Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism
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| Title: | Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Kelsey Harkness (ORCID |
| Source: | Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 2025 55(4):1353-1364. |
| Availability: | Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 12 |
| Publication Date: | 2025 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Descriptors: | Adolescents, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Executive Function, Attention Control, Diagnostic Tests, Disability Identification, Cognitive Tests, Symptoms (Individual Disorders), Error of Measurement, Measurement Techniques, Comparative Testing, Evaluation Criteria, Evaluation Methods, Evaluation Problems |
| DOI: | 10.1007/s10803-024-06275-9 |
| ISSN: | 0162-3257 1573-3432 |
| Abstract: | Attention and executive function (EF) dysregulation are common in a number of disorders including autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Better understanding of the relationship between indirect and direct measures of attention and EF and common neurodevelopmental diagnoses may contribute to more efficient and effective diagnostic assessment in childhood. We obtained cognitive (NIH Toolbox, Little Man Task, Matrix Reasoning Task, and Rey Delayed Recall) and symptom (CBCL, and BPMT) assessment data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) database for three groups, autistic (N = 110), ADHD (N = 878), and control without autism or ADHD diagnoses (N = 9130) and used ridge regression to determine which attention and EF assessments were most strongly associated with autism or ADHD. More variance was accounted for in the model for the ADHD group (31%) compared to the autism group (2.7%). Finally, we ran odds ratios (using clinical cutoffs where available and 2 standard deviations below the mean when not) for each assessment measure, which generally demonstrated a greater significance within the indirect measures when compared to the direct measures. These results add to the growing literature of symptom variably across diagnostic groups allowing for better understanding of presentations in autism and ADHD and how best to assess diagnosis. It also highlights the increased difficulty in differentiating autism and controls when compared to ADHD and controls and the importance of indirect measures of attention and EF in this differentiation. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2025 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1464204 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwFSQNo4v9KpoSPJjXl9mmCjAAAA4jCB3wYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHRMIHOAgEAMIHIBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDPeLf1X5pQJv_J7swAIBEICBmhGyDP5e47O6PnpcWVou_KZlXSvjdoWs8KgO2IZZOu6medzIM41Yk3s3VIFF9KIMko6Tfu-4RQSLZSJn8n0735z7ZhNWGePgi89hQM8qpHkvHbk6oWxZtqBvqKHT53xHLKROsOVd2zGLmMUpXIs7wx0SvhUFsM_z9rLWR-PhuSc8F-HHX2t8CHJKE8d1_NGBsNX_b5tB8op3A5s= Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0183973025;aut01apr.25;2025Mar26.05:27;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183973025-1">Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism </title> <p>Attention and executive function (EF) dysregulation are common in a number of disorders including autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Better understanding of the relationship between indirect and direct measures of attention and EF and common neurodevelopmental diagnoses may contribute to more efficient and effective diagnostic assessment in childhood. We obtained cognitive (NIH Toolbox, Little Man Task, Matrix Reasoning Task, and Rey Delayed Recall) and symptom (CBCL, and BPMT) assessment data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) database for three groups, autistic (N = 110), ADHD (N = 878), and control without autism or ADHD diagnoses (N = 9130) and used ridge regression to determine which attention and EF assessments were most strongly associated with autism or ADHD. More variance was accounted for in the model for the ADHD group (31%) compared to the autism group (2.7%). Finally, we ran odds ratios (using clinical cutoffs where available and 2 standard deviations below the mean when not) for each assessment measure, which generally demonstrated a greater significance within the indirect measures when compared to the direct measures. These results add to the growing literature of symptom variably across diagnostic groups allowing for better understanding of presentations in autism and ADHD and how best to assess diagnosis. It also highlights the increased difficulty in differentiating autism and controls when compared to ADHD and controls and the importance of indirect measures of attention and EF in this differentiation.</p> <p>Keywords: Autism; Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD); Attention; Executive Function (EF); Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Attention and executive function (EF) dysregulation are common features of neurodevelopmental, mental health, and neurologic disorders, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Autism (Boxhoorn et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>]), traumatic brain injury (Bonnelle et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]), and obsessive compulsive behavior (Koch and Exner, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref3">16</reflink>]), as either primary (part of diagnosis) or secondary (common in the population) symptoms. Attention and EF dysregulation have been associated with poor long-term educational, occupational, and social outcomes including low academic and professional achievement, poorer lifelong earning potential, and worse physical health (Shaw et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref4">27</reflink>]). Given the importance of early intervention in mediating the long-term impacts of attention and EF dysregulation, determining measures that can assist with diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders and their associated attention and EF dysregulations, is imperative (Harpin et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref5">13</reflink>]; Shaw et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref6">27</reflink>]). There has been a lack of consistency in the literature regarding the assessment measures that are more (or less) associated with diagnosis of Autism and ADHD (Farhat et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref7">10</reflink>]; Krakowski et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref8">17</reflink>]; Kushki et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref9">18</reflink>]). To support more accurate and timely diagnosis, a more comprehensive understanding of the most informative assessments for specific diagnoses is required.</p> <p>ADHD and Autism are highly prevalent in the pediatric population at ~ 5% and ~ 2% respectively (Farhat et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref10">10</reflink>]). They frequently co-occur, with approximately 20% of children with ADHD presenting with autistic symptoms based on a recent meta-analysis (Hollingdale et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref11">14</reflink>]). Even without co-diagnoses, previous studies indicate a high level of overlap in symptomology among neurodevelopmental disorders, including in primary symptoms (Krakowski et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref12">17</reflink>]; Kushki et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref13">18</reflink>]). For example, there are high degrees of social dysfunction (a primary symptom of Autism) in ADHD and inattention in autistic individuals (Kushki et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref14">18</reflink>]). Further, behaviors occur on a spectrum resulting in an overlap in some symptomology between neurodivergent and typically developing groups. Therefore, specific symptom scores cannot definitively discriminate between groups (Kushki et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref15">18</reflink>]). Krakowski et al. ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref16">17</reflink>]) assessed differences between individual symptom severity in individuals with Autism and ADHD. The authors demonstrated diagnostic and sex differences in some symptom scores (social communication, and restrictive repetitive behaviors) but not others (inattention). This finding illustrates the complicated relationship between symptom scores and diagnostic status in individuals across the spectrum of presentations in Autism and ADHD.</p> <p>Obtaining a diagnosis of Autism and/or ADHD can be a long and expensive process for individuals, their families, and the healthcare system. Diagnosis may require multiple clinician visits and in-depth cognitive and behavioral assessments before a formal diagnosis is attained (Clark &amp; Bélanger, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref17">5</reflink>]). Many methods are used to assess attention and EF by clinicians and researchers, including direct (in clinic assessments directed at specific cognitive components) and indirect (questionnaire evaluations of specific cognitive skills or behaviors) assessments (Gómez-Pérez et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref18">12</reflink>]; Toplak et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref19">28</reflink>]). Previous literature has shown that there is limited association between direct and indirect assessments measuring EF (Toplak et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref20">28</reflink>]). One explanation may be that each assessment measure embodies a specific dimension of attention or EF.</p> <p>Assessment construct labels can reflect different definitions and different approaches to characterization behavior between different assessments. This is particularly true when comparing between direct and indirect assessments that have different methods for assessing ability, which could explain some of the variability seen between direct and indirect assessments that appear to be measuring the same construct. For example, the Flanker test (a common direct measure of executive function) relies heavily on inhibition and selective attention, however this assessment is often described as a general measure of attention (Weintraub et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref21">32</reflink>]). Finally, assumptions by raters (such as lowered expectations or presumption of deficits in clinical groups) could influence rater responses on indirect assessments in identified populations as questions are often based on deviations from normal behaviors (Williams et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref22">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>To increase the efficiency of diagnoses of ADHD and Autism, there is a need to determine which measures, or classes of measures, provide the most information for diagnosis and discrimination between diagnoses. We used the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) dataset (Luciana et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]) to obtain diagnostic, demographic, cognitive, and behavioral data on a large, diverse sample (N = 10,118). The ABCD database recruits from 21 sites across the United States, intentionally recruiting to be representative of the wider population. We acquired this data to assess associations between a comprehensive set of attention and EF measures and diagnostic status (Autism or ADHD, relative to no Autism or ADHD) and evaluated the clinical utility of these attention and EF assessment measures with respect to diagnosis. We expected that there would be greater variability in the contribution of different assessments. We anticipated that assessments that included measurement of symptoms associated with ADHD and Autism criteria would have higher contributions to their respective models. We also expected that indirect measures of these domains would contribute more to the models than direct measures evaluating similar domains. This information would help in making decisions about which attention and EF assessments to prioritize during the process of diagnosing of Autism and ADHD.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-3">Methods</hd> <p>Data from participants between 9.01 and 10.99 years old were accessed through the ABCD database, (study demographics available in (Karcher &amp; Barch, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref24">15</reflink>]) (N = 11,876)). Participants were excluded if they did not have complete data (n = 1701), or if they had co-occurring Autism and ADHD (n = 71). Measures relevant to attention and EF in the ABCD dataset were included: the Childhood Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Rey, Schrader, and Morris-Yates 1992), the Brief Problem Monitoring Teacher Report (BPMT; Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref25">23</reflink>]), the NIH Toolbox; (Weintraub et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref26">32</reflink>]), the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (long and short delay) (RAVLT; Rey, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref27">25</reflink>]), the Matrix Reasoning Test (Dugbartey et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref28">8</reflink>]), and the Little Man Task (Luciana et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref29">20</reflink>]). Specific subscores from each assessment were included if they assessed attention and/or executive function (all assessments listed in Table 1). To prevent double counting within an assessment instrument, multiple composite scores for a given instrument were included only when the composite scores did not have, or had minimal, overlap of individual questions.</p> <p>Table 1 List of assessments, their included components, descriptions, and scores acquired for evaluation for this study including the NIH Toolbox (Weintraub et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref30">32</reflink>]), Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT; Rey, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref31">25</reflink>]), Matrix Reasoning Test (Dugbartey et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref32">8</reflink>]), Little Man Task (Luciana et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref33">20</reflink>]), CBCL (Achenbach &amp; Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref34">1</reflink>]), and the BPMT (Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref35">23</reflink>])</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Direct assessments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Component&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Score&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NIH toolbox&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Flanker assessment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are asked to indicate the direction of the centre stimulus with flanking stimulus facing either the same way (congruent) or the opposite way (incongruent) as the 'target' center stimulus. Success on this task is when the participant accurately indicates the direction of the target stimuli&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Attention/Executive function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Raw scores (higher scores indicate increased ability)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;List sorting working memory test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with a list of items in which the participant is asked to repeat back the list of items in order of size of the objects presented. Lists continually get longer until two failed attempts are reached. Additionally, two categories of objects will be presented, and participants are asked to list first one category of items in order of size then the second&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Working memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Dimensional Change Card Sort Test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with cards with two dimensions on them (color and shape) and asked to sort them where it is indicated whether they have correctly or incorrectly sorted the card. Participants are first asked to sort based on one dimension and then the other based on feedback of correctness&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Executive function&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with two visual stimuli and are asked to indicate whether those stimuli are the same or different&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Processing speed&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Picture Vocabulary Test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with an auditory stimulus and asked to indicate which picture matches the stimuli&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Language&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Oral Reading Recognition Test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with a word or letter and the participant is asked to read the presented stimuli&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Language&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pearson assessments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are presented with a series of words and asked to recall them back (short delay). After being presented with a new set of words participants were asked to recall the original set of words (long delay)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Short delay memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Total correct (higher scores indicate increased ability)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Long delay memory&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Matrix Reasoning Test&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;A matrix of images is presented to the participant with one missing. Participants are also presented with additional images related to the target matrix and asked to indicate which of the images would complete the matrix&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fluid and visual intelligence&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Total raw score (higher scores indicate increased ability)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Little man task&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Participants are asked to indicate the hand in which a cartoon man is holding a suitcase in. The man is orientated upside down or right side up and forwards or backwards&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fluid intelligence, mental manipulation, and visual attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;% Correct (higher scores indicate increased ability)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Indirect assessments&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Score&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Assessment&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Respondent&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Score&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;CBCL&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) is an indirect assessment of problem behaviors in children (aged 6&amp;#8211;18) with self-, parent-, and teacher-report options. We used parent-reported metrics of component scores available through the database&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Parent&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="6"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Uncorrected scores (higher scores indicate increased problem behaviors)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Social&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Somatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Thought&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Internal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;External&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;BPMT&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Brief Problem Monitoring Report is an indirect assessment of behaviors. The BPM-T is the teacher report of that assessment. It is a short form assessment to assess problem behaviors in youth&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Teacher&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Raw scores (higher scores indicate increased problem behaviors)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0183973025-4">Diagnostic Status and Demographics</hd> <p>ADHD diagnosis was determined from the Kiddie Score for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (KSADS) and Autism diagnosis was extracted from the parent reported ABCD Screening Form. Based on this data three diagnostic groups were classified: Autism only, ADHD only, and no Autism or ADHD (controls). Other demographic information considered to characterize the sample included age, sex, household income, parental education (highest education achieved by parent attending appointment), and co-occurring disorders. This information was obtained from the parent demographics survey. ANOVAs were performed to assess for group differences in age. Chi square analyses were conducted to assess for differences in sex, co-occurring disorders, household income, and parental education (Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2 Demographics and average group performance on included measures within diagnostic groups</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;ASD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;No ASD or ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F value/X^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;110&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;878&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9130&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Average age (Months)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;119.9909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;118.5421&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;118.9691&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.467&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.08&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;% Male&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;85.50%&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;67.80%&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;50.20%&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;149&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Income (N)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;X^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#62; 5000&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;27&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;308&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="12"&gt;&lt;p&gt;16.839&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="12"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.77&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 5000&amp;#8211;11,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;32&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;313&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 12,000&amp;#8211;15,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;201&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 16,000&amp;#8211;24,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;386&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 25,000&amp;#8211;34,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;52&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;487&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 35,000&amp;#8211;49,000&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;78&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;692&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 50,000&amp;#8211;74,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;126&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1153&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 75,000&amp;#8211;99,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;14&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;125&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1210&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 100,000&amp;#8211;199,999&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;238&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2618&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; &amp;#62; 200,000&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;16&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;997&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Refused to answer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;35&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;379&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Missing data&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;36&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;386&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Parental education (N)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;X^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 1st Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="22"&gt;&lt;p&gt;63.645&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" rowspan="22"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.0101&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 2nd Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 3rd grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 4th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 5th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 6th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;48&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 7th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 8th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;47&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 9th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;98&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 10th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;78&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 11th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;144&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; 12th Grade&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;136&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; High school graduate&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;11&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;760&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; GED or equivalent&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;21&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;209&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Some college&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;25&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;162&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1484&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Associate degree/occupational&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;84&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;657&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Associate degree/academic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;496&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Bachelor's degree&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;28&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;252&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2567&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Master's degree&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;24&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;157&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1799&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Professional school degree&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;27&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;259&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Doctoral degree&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;35&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;299&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Refused to answer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Co-occurring disorders (N)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;X^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Depression&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;91&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;190&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;223.35&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Anxiety disorders&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;44&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;375&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1279&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;745.51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Mood disorders&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;121&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;256&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;291.93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Oppositional defiant disorder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;256&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;273&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1097.2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Conduct disorder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;132&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;173&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;468.56&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Other neurodevelopmental disorder&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;94&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;531&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2149&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;737.5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Other&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;24&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;240&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1129&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;314.92&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Race (N)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;X^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; White&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;92&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;720&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8316&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.0876&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.297&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Black&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;27&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;237&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2364&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8.5381&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Aboriginal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;42&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;378&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.8109&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.094&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Alaskan native&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;14.22&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Native Hawaiian&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;19&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.073&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.15&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Guamanian&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.6459&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.056&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Samoan&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00036&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.98&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Other Pacific Islander&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;39&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.041011&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.84&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Asian Indian&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;108&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.027629&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.87&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Chinese China&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;14&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;190&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.099335&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Filipino&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;157&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.52E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.99&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Japanese&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.0028935&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.96&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Korean&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.2276&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.072&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Vietnamese&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;58&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.50869&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.48&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Other Asian&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;83&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.1877&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.023&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Other Race&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;755&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.3746&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Refused to answer&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;54&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.35713&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.55&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Doesn't know&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;95&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.016&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.16&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; None&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.10892&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.74&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Child behavioural checklist (CBCL) (Mean)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL somatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.790909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.569476&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.391785&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;150.3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL social&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.896355&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.337897&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;630.5&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL thought&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.381818&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.159453&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.33724&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;838.4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.872727&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.058087&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.317198&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2233&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL internal&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7.909091&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.658314&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.536911&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;388.6&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL external&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.790909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;11.280182&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.689595&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;820.2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NIH toolbox (Mean)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH picture vocab&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;84.80909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;84.23747&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;84.56976&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.733&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.48&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH flanker&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;92.30909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;92.85683&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;94.2921&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;12.43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH list&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;94.07273&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;94.54784&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;97.06954&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;20.7&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH Cardsort&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;91.15455&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;90.55774&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;92.85148&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;25.42&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH pattern&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;88.28182&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;85.04009&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;88.39679&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;21.42&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH picture&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;102.3727&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;100.2887&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;103.1342&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;22.47&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="3"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pearson assessment scores (Mean)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Short delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8.718182&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.037585&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.774589&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;29.69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Long delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8.390909&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;8.46697&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.310077&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;32.21&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Matrix reasoning&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;17.83636&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;17.1754&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;18.02607&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;20.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Little man task (Mean)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F Value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Percent correct&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.5693182&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.5488326&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.5937637&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;28.84&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief problem monitoring teacher report (BPMT) (Mean)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;F value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Attention problems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.534884&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.758503&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.404967&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;169.8&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.046512&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.693878&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.561589&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;42.94&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.27907&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.823129&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.100993&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;79.76&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Stars indicate significance between the control group and diagnostic group indicated: * = p &gt; 0.05, ** &gt; 0.01, *** = p &gt; 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-5">Assessments</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183973025-6">Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL)</hd> <p>The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/6–18) is a parent report questionnaire that assesses multiple dimensions of problem behaviors in children and youth (Achenbach &amp; Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref36">1</reflink>]) and is completed by a caregiver (i.e., indirect assessment of child behavior). We included six subscores for analyses here: attention problems, social problems, somatic problems, thought problems, internalizing behaviors, and externalizing behaviors (Rey et al., [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref37">26</reflink>]). These measures were selected to be as comprehensive as possible while limiting composite scores that utilized the same questions (somatic and internalizing were both included for completeness). This parent report questionnaire is a reliable and valid measure for assessing behavior in children and youth between 6 and 18 years and is commonly used because of its availability, ease of use, and tested validity and reliability in various populations and languages. Higher scores on the CBCL indicate more problem behaviors (Achenbach &amp; Rescorla, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref38">1</reflink>]). To align with other measures (where higher scores indicate better skills i.e. fewer deficits), we multiplied all CBCL scores by − 1. Clinical cut offs for the CBCL are defined by t scores greater than or equal to 70.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-7">Brief Problem Monitoring Teacher Report (BPMT)</hd> <p>The Brief Problem Monitoring Report Teacher Report (BPMT) is an indirect assessment of problem behaviors completed by an individual's teacher (Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref39">23</reflink>]). Attention problems, internalizing, and externalizing component scores were included here. This scale is validated for school aged children (6–18 years old) and is a brief report (18 questions) designed to be completed in 1–2 min (Piper et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref40">23</reflink>]). The inclusion of this teacher report ensured that more than one indirect rating of behavior was included in models. Similar to the CBCL, higher scores indicate more problem behaviors; therefore, scores were multiplied by − 1 to align with other measures. Clinical cut offs for the BPMT are defined by t scores greater than or equal to 70.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-8">NIH Cognitive Toolbox</hd> <p>The NIH toolbox is a battery of direct measures that assess several cognitive, emotional, motor, and sensory functions developed for individuals 3 to 85 years old (Weintraub et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref41">32</reflink>]). NIH toolbox scores are based on performance, with higher scores indicating better performance. In this study we included the Flanker assessment, list sorting working memory test, dimensional card sorting test, pattern comparison processing speed test, picture vocabulary test, and oral recognition test (described in Table 1). Clinical cut offs were defined by scores less than 2 standard deviations below the mean as calculated based on all available individuals within the assessment (supplementary Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-9">Additional Cognitive Measures</hd> <p>The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) is a measure of verbal learning and memory and assesses an individual's ability to recall a list of words after a short (immediately after) and long (20 min) delay with a set of non-target words being presented between recalls (Rey, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref42">25</reflink>]). The Matrix Reasoning Task is a measure of intelligence that requires spatial reasoning and fluid intelligence. The participant is asked to choose the correct picture or symbol to complete the sequence in a pattern (Dugbartey et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref43">8</reflink>]). The Little Man Task is a measure of visuospatial attention that demands that children mentally manipulate an object. It is designed to be completed in 6–8 min and is scored on several metrics; for this study, we included percentage of correct answers (Luciana et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref44">20</reflink>]). Higher scores on these assessments indicate better ability. Clinical cut offs were defined by scores less than 2 standard deviations below the mean as calculated based on all available individuals within the assessment (supplementary Table 2).</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-10">Analysis</hd> <p>Analyses were run using RStudio (version: 2022.07.0 + 548). We ran two statistical analyses to assess the relationship between diagnostic status (Autism, ADHD, and controls) and children's scores on measures of attention or EF. Many participants (6,761 (66.8%)) were missing the Brief Problem Monitoring Teacher Report (BPMT), so analyses were done twice; first for the full group (Without BPMT) not including the BPMT scores, and a second time including only the participants who had BPMT scores reported (BPMT subset; n = 3314 (ADHD); 3063 (Autism)).</p> <p>First, we aimed to assess the combined contribution of the attention and EF component scores in differentiating between a diagnosis of Autism or ADHD relative to controls. We used a ridge regression to identify the most informative predictors in the context of collinear measures (Pearson correlations indicated high collinearity between included measures (supplemental Fig. 1)). A ridge regression was selected in order to account for collinearity between the terms in the model. We included terms for age, sex, site, and parental education, in addition to each of the assessment measure scores (Table 1). We built models for ADHD and Autism separately in the larger sample (Without BPMT; N = 10,008 (ADHD); 9240 (Autism)) including all measures except the BPMT. These were then repeated with the smaller sample, which included the BPMT (N = 3,314 (ADHD); 3063 (Autism)).</p> <p>Finally, we assessed the clinical utility of the attention and EF measures for Autism or ADHD diagnosis examining the odds of either diagnosis as a function of established or estimated clinical cutoffs on each of these measures. The CBCL and BPMT report clinical cut offs as a t-score of greater than or equal to 70 (Mick et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref45">21</reflink>]; Petty et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref46">22</reflink>]). For all other measures, we determined cut offs based on participants obtaining a score &lt; 2 standard deviations below the mean, which was calculated from the whole sample, including all available individuals for each assessment (cutoffs reported in supplemental Table 2). We were not able to run odd ratios for the card sort task due to the very high variability in participants' scores. As a result, very few individuals obtained scores that were less than 2 standard deviations below the mean, thus not supporting the calculation of the odds ratio. This large variability is not driven by outliers and thus the assessment was not excluded from other analysis. Significance was adjusted using Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons (alpha = 0.05, 19 tests (for each diagnostic group), corrected alpha = 0.00263).</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-11">Results</hd> <p>There were significant differences between the ADHD and control groups in sex, parental education, co-occurring disorders (depression, anxiety, mood disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, other neurodevelopmental disorders, and other disorders), and in all measures from the NIH toolbox (indicated by asterisks in Table 2), except picture vocabulary. There were significant differences between the Autism and control groups in sex, anxiety disorders, other neurodevelopmental disorders, other disorders, all of the scales and composites of the CBCL except somatic problems, the NIH tool box list sorting working memory test, both short and long delay RAVLT, and the attention problems, internalizing, and externalizing component scores on the BPMT (indicated by asterisks in Table 2).</p> <p>The ridge regression models that did not include scores on BPMT accounted for 31.32% of total variability in ADHD diagnosis, and 2.76% of variability in Autism diagnosis (Table 3). Higher coefficient values within the ridge regression indicate a greater contribution to diagnosis (ADHD or Autism). Positive coefficients indicate model components that had positive associations between the diagnosis and better performance on the assessment measure. In the ADHD model, the top five coefficients were: CBCL attention, the Little Man Task, CBCL thought problems, sex, and CBCL externalizing problems. In the Autism model, the top five coefficients were: sex, the Little Man Task, CBCL thought problems, CBCL social problems, and CBCL somatic problems. The variance accounted for was similar in the models that included the BPMT, (33.63% for the ADHD model and 2.64% for the Autism model). For the ADHD model that included BPMT, the top five highest weighted components were CBCL attention problems, the Little Man Task, sex, CBCL thought problems, and BPMT attention problems. For the Autism model including BPMT, the top five highest weighted components were the Little Man Task, sex, CBCL thought problems, BPMT internalizing behaviors, and CBCL social problems.</p> <p>Table 3 Coefficients and R^2 values for each of the two full ridge regression models (Autism and ADHD) and the models including the smaller subgroup with the Brief Problem Monitoring Teacher report (BPMT)</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="4"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Diagnostic model&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Without BPMT&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" colspan="2"&gt;&lt;p&gt;With BPMT&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autism&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autism&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N with diagnosis&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;878&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;110&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;294&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;N without diagnosis&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9130&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9130&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3020&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3020&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;R^2&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.31&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.027&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.34&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.026&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lambda&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.016&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.01&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.016&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.095&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Intercept&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 0.137&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 0.0355&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.00873&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 0.00774&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Coefficients from models&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Demographics&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Site ID&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.70E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.25E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.42E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.10E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Age&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.82E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.17E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.08E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.01E-06&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Sex&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.90E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.40E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 9.84E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6.50E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Parental education&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.41E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.03E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.10E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.85E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Child behavioral checklist (CBCL)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL somatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6.21E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.15E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 8.91E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.34E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL social&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.83E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.63E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.55E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.38E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL thought&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 9.64E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 5.41E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 6.85E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.01E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.94E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.52E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 4.10E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.30E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.57E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 6.04E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.54E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.71E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; CBCL externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.10E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.34E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 7.62E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.82E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NIH toolbox&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH picture vocab&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.37E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.87E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.54E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.15E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH flanker&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.38E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.24E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.03E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 4.81E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH list&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 9.33E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.03E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 8.76E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.30E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH cardsort&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6.81E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.40E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.04E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 9.50E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH pattern&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.28E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.48E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.10E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.31E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH picture&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.07E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.54E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.76E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 5.60E-05&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pearson assessment scores&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; RAVLT short delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7.71E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 9.85E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 3.92E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.64E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; RAVLT long delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.04E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.66E-06&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.01E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.53E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Matrix reasoning&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 6.73E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.54E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7.44E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.06E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Little man task&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Percent correct&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.91E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 8.38E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.54E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.25E-02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="5"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief problem monitoring teacher report (BPMT)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Attention problems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 4.82E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 7.90E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.54E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 1.44E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left" /&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 2.17E-03&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#8722; 5.00E-04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>All models include diagnostic group and control group. R^2 values are derived from model including all model components</p> <p>Significant odds ratios (as determined through clinical cut off scores) were present for an ADHD diagnosis for all component scores of the CBCL, Pearson Assessment Scores (The short and long delay RAVLT and the Matrix Reasoning Test), and all of the included components of the BPMT. The largest odds ratios for ADHD diagnosis were found with CBCL attention problems, CBCL externalizing behaviors, and CBCL thought problems in the clinical range (Table 4). Significant odds ratios were present for Autism diagnosis with CBCL thought problems, CBCL internalizing, the Little Man Task, and short and long delay RAVLT. The largest odds ratios for Autism were CBCL thought problems, the Little Man Task, and CBCL externalizing behaviors.</p> <p>Table 4 Odd's ratio results</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table frame="hsides" rules="groups"&gt;&lt;thead&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Autism&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;ADHD&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align="left" /&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ratio&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;95% Confidence interval&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ratio&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;95% Confidence interval&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;p-value&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="7"&gt;&lt;p&gt;CBCL&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Somatic&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.71&amp;#8211;4.58&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.17&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.24&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.23&amp;#8211;5.51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Social&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.37&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.79&amp;#8211;9.21&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.09&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10.08&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7.24&amp;#8211;14.00&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Thought&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;9.57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.56&amp;#8211;15.67&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;13.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10.65&amp;#8211;16.30&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Attention&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.25&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.34&amp;#8211;7.25&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.33&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;30.76&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;23.50&amp;#8211;40.62&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.36&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.75&amp;#8211;9.55&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;7.19&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.68&amp;#8211;9.08&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.97&amp;#8211;11.13&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.00217&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;14.40&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;10.98&amp;#8211;18.93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="7"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Little man task&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; % Correct&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6.59&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.70&amp;#8211;13.61&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.00023&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.89&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.08&amp;#8211;3.10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.026&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="7"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NIH ToolBox&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH picture vocab&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.77&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.82&amp;#8211;0.048&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.091&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.83&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.40&amp;#8211;1.50&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.56&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH Flanker&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.65&amp;#8211;5.28&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.18&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.64&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.05&amp;#8211;2.47&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.032&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH List&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.34&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.82&amp;#8211;12.21&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.0045&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.40&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.70&amp;#8211;2.57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.32&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH Cardsort&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;NA&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH Pattern&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.85&amp;#8211;4.12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.10&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.67&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.20&amp;#8211;2.27&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.0027&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; NIH Picture&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.09&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.72&amp;#8211;4.69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.15&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.90&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.53&amp;#8211;1.42&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.67&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="7"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pearson assessment scores&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; RAVLT short delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;5.04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.71&amp;#8211;8.67&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.79&amp;#8211;3.23&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; RAVLT long delay&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.82&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.40&amp;#8211;8.75&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.74&amp;#8211;3.33&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Matrix Reasoning&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.67&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.11&amp;#8211;5.41&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.031&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.04&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.45&amp;#8211;2.81&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.0001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left" colspan="7"&gt;&lt;p&gt;Brief problem monitoring teacher report (BPMT) (Subset)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Attention problems&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.65&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.35&amp;#8211;8.23&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.014&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;6.02&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.31&amp;#8211;8.34&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Internalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.90&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.28&amp;#8211;6.33&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.44&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.81&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.66&amp;#8211;4.51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt;0.00022&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt; Externalizing&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;4.47&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;1.28&amp;#8211;11.54&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;0.022&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;3.59&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;2.16&amp;#8211;5.77&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align="left"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;bold&gt; &amp;#60; 0.00001&lt;/bold&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>Bolded p-values indicate significance after Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons (p &gt; 0.003). Higher values within the CBCL and BPMT indicate an increase in scores in clinical groups when compared to controls which indicates increased problem behaviors. Higher values within direct assessments indicate a decrease in scores within the clinical group compared to controls which indicates decreased ability within the domain</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-12">Discussion</hd> <p>This study investigated if attention and EF scores from a comprehensive set of direct and indirect multi-informant assessments were associated with the diagnosis of Autism or ADHD. In general, we found greater contribution of indirect measures to diagnosis in all models, specifically the CBCL, and the BPMT in models where it was included. The only exceptions were biological sex and the Little Man Task, which were included in the top five components in all four models. The odds of being diagnosed with ADHD or Autism were significant when the clinical cutoff on the measures were used, particularly in indirect assessments (CBCL and BPMT). In the group with ADHD the odds ratios for all of the indirect components were significant after correction for multiple comparisons. Indirect measures better capture everyday behavior and can generate a more generalized perspective of behavior over a longer period of time (Gómez-Pérez et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref47">12</reflink>]). This is important given that this allows for the collection of observed behavioural data over time across contexts. Given that both Autism and ADHD diagnoses are defined by clinical criteria based on observed behaviors (Earle, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref48">9</reflink>]) indirect measures may be more sensitive to more global behavioral deviations between individuals with and without a diagnosis. Toplak et al. ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref49">28</reflink>]) also assessed differences in direct (performance) and indirect (rating) measures and concluded that these measures were not interchangeable which further supports the differences in associations noted between direct and indirect measures of attention and EF and a diagnosis of ADHD or Autism.</p> <p>The odds of an association between poorer performance on the short and long delay of the RAVLT and a diagnosis were significant for both Autism and ADHD, whereas on the Matrix Reasoning task the odds of an association were significant only for ADHD. No task from the NIH toolbox was associated with a diagnosis of either ADHD or Autism. Studies have attributed scores on the RAVLT to verbal memory (Vakil et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref50">30</reflink>]) with studies reporting inconsistent results when it comes to the differences in scores between individuals with and without ADHD (Pollak et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref51">24</reflink>]). Vakil et al., ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref52">30</reflink>]) demonstrated that factors outside of ADHD (intellectual disability) could be contributing to significant differences between children with or without ADHD on the RAVLT. Other studies evaluating RAVLT results with respect to ADHD have assessed adults (Pollak et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref53">24</reflink>]), which limits the interpretability in children and adolescents. Research associated with the RAVLT and Autism in adults have shown different patterns of recall in individuals with Autism when compared to controls (Bowler et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref54">3</reflink>]). Although verbal memory is not a primary symptom of ADHD and Autism, this evidence suggests that it may differentiate between Autism and ADHD, beyond other direct measures of cognitive skills. We chose to include measures outside of primary symptoms of ADHD and Autism, such as working memory, processing speed, and intelligence, in order to account for other cognitive dysregulations that could be contributing to the diagnosis within the models. Although verbal memory is not a primary symptom of ADHD and Autism this evidence suggests that it may be a target for differentiating between Autism and ADHD, beyond even other direct measures of primary symptoms. These taken together demonstrate the difficulty in characterizing and differentiating between Autism or ADHD and controls, especially given the high rate of co-diagnosis in these groups (Farhat et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref55">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Within the ridge regressions internalizing and externalizing problems from the CBCL had opposite signs of coefficients between models including Autism or ADHD. Within the Autism model, internalizing problems were positively associated with a diagnosis while externalizing problems were negatively associated with diagnosis. This was reversed with the ADHD model. Other studies have assessed differences in externalizing and internalizing behaviors between individuals with and without neurodevelopmental disorders with mixed results. Dellapiazza et al. ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref56">6</reflink>]) demonstrated that there were increased internalizing and externalizing problems in both Autism and ADHD when compared to typically developing controls (consistent with our study). Additional studies have demonstrated higher rates of internalizing disorders when compared to externalizing disorders in Autism, and increased rates of externalizing disorders when compared to internalizing disorders in ADHD (van Steensel et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref57">31</reflink>]). This, in conjunction with our results, indicate a potential differentiation between ADHD and Autism that should be explored further. Our study provides compelling evidence as we did not control or exclude for other co-occurring disorders (such as anxiety or learning disorders), which are common in both Autism and ADHD (Tureck et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref58">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>In general, the scores on attention and EF assessments scores had greater differences between the ADHD group and the control group than between individuals with ASD and controls. Further, the ADHD group had more significant odds ratios when trying to use these types of assessments to predict diagnosis of Autism and ADHD. As is well demonstrated in literature, within groups of children with Autism or ADHD executive dysfunction and other selective cognitive impairment is common and, at times severe. However, there is wide range of performance on direct measurement of these skills within groups and there is limited association with diagnosis. Therefore, assessment of executive function should be individualized and reported separate from diagnosis, rather than considered supportive or associated with Autism or ADHD diagnosis.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-13">Limitations</hd> <p>Some of the assessments included in this analysis had ceiling and floor effects, limiting this study and other studies using similar assessments given the lack of variability in the high or low end of ability. The CBCL, for example, scores problem behaviors where typically developing individuals with few or no problem behaviors would attain a very low score, which limit the ability to assess the larger spectrum of ability. All assessments also have their own scoring protocols and clinical cut offs, which could impact the amount of comparability between individual assessments regardless of them assessing the same components, particularly between direct and indirect assessments. Investigations of cognition that include typically developing children and children in clinical groups need to utilize measures that can assess a broad range of abilities, including both problem and exemplary behaviors. Additionally, there is a need for assessments that are sensitive to change over time, which would be particularly beneficial in clinical trials and longitudinal studies.</p> <p>As this study was limited to a narrow age range, we are not able to generalize to other age groups, particularly in younger age groups where intervention has proven to be the most effective (Feil et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref59">11</reflink>]). Additionally, we did not include co-diagnosis of Autism and ADHD within this analysis, given the high level of co-diagnosis, this also limits generalizability. We were unable to control for general IQ within the models as the data was not available through the database, future analysis should consider collecting and including IQ in analysis.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-14">Future Directions</hd> <p>Future studies should increase the diversity of raters (including both parents, teachers, and other influential adults) at various developmental stages. Increasing the diversity of raters would allow for analysis of indirect measures while accounting for some of the rater biases that exists in indirect assessments of behavior, in addition to allowing for the assessment of behavioral alteration based on environment. A child may express different behaviors in variable environments based on peer influences, social and educational structure, and intervention strategies which could influence the ability to accurately diagnose (Lang et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref60">19</reflink>]). There should also be a focus on having validated measures that can assess both high- and low-level cognitive abilities to limit ceiling and floor effects, which restrict evaluation of the whole spectrum of abilities within attention and executive function. Expanding the range of validated measures would allow for a more thorough analysis of the effect of diagnosis on attention and executive function that could help to characterize the changes in dysregulation over development which could inform treatment.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-15">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study concluded that there were differences in the contribution of attention and EF assessment components within different diagnostic groups, with generally, increased relative contribution from indirect measures in the ridge regression when compared to direct measures. We found that indirect measures of attention and EF were more highly associated with a diagnosis of Autism and ADHD. Further, they had higher odds ratios of an association with the clinical cut-off for a diagnosis of Autism or ADHD. These findings support the utility of indirect measures of assessment in differentiating between individuals with and without Autism and ADHD. Models for ADHD had higher R^2 values than models for Autism, indicating that more variability was accounted for within the ADHD model than the Autism model. Further, odds ratios were higher in the ADHD model compared to the Autism model. There was increased sensitivity of these assessment measures to detect impairments associated with an ADHD diagnosis, compared to an Autism diagnosis, highlighting the increased difficulty of characterizing Autism. Further understanding of the relationship between assessment measures and diagnosis will contribute to the growing literature and help facilitate diagnosis and intervention for these vulnerable children and youth.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-16">Author contributions</hd> <p>KH: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Data Curation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review &amp; Editing, Visualization SB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Review &amp; Editing, Supervision CMD: Writing – Review &amp; Editing DD: Writing – Review &amp; Editing KM: Conceptualization, Methodology, Resources, Writing – Review &amp; Editing, Supervision.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-17">Funding</hd> <p>This study was supported by the Alberta Children's Hospital Foundation and the Owerko Centre at the Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-18">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183973025-19">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors have no example conflicts of interest to disclose.</p> <hd id="AN0183973025-20">Abbreviations</hd> <p></p> <p>• ADHD</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• ABCD</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• EF</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Executive Function</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• CBCL</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Childhood Behavioral Checklist</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• BPMT</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Brief Problem Monitoring Teacher Report</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• KSAD</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Kiddie Score for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia</item> <p></p> </ulist> <p>• RAVLT</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183973025-21">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0183973025-22"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref34" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Achenbach, T.M, and L.A. 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kelsey+Harkness%22">Kelsey Harkness</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5770-9964">0000-0002-5770-9964</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Signe+Bray%22">Signe Bray</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chelsea+M%2E+Durber%22">Chelsea M. Durber</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Deborah+Dewey%22">Deborah Dewey</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kara+Murias%22">Kara Murias</searchLink> – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Autism+and+Developmental+Disorders%22"><i>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</i></searchLink>. 2025 55(4):1353-1364. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/ – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 12 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention+Deficit+Hyperactivity+Disorder%22">Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Executive+Function%22">Executive Function</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention+Control%22">Attention Control</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Diagnostic+Tests%22">Diagnostic Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disability+Identification%22">Disability Identification</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Tests%22">Cognitive Tests</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Symptoms+%28Individual+Disorders%29%22">Symptoms (Individual Disorders)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Error+of+Measurement%22">Error of Measurement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Measurement+Techniques%22">Measurement Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Testing%22">Comparative Testing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Criteria%22">Evaluation Criteria</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Methods%22">Evaluation Methods</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Evaluation+Problems%22">Evaluation Problems</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1007/s10803-024-06275-9 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0162-3257<br />1573-3432 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: Attention and executive function (EF) dysregulation are common in a number of disorders including autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Better understanding of the relationship between indirect and direct measures of attention and EF and common neurodevelopmental diagnoses may contribute to more efficient and effective diagnostic assessment in childhood. We obtained cognitive (NIH Toolbox, Little Man Task, Matrix Reasoning Task, and Rey Delayed Recall) and symptom (CBCL, and BPMT) assessment data from the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) database for three groups, autistic (N = 110), ADHD (N = 878), and control without autism or ADHD diagnoses (N = 9130) and used ridge regression to determine which attention and EF assessments were most strongly associated with autism or ADHD. More variance was accounted for in the model for the ADHD group (31%) compared to the autism group (2.7%). Finally, we ran odds ratios (using clinical cutoffs where available and 2 standard deviations below the mean when not) for each assessment measure, which generally demonstrated a greater significance within the indirect measures when compared to the direct measures. These results add to the growing literature of symptom variably across diagnostic groups allowing for better understanding of presentations in autism and ADHD and how best to assess diagnosis. It also highlights the increased difficulty in differentiating autism and controls when compared to ADHD and controls and the importance of indirect measures of attention and EF in this differentiation. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1464204 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1007/s10803-024-06275-9 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 12 StartPage: 1353 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Adolescents Type: general – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders Type: general – SubjectFull: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Type: general – SubjectFull: Executive Function Type: general – SubjectFull: Attention Control Type: general – SubjectFull: Diagnostic Tests Type: general – SubjectFull: Disability Identification Type: general – SubjectFull: Cognitive Tests Type: general – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders) Type: general – SubjectFull: Error of Measurement Type: general – SubjectFull: Measurement Techniques Type: general – SubjectFull: Comparative Testing Type: general – SubjectFull: Evaluation Criteria Type: general – SubjectFull: Evaluation Methods Type: general – SubjectFull: Evaluation Problems Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Assessing the Contribution of Measures of Attention and Executive Function to Diagnosis of ADHD or Autism Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Kelsey Harkness – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Signe Bray – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Chelsea M. Durber – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Deborah Dewey – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Kara Murias IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 04 Type: published Y: 2025 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0162-3257 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1573-3432 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 55 – Type: issue Value: 4 Titles: – TitleFull: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Type: main |
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