed fearlessness in early childhood (hurting parents; β = −0.13, SE = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.01. breaking objects; β = −0.14, SE = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.001). The authors found no main effect of fear on later CU traits. The absence of a main effect may have been related to the fact that it was a non-clinical sample, as elevated fearlessness may be more present in clinical samples of children.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-11">Social Affiliation</hd> <p>Two studies examined the link between infant social affiliation and child CU traits. In a sample of twins (<emph>N</emph> = 310), Waller et al. ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref81">64</reflink>]) found lower levels of child social affiliation observed during behavioral episodes between children and experimenters at 3 years were linked to parent-reported child CU traits at cross-sectionally at age 3 and longitudinally at 5 years of age (β = −0.07, <emph>p</emph> <.05). In another sample of twins, Perlstein et al. ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref82">49</reflink>]) found that lower levels of observed child social affiliation towards experimenters at age two predicted parent-reported CU traits at age three (β = 0.11, <emph>p</emph> <.05), and this effect was greater among children with lower levels of self-reported parental positive feelings (β = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> =.25).</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-12">Concern about Transgressions</hd> <p>Goffin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref83">26</reflink>]) assessed the link between child concerns about transgressions and child CU traits. These authors found that lower levels of observed concern about breaking valuable objects and hurting parents at ages 2, 3, 4, 5 and 5.5 years predicted greater levels of CU traits at 8, 10 and 12 years (β = −0.14, SE = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> <.001). This risk was highest among children who showed greater levels of fearlessness, which was averaged across ages from 2 to 5.5 years (β = −0.09, SE = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> <.01).</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-13">Regulatory Function</hd> <p>Bedford et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref84">5</reflink>]) assessed the link between infant regulatory function at 14 months old and child CU traits at 7 years among a sample of children at low (<emph>n</emph> = 37) or high (<emph>n</emph> = 42) risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Results showed that infant regulatory functioning was not significantly linked with parent-reported CU traits (β = 0.016, SE = 0.089, <emph>p</emph> =.861). It was, however, negatively associated with higher ASD (β = − 0.497, SE = 0.197, <emph>p</emph> =.014) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (inattentive subtype) (β = − 0.239, SE = 0.101, <emph>p</emph> =.021).</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-14">Discussion</hd> <p>This study systematically reviewed the available evidence about the associations between early child temperamental characteristics (between 0 and 3 years of age) and CU traits in children (between 3 and 13 years of age). Overall, the results of this review suggest support of our hypotheses in that early child temperament traits (particularly, fearlessness) are predictive of CU traits in later childhood. While only eight studies were identified, it is of note that all studies but one (Barker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref85">3</reflink>]) were conducted in the last eight years, indicating that research on early temperament indices and child CU traits is an emerging field.</p> <p>The findings of the current review are consistent with previous research that has examined associations between fearlessness and CU traits in older children/adolescents (Kimonis et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref86">35</reflink>]; Zieber et al., [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref87">68</reflink>]). Among the studies that specifically examined the direct link between early fearlessness and child CU traits, four out of six found significant results (Barker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref88">3</reflink>]; Dapprich et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref89">14</reflink>]; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref90">63</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref91">64</reflink>]). This finding is strengthened by the methodological rigour of the conducted studies, in that all studies but one (Barker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref92">3</reflink>]) included the use of observational measures of fearlessness of social and non-social situations, and recruited large sample sizes (ranging from 102 − 14,451 parent-child dyads) (Barker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref93">3</reflink>]; Dapprich et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref94">14</reflink>]; Goffin et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref95">26</reflink>]; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref96">63</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref97">64</reflink>]). After controlling for externalizing problems, one study did not find that fear uniquely predicted child CU traits (Goffin et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref98">26</reflink>]). The authors however did find that among children with low concern about transgressions, those with greatest levels of fearlessness were at greatest risk of CU traits (with CU scores aggregated into one overall score across ages 8, 10, and 12 years). One possibility that may explain the lack of main effects is the absence of parenting measures. Indeed, three out of four studies that found an association between fearlessness and CU traits also assessed for parenting effects (Barker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref99">3</reflink>]; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref100">63</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref101">64</reflink>]). This highlights the possibility that fearlessness may predict later child CU traits only in a specific range of parenting environments (e.g., harsh or warm parenting; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref102">63</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref103">64</reflink>]). Further, one study unexpectedly found a positive association between fearfulness at 15-months and greater CP + CU traits in the first grade (Mills-Koonce et al.,, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref104">46</reflink>]). These results are not consistent with extant literature on elevated fearlessness among children with CU traits. In accordance with the differential susceptibility model, one possibility may be that as these families were at greater sociodemographic risk (low socioeconomic status), these children may have experienced more contextual stress which may have ultimately influenced their regulatory capacity and thereby their fear response. Notably, both studies that did not find a direct association between fearlessness and CU traits examined <emph>fearfulness</emph> (Goffin et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref105">26</reflink>]; Mills-Koonce et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref106">46</reflink>]). Whilst both studies utilized fear-evoking observational protocols that were consistent with the other studies that examined <emph>fearlessnes</emph>s, more research is needed to determine whether the constructs reflecting the opposing ends of the fear continuum (i.e., fearfulness and fearlessness) represent the same construct in children at-risk of developing CU traits. Overall, studies examining fearlessness align with the theoretical perspective that impairments in fearful arousal undermine the development of normal inhibitory functioning in children that motivates caution and sensitivity to other individuals, and thus heightens the risk for CU traits (Frick et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref107">23</reflink>]; Marsh et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref108">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>The findings in this review support our hypothesis regarding the inverse association between infant and early childhood social affiliation and later child CU traits, and are consistent with previous research that has examined temperament in slightly older children (Kochanska & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref109">38</reflink>]) and later CU traits. It is of note, however, that only two studies were identified in this review that examined social affiliation and CU traits (Perlstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref110">49</reflink>]; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref111">64</reflink>]), highlighting the need for further research to draw final conclusions. Both studies recruited large samples of twins and used observational measures of social affiliation. Both studies also accounted for parenting variables (parental positive/negative feelings, Perlstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref112">49</reflink>]; warm and harsh parenting, Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref113">64</reflink>]), and showed that social affiliation predicted child CU traits but only among parents who self-reported low positive feelings (Perlstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref114">49</reflink>]). These studies add to the growing body of research that shows that impaired social affiliation in early childhood years, which is critical for prosocial bonding, cooperation, and healthy attachment, may be a specific precursor to child CU traits.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-15">Future Directions</hd> <p>Notable gaps in the literature include the lack of exploration of other temperamental factors, outside of fearlessness and social affiliation, that may be associated with the development of CU traits. Regarding fearlessness, further research on the differences between fearfulness and fearlessness in children with CU traits may provide a clearer description of how fear develops in these at-risk children. Other than fearlessness and social affiliation, only one study examined a more general temperament variable; infant regulatory functioning (Bedford et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref115">5</reflink>]), and these authors found that infant regulatory functioning was not predictive of the emergence of CU traits. Their sample did, however, comprise children with ASD, and may therefore not be representative of a typical sample of children with CU traits. Further studies are needed to clarify how the normative temperamental domains of activity, affectivity, attention, sensory activity, and self-regulation are purported to map onto child CU traits. Additionally, more research examining combinations of temperamental variables is needed as this would reveal more fine-grained child temperamental profiles linked to CU traits (e.g., fearlessness and social affiliation). Finally, given that most studies were conducted in the UK or the USA (<emph>k</emph> = 7), research recruiting more diverse families (e.g., of differing ethnicities, geography, socioeconomic status, etc.) are also needed to expand on our knowledge on how these at-risk children are differentially affected by their developmental context.</p> <p>Regarding the methodological rigor of studies, our review found that almost half of studies (<emph>k</emph> = 3) did not meet sound methodological quality. One aspect of assessing methodological rigor includes assessing the types of measures used to measure temperament and CU traits. An overall strength of the research has been the consistent use of observational measures of temperament variables. Regarding CU traits, all studies utilised parent-report (e.g., Child Behaviour Checklist 1.5 to 5 years; Achenbach & Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref116">1</reflink>]) measures, and only one study (Dapprich et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref117">14</reflink>]) included a teacher-report measure (The Teacher's Report Form, Achenbach & Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref118">1</reflink>]). Additionally, across the parent-report measures, some studies yielded low Cronbach alphas (e.g., α = 0.55; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref119">64</reflink>]). As these traits can be observed across a range of different settings and relationships, future studies should include multi-informant measures of CU traits (e.g., self-report, teacher-report) to better understand how links between temperamental factors and CU traits manifest in varying contexts. Further, the use of interview-based assessments, such as the Clinical Assessment of Prosocial Emotions, to assess for early CU traits may be helpful in advancing the field (Neo et al., [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref120">48</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the current review, three out of eight studies accounted for parenting variables (Perlstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref121">49</reflink>]; Waller et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref122">63</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref123">64</reflink>]) and all three studies found significant moderating effects of parenting (e.g., harsh parenting, low positive parenting) on the association between child temperament (e.g., fearlessness and social affiliation) and CU traits. It is critical that future studies assess the interaction between child temperament and parenting to identify the specific contexts that contribute to CU trait development. The inclusion of parenting in studies examining child temperament and CU traits would be important, as parenting is uniquely important in buffering or exacerbating risky temperamental pathways to CU traits given its proximal environmental influence (see review by Chau et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref124">10</reflink>]). Given the interpersonal deficits that are associated with CU traits (e.g., disregard for others), examining parental social-cognitive factors that have been linked to child social competence may be a potential avenue of research (Fonagy & Luyten, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref125">18</reflink>]). For instance, more positive caregiving representations, greater parental sensitivity and mentalisation have been linked to more optimal socioemotional child outcomes (e.g., attachment security) and protective against child psychopathology (Berthelot et al., [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref126">6</reflink>]; Guyon-Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref127">29</reflink>]; Zeegers et al., [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref128">66</reflink>]), whilst poorer caregiving representations, sensitivity, and mentalisation have been linked to greater child social-emotional problems and externalizing problems (Cooke et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref129">13</reflink>]; Guyon-Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref130">29</reflink>]; Ha et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref131">30</reflink>]; Madigan et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref132">43</reflink>]). Accordingly, how these key parental social-cognitive factors interact with child temperament in influencing child CU traits warrants investigation.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-16">Limitations</hd> <p>The current review has several limitations. Studies were only included if they were published in English, and so it is possible that relevant papers were published in a non-English language journal. Further, this review only included studies that used validated measures of child temperament and CU traits. This was to ensure that the methodological quality of the included studies was enhanced, but it is possible that other important studies were not included. Finally, a meta-analysis was not appropriate for the current study due to the heterogeneity of statistical modelling approaches across each study and issues relating to the inclusion of multiple timepoints using the same sample within studies, and the fact that the current review only includes 8 studies and a minimum of 10 studies are needed. Further studies are needed to pave the way for subsequent meta-analyses on this emerging subfield of research. Despite identifying only 8 studies in the overall narrative, there is a clear pattern of results from our narrative review which will have important implications for the field, such as in preventative parenting interventions and in advancing our knowledge on child CU traits.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-17">Implications and Conclusion</hd> <p>Taken together, the results of this review indicate associations between early temperamental factors (particularly, fearlessness) and CU traits in childhood. It is important to note that given the limited studies included in this review, findings may not be applicable across all developmental stages of childhood (e.g., only one study examined early infant regulatory functioning and CU traits in middle childhood; Bedford et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref133">5</reflink>]). Future research should focus on understanding how other established temperamental dimensions (e.g., activity, attention, sensory sensitivity, and emotionality) and what combinations of temperamental and parental factors map onto child CU traits. Given our findings on fearlessness, early parenting interventions aimed at fostering normal patterns of emotional responsivity and reactivity, particularly to the feelings of others and threat cues, may be essential for this subgroup of children. Managing parenting practices that may also promote child fearlessness (e.g., harsh parenting, attachment trauma) is equally important in preventing the ongoing development of CU traits (Fonagy, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref134">17</reflink>]). By continuing to explore temperament dimensions that are purported to contribute to these traits, there is a need to further isolate individual-specific factors underpinning these behaviours, which could then be targeted through matching intervention and supports. Moreover, gaining a balanced understanding of individual-specific and contextual factors contributing to children with elevated CU traits may translate into a comprehensive information base for the Disruptive Behaviour Disorder category of the <emph>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</emph> (5th edition, text revision; American Psychiatric Association, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref135">2</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-18">Funding</hd> <p>Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions. No funding was received for conducting this study. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.</p> <p>Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-19">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183813892-20">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>there are no conflicts of interest to declare.</p> <hd id="AN0183813892-21">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0183813892-22"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref51" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Child behavior checklist for ages 1–1/2–5. Reporter. 2000; 10: 20</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref9" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> American Psychiatric Association, D, &, & Association, A. P. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (Vol. 5). 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Early Childhood Temperament Factors and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Preschool and School Aged-Children: A Systematic Narrative Review
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  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Vivian+Chau%22">Vivian Chau</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6626-0951">0000-0002-6626-0951</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Valsamma+Eapen%22">Valsamma Eapen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Erinn+Hawkins%22">Erinn Hawkins</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jane+Kohlhoff%22">Jane Kohlhoff</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Child+%26+Youth+Care+Forum%22"><i>Child & Youth Care Forum</i></searchLink>. 2025 54(2):353-373.
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
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– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
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  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Children%22">Children</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Child+Behavior%22">Child Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Behavior%22">Student Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Antisocial+Behavior%22">Antisocial Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Problems%22">Personality Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Problems%22">Behavior Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Causal+Models%22">Causal Models</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Infant+Behavior%22">Infant Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Toddlers%22">Toddlers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictive+Measurement%22">Predictive Measurement</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10566-024-09819-3
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1053-1890<br />1573-3319
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: There is growing interest in research understanding the individual-specific predictors of child callous-unemotional (CU) traits, particularly in early childhood. Objective: This study reviewed evidence from studies that investigated the relationship between early child temperament factors (between 0 and 3 years) and CU traits in children aged 3 to 13 years. Methods: A systematic search conducted according to PRISMA guidelines yielded 8 peer-reviewed articles. Results: Analysis of the included articles suggested that there was emerging evidence to support links between early temperament factors (particularly, fearlessness and social affiliation) and child CU traits. Conclusions: The results of this review demonstrate the ongoing need for further research to clarify the temperamental profiles of children with CU traits, particularly across fearlessness, social affiliation, and general temperament dimensions.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1463264
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        Value: 10.1007/s10566-024-09819-3
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 353
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Children
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Child Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Antisocial Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Causal Models
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Infant Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Toddlers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictive Measurement
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Early Childhood Temperament Factors and Callous-Unemotional Traits in Preschool and School Aged-Children: A Systematic Narrative Review
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Vivian Chau
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Valsamma Eapen
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Erinn Hawkins
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jane Kohlhoff
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 04
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1053-1890
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-3319
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 54
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Child & Youth Care Forum
              Type: main
ResultId 1