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Understandings of Inclusivity in Music Education: A Comparative Policy Study of Luxembourg and Japan

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Title: Understandings of Inclusivity in Music Education: A Comparative Policy Study of Luxembourg and Japan
Language: English
Authors: Miwa Chiba, David G. Hebert
Source: Music Education Research. 2025 27(1):37-53.
Availability: Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 17
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Secondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Music Education, Comparative Education, Diversity Equity and Inclusion, Global Approach, Cultural Influences, Curriculum Evaluation, Educational Policy, Access to Education, Music Teachers, Elementary Secondary Education, Teacher Attitudes
Geographic Terms: Japan, Luxembourg
DOI: 10.1080/14613808.2024.2434839
ISSN: 1461-3808
1469-9893
Abstract: Educational policies tend to be shaped by the interaction of sociohistorical contexts with global forces, for which the issues of diversity and inclusion in music education are particularly complex. This study examines how inclusivity is conceptualised in the field of music education in both Luxembourg and Japan. Reviewing the historical construction and distinctive characteristics of national music education systems, we analyse how the notion of inclusive music education is understoood, and identify current opportunities and obstacles towards full inclusion of diverse students. The study applies the analytical frameworks of (i) global influences and isomorphism, (ii) "historical" institutionalism, and (iii) Göransson and Nilholm's typology of inclusive education. Based on analyses of curricula and policies, and interviews with (music) teachers in schools and organisations, we determined that unequal access to music education remains, and standardised approaches often hinder participation of diverse students while cross-sector partnerships offer new opportunities for inclusion.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1465901
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183055871;54y01mar.25;2025Feb18.03:53;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183055871-1">Understandings of inclusivity in music education: a comparative policy study of Luxembourg and Japan </title> <p>Educational policies tend to be shaped by the interaction of sociohistorical contexts with global forces, for which the issues of diversity and inclusion in music education are particularly complex. This study examines how inclusivity is conceptualised in the field of music education in both Luxembourg and Japan. Reviewing the historical construction and distinctive characteristics of national music education systems, we analyse how the notion of inclusive music education is understoood, and identify current opportunities and obstacles towards full inclusion of diverse students. The study applies the analytical frameworks of (i) global influences and isomorphism, (ii) historical institutionalism, and (iii) Göransson and Nilholm's typology of inclusive education. Based on analyses of curricula and policies, and interviews with (music) teachers in schools and organisations, we determined that unequal access to music education remains, and standardised approaches often hinder participation of diverse students while cross-sector partnerships offer new opportunities for inclusion.</p> <p>Keywords: Music education; inclusive education; national policy; Luxembourg; Japan; institutionalisation; organisational field</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Inclusive education is a field that has seen increased global awareness and expansion, especially since the UNESCO <emph>Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action in Special Needs Education</emph> ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref1">51</reflink>]), followed a decade later by the UN <emph>Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities</emph> (United Nations [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref2">52</reflink>]). Although the concept "inclusive education' was originally a response to the call to integrate students with disabilities into mainstream educational systems, importantly, the definition of inclusive education has recently expanded to cover not only learners with disabilities but also all learners – irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref3">1</reflink>] Thus, the meaning of <emph>inclusive education</emph> has become ambiguous.</p> <p>Music is widely recognised as a potentially valuable tool to promote social cohesion through inclusion of diverse peoples. The role that music can play is underscored at the global level by organisations such as UNESCO that stress the role of music in fostering a diverse and cohesive society. However, issues of inclusion in <emph>music education</emph> are far more complex than they may often at first appear. Inclusion in music is not only about supporting students in difficult circumstances through music, nor is it simply about actively recruiting to include students with diverse characteristics in all kinds of music learning contexts. Scandinavian researchers have emphasised a concern that music and music education do not automatically serve democracy, since musical and cultural activities can never be regarded as politically neutral, for they are always – either explicitly or implicitly – anchored in some kind of sociocultural viewpoint (Lindgren, Bergman, and Sæther [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref4">35</reflink>]). In other words, music education is socially constructed based on selected (and often subjective) aims that are rarely free from political and social biases. Inclusivity in music education is also <emph>interpreted</emph> in accordance with political motivations, societal values, and practical difficulties in implementation. Fuzzy interpretations and understandings make the situation more complex.</p> <p>As Lubet ironically explains, "inclusive education must advocate not only for those branded 'disabled', but also those disabled by all forms of discrimination' (Lubet [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref5">36</reflink>], 728), and even goes so far as to argue that there has been a 'socially constructed disability' in music education, especially in music education systems based on notions of 'talent' (Lubet [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref6">36</reflink>], 729–730). Churchill and Laes ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref7">9</reflink>], 132) similarly argue against the potentially marginalising effects of a discourse of 'competence' that music educators seek from their students, and the trend of education-as-competition. From this line of argument, rather than being <emph>inclusive</emph>, some common practices may inevitably qualify as <emph>exclusionist</emph> forms of music education, including those frequently encountered in conservatoires and universities as well as some public schools and community music schools.</p> <p>This study takes a sociological lens to compare the policy frameworks that shape <emph>understandings of inclusivity</emph> in music education systems in both Luxembourg and Japan, an objective that requires an interdisciplinary approach combining the three fields of music education, inclusive education, and educational policy. Previous studies have attempted such cross-country comparisons (e.g. Hebert and Heimonen [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref8">26</reflink>]; Ho and Law [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref9">29</reflink>]; Sanchez-Escribano, Gertrudix, and Bautista [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref10">50</reflink>]), but there are characteristic challenges to overcome. Luxembourg and Japan may seem too different to compare – due to differences in geographic location, size and population, as well as Western and Eastern educational traditions for a start. However, their comparison makes perfect sense for two main reasons: 1) to uncover the powerful global influence on <emph>conceptualisation</emph> of inclusive education and music education, even in countries with vast differences (<emph>commonalities</emph>); and 2) to analyse the persistent <emph>institutionalisation</emph> of the music education systems in two countries (<emph>differences</emph>). The authors' personal experiences of living and working for years as music teachers in both Europe and Japan provided the background knowledge and familiarity to enable this comparative policy study.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-3">Theoretical background</hd> <p>Comparative music education research aims to understand the structures and practices of music education in different countries as well as the global flow of ideas in the music teaching profession (Kertz-Welzel [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref11">32</reflink>], 49). Rooted in sociological theory, the present study applies the analytical frameworks of (i) global influences and isomorphism in education, (ii) neo-institutionalism, especially <emph>historical</emph> institutionalism, and (iii) the typology of inclusive education by Göransson and Nilholm ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref12">19</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-4">Scope and objectives</hd> <p>First, our study analyses how music education systems have been developed in the two countries based on both global influence and historical institutionalisation. Second, it analyses the organisational field of music education in the two countries i.e. what kinds of formal, non-formal and informal music educational organisations impact students according to sociological institutionalism (Zapp and Powell [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref13">54</reflink>]). Third, it analyses how issues of inclusion are professionally understood in music education contexts in these two countries in terms of policy implementation (Hallett and Ventresca [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref14">21</reflink>]). Finally, it discusses how the music educational policies can be further developed for enhanced inclusion in music education. The study especially refers to the typology of inclusive education by Göransson and Nilholm ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref15">19</reflink>]), and through analysis based on its frameworks, discusses the similarities and differences in the two countries and identifies possibilities for further policy development (Bray and Thomas [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref16">5</reflink>]; Phillips and Schweisfurth [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref17">42</reflink>]). It is hoped that the results presented in this article will be useful to teacher educators and policy makers seeking to develop more inclusive music education systems.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-5">Theoretical frameworks</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183055871-6">Global influence of inclusive (music) education discourses</hd> <p>Many scholars have pointed out that globalisation profoundly impacts national and local policies (Ramirez [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref18">44</reflink>], Rizvi and Lingard [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref19">45</reflink>]; Baker [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref20">3</reflink>]). However, as Kertz-Welzel ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref21">32</reflink>]) explains, "globalization is not an easy phenomenon and is characterised by opposite tendencies, such as homogenization and heterogenization," (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref22">3</reflink>), while others have noted a need to study how "those in positions of power determine which cultural heritage comes to be valued, and how these evaluations become reified, as well as how they can also change across time. The social processes and mechanisms entailed in these phenomena should be systematically examined from a global perspective" (Rykowski and Hebert [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref23">46</reflink>], 368). It is useful to consider how global discourses concerning human-rights and anti-discrimination towards people with disabilities have played a role in the (re)construction of local policies of inclusive education (Allan and Slee [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref24">1</reflink>]; Hernández-Torrano et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref25">28</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-7">Professional understandings of 'inclusive music education'</hd> <p>To comparatively analyse inclusive music education policies, it is crucial to clarify precisely what 'inclusive music education' potentially means, as well as our rationale for specific levels of analysis.[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref26">2</reflink>] We note here that music education research has generally tended to address specific categories rather than the concept of inclusion as an integrated whole. For instance, music education researchers concerned with inclusion have often focused on either physical and cognitive <emph>disabilities</emph> (Bremmer [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref27">6</reflink>]; Darrow [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref28">11</reflink>]; Dobbs [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref29">13</reflink>]; Lubet [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref30">36</reflink>]), issues of ethnic and cultural <emph>diversity</emph> (Campbell [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref31">7</reflink>]; Hebert [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref32">25</reflink>]), <emph>religious</emph> differences (Harris [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref33">22</reflink>]), <emph>gendered</emph> practices (Armstrong [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref34">2</reflink>]; Harrison, Welch, and Adler [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref35">23</reflink>]), and challenges for those with minority <emph>sexual identities</emph> (Bergonzi [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref36">4</reflink>]; Garrett [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref37">17</reflink>]). Nevertheless, the global policy discourse has gradually shifted from a narrow understanding of inclusion (i.e. the integration of people with disabilities into mainstream educational settings) towards a broader understanding of inclusion (i.e. towards a diversity-affirming environment that transforms educational systems to include people with diverse characteristics), albeit without consistent uniformity nor landmark indicators of this shift in definition.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref38">3</reflink>] Göransson and Nilholm ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref39">19</reflink>]) have offered especially useful clarification by proposing four categories in their typology of definitions of inclusive education: (A) Placement – inclusion as <emph>placement</emph> of students with disabilities in general education classes; (B) Specified individual definition – inclusion as meeting the social and academic needs of <emph>students with disabilities</emph>; (C) General individual definition – inclusion as meeting the social and academic needs of <emph>all students</emph>; and (D) Community definition – inclusion as the creation of communities with specific characteristics. This typology, which is cited in over 800 studies, serves as the framework for our policy analysis of how inclusive <emph>music</emph> education is understood.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-8">Historical institutionalism and the organisational field</hd> <p>With attention to the often taken-for-granted 'norms' promoted by institutions, this study compares national systems in light of intentionally or unintentionally constructed institutions. Institutions, in this framework, are understood as the 'structural features of society, having stability over time, which affects individual behaviour, which provides shared value and meaning among the members of the institution' (Peters [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref40">41</reflink>], 18). This study reviews such persistent structural features as well as the constructs of shared value and meaning that characterise the respective music education systems in the societies of Luxembourg and Japan, and crucially, how these institutions encourage or discourage inclusion. It is important to note that music education is not only provided in formal school organisations, but also in other non-formal or informal settings.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref41">4</reflink>] Non-formal education refers to any organised educational activity, designed for a particular learning group with clear learning objectives, outside the established formal system. Informal education refers to experience-based and often accidental learning, occurring e.g. at home or during a leisure activity (La Belle [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref42">34</reflink>]; González and Bonal [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref43">18</reflink>]). Therefore, it is crucial to obtain an overview of organisations involved in the 'organisational field' of music education systems (Jones [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref44">31</reflink>]; Zapp and Powell [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref45">54</reflink>], 541).</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-9">Research questions</hd> <p>This study aims to analyse how policies shape approaches to inclusivity in music education in Luxembourg and Japan, specifically addressing two research questions:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> How did public music education systems historically develop in Luxembourg and Japan, and what are the main characteristics of these systems?</item> <p></p> <item> How are issues of inclusion interpreted and professionally understood in music education in Luxembourg and Japan based on global influences and sociohistorical contexts?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0183055871-10">Method</hd> <p>This study is based on the constructivism and advocacy worldviews as classified by Creswell ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref46">10</reflink>], 6). While not designed to generate any specific theories, this study nevertheless suggests frameworks for policy innovations towards (full) inclusion in music education. The study used multiple qualitative strategies, combining document analysis and interviews. The data were collected from publicly available documents including legal regulations and policy documents issued by the Ministry of Education and related organisations in the music education fields in both Luxembourg and Japan. Additionally, we considered the guidelines for music education in the national curricula of the two countries, i.e. the <emph>plan d'etudes</emph> école <emph>fondametal</emph>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref47">5</reflink>] issued by the Luxembourgish Ministry of Education and based on the <emph>Reglement Grand-ducal</emph> (August 11, 2011) as well as the National Course of Study (NCS)[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref48">6</reflink>] issued by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (latest version implemented in 2020). Documents alone can be sufficient for a policy study, but we also conducted interviews to explore how policies are interpreted in practice. Our interviews were with teachers at both public primary schools (including a 'model school' for inclusion), and public music schools (conservatoire and local music schools), as well as with representatives from non-governmental organisations working in music and inclusive education. In total, seven interviews with music teachers were conducted in 2018: five in Luxembourg and two in Japan. This apparent imbalance of interviews (more than twice as many interviews in Luxembourg than Japan) is because the first author is Japanese and the second has published extensively on music education in Japan – moreover, much less is published on music education policies and practices in Luxembourg than Japan – so the Luxembourg context required more attention as a basis for a balanced comparison. The interviewees were purposively selected from each category of schools and NGOs working in music education, and the interviews with Japanese teachers were conducted from Europe via online videoconferencing. The interviews with teachers in Luxembourg were all conducted in English,[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref49">7</reflink>] while the interviews with Japanese teachers were conducted in Japanese by a Japanese native speaker. Interviewees were informed that the purpose of our study was to research inclusion in music education, and semi-structured interviews were conducted according to an interview guide (Table 1), although free-style conversation was also encouraged during interviews.</p> <p>Table 1. Guiding interview questions.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>About the organisation: purpose, background of establishment, year of establishment, funding, membership, number of students and teachers</p></list-item><list-item><p>Activity and uniqueness of the organisation</p></list-item><list-item><p>Core values and attitudes towards inclusion? What 'inclusion' means for the organisation?</p></list-item><list-item><p>Activities, events and workshops for inclusion</p></list-item><list-item><p>How is music used for inclusive education? (Music as subject vs. music as tool)</p></list-item><list-item><p>Difficulties of inclusive education</p></list-item><list-item><p>Collaboration with other organisations (past, current and future)</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Source: Author.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-11">Limitations</hd> <p>The aim of this study was to both describe music-related institutional structures and policy frameworks and analyse professional understandings of inclusive education in national systems, and to supplement the policy analysis, interviews with teachers aided our identification of gaps between policies and implementation. Here we note that any examination of actual behaviours in classrooms and ensembles is beyond our scope. Moreover, we do not attempt here to produce generalizable conclusions regarding how policies are perceived in each country, but rather, to discuss illuminating examples from cases that were intentionally selected as notable in relation to the theme of 'inclusion' in music education. Although the number of interviewees was limited, they represent teachers in different categories of schools as well as the non-profit sector in both Luxembourg and Japan, offering some insights into policy interpretation. Language is a common challenge in studies of this kind, nevertheless, the authors are fluent both in Japanese and English which enabled comprehension of the interviews, since English fluency is common in multilingual Luxembourg. Aiming for meaningful comparisons, our analysis is mainly at the global and nation-state levels,[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref50">8</reflink>] but we encourage other researchers to study related topics using methods that record actual classroom behaviours or entail surveys with large samples. For an understanding of the music education context, we necessarily rely on previous studies (e.g. Hebert [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref51">24</reflink>]; Sagrillo [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref52">47</reflink>]) which are corroborated by our many years of direct professional experience.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-12">Overview of music education system and understandings of inclusive music education in Luxembo...</hd> <p>In this section, we review music education systems in Luxembourg and Japan from three perspectives; i) brief historical overview and general characteristics of the music education systems, ii) what inclusive music education means in these two countries,[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref53">9</reflink>] and (iii) organisations in the music educational field and current and future potential collaboration(s).</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-13">Luxembourg</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183055871-14">(i) Development and characteristics of music education system in Luxembourg</hd> <p>Music education in Luxembourg has been primarily provided in separate educational organisations, such as conservatoires and local music schools. Traditionally, music education was for specialists who intended to become professional musicians (Sagrillo [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref54">48</reflink>], 124). Accordingly, the contents of music education largely focus on technical aspects based on Solfège (music theory and literacy), and divides pupils into 'talented' and 'not talented' (<reflink idref="bib124" id="ref55">124</reflink>). This is due to the historical development of music education in Luxembourg which was, for a long time, influenced by its neighboring countries of France and the French speaking part of Belgium (Wallonia), where music education gave priority to music literacy rather than practice (Sagrillo [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref56">47</reflink>], 77).</p> <p>The Conservatoire of Luxembourg city was established in 1906 with a donation from a generous patron to foster the career development of future professional musicians. Since 1967, came a 'skyrocketing' in enrolments and the premises grew to include various annexes.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref57">10</reflink>]</p> <p>In addition to conservatoires, the <emph>Union Grand-Duc Adolphe Association</emph> (UGDA)[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref58">11</reflink>] plays an important role in Luxembourg's music education. The association was established in 1863 to be the umbrella organisation of all the country's music clubs.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref59">12</reflink>] In 1958, the association introduced Solfège examination and started conducting music courses. The official expansion of UGDA music schools for the benefit of the public came in 1991.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref60">13</reflink>] Currently, there are three conservatoires in Luxembourg city, Esch-sur-Alzette (south), and Ettelbrück/Diekirch (north) and the local public music schools and courses created by municipalities as well as the UGDA music schools and courses in communes, all of which receive public funding. In Luxembourg city, the public C<emph>onservatoire</emph> covers residents in the city, which offers music education, including Solfège and courses on instruments. Due to the high demand, conservatoires use entrance exams to select students to start learning instruments, and for popular instruments, such as the piano, there are long waiting lists to enter the school. To start learning instruments, students need to finish fundamental Solfège courses first. Both in the <emph>Conservatoires</emph> and the UGDA schools, examinations are conducted to move to the next level. The law of April 28, 1998 stipulates the following purposes:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> To awaken, develop and cultivate a knowledge and taste of music in young people in order to enable them to participate in musical life;</item> <p></p> <item> To provide young people with specialised training in the various musical disciplines in order to enable them to purse advanced music studies at a higher or university level;[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref61">14</reflink>] and</item> <p></p> <item> To provide adults with training and development courses</item> </ulist> <p>The national curriculum (<emph>plan d'etudes</emph> école <emph>fundamental</emph>) provides guidance to include 3 hours of art classes per week in general public primary schooling, of which music is a part.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref62">15</reflink>] Throughout the cycles[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref63">16</reflink>] in primary schools, it is recommended that both technical and creative aspects in music education are developed.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref64">17</reflink>] Nevertheless, according to the interviews, how music is actually taught in general public-school education may vary depending on each teacher's capabilities and priorities. Interviews revealed that teachers sensed they lacked sufficient music time in public primary schools[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref65">18</reflink>] and had insufficient support for teaching materials. As one interviewee reported:</p> <p>If the teachers do not have music in their life, they don't sing with kids. First of all, they don't know what to sing, secondly, they may have CDs to listen [to], but they don't want to show their students that they cannot sing. So, and then, they try with kids "Sing along with CDs!" (laugh) but of course, if the teacher does not sing, kids do not want to sing. So, after 10 minutes, the teacher would say "OK, kids, if you don't want to sing, we do math." (Interviewee 1)</p> <p>Also, the underlying assumption of teacher autonomy (Powell, Limbach-Reich, and Brendel [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref66">43</reflink>]) may prevent collaboration between teachers in this subject.</p> <p>Teachers at primary schools: some are doing very good music lessons, but some are not. It's an issue of the autonomy of teachers. And that can be very good. But most of the times, not (to be honest) because most of them are not qualified, even if they have good will. Even when they are interested in [it], they don't know how to teach music. (Interviewee 3)</p> <p>The interviews revealed issues in teacher training, challenges to collaboration, and the range of competencies required to effectively teach music in public schools.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref67">19</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-15">(ii) Views of 'inclusive music education'</hd> <p>The Luxembourg government decided to make formal music education in conservatoires and public music schools free of charge from September 2022.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref68">20</reflink>] This initiative is intended to expand access to music education. In parallel, there have already been some collaborative projects between compulsory schools and music schools, for example, music teachers in public music schools may go to general public schools to provide lessons.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref69">21</reflink>]<emph>Inclusion, in this sense, is understood as inviting a wider population to participate in formerly quite exclusive music education.</emph> However, interviews revealed that one of the biggest concerns is the enrollment process, while limited resources are identified as another challenge. For example, one of the interviewees expressed concern about the facilities (limited space, accessibility to students). Another interviewee revealed concerns about regional variation in the quality of music education's implementation in different parts of Luxembourg.</p> <p>The meaning of inclusive (music) education in the public inclusive model school in Luxembourg[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref70">22</reflink>] appears to be more than a mere question of access. A teacher explained that:</p> <p> <emph>Inclusive education for us</emph> isn't only the focus of disability or learning difficulties, it's a case of difference which we think [is] something very positive. We are all different. And we try to do what best [we can given our differences]. We learn together. We are not focusing on a specific group, for us, <emph>[it is the] creation of [a] learning community which makes possible to learn from each other</emph> [that] is important. (Interviewee 4)</p> <p>What does inclusive music education mean in non-formal and informal settings? In the Philharmonie, conservatoires, and other local music venues, there have been various concerts throughout the year. One of these, explicitly named 'Inclusion Gala: Art and culture without barriers' is part of a programme for Special Needs Awareness Week, organised by Luxemburg City's Special Needs Participative Committee and community organisations.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref71">23</reflink>] Various artists, including those with disabilities and those working for people with disabilities, were invited to perform and raise awareness about the importance of inclusion. Another important initiative is Foundation EME, which, according to their mission statement, has been working to bring well-being, inclusion, and dignity to people who are fragile or in distress, while respecting their diversity.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref72">24</reflink>] The foundation has coordinated nearly 600 events for disabled children, the elderly, refugees, prisoners, autistic teenagers, and single parents each year. There are also some participatory music activities, including, for example, the Home Sweet Home project (as explained in the following section), or the <emph>Mir wëllen iech ons Heemecht weisen</emph> (We want to show you our homeland) project,[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref73">25</reflink>] which aims to include people from different backgrounds (such as refugees) to interact together through music. These examples show that <emph>inclusion in this setting is understood to support (socially) vulnerable or marginalised people (such as disabled people or refugees and migrants) and their integration into society</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-16">(iii) Organisations in the music education field</hd> <p>One of the notable non-formal organisations in Luxembourg is the traditional village wind bands, called 'Fanfare' or 'Harmonie', which are open to the participation of children and adults living in the local area. Even small villages have their own bands, which play an important role in community ceremonies and events. While less due to the size of the country, there are also some amateur orchestras.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref74">26</reflink>] Some music clubs are active, such as the accordion club. Importantly, most of the music associations are members of the aforementioned Union Grand-Duc Adolphe Association (UGDA),[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref75">27</reflink>] but there are also community choirs and choral associations. The Institut European de Chant Choral (INECC)[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref76">28</reflink>] offers singing workshops for children and adults, as well as workshops for choir trainers. These organisations are non-formal organisations, with accessibility (membership) varying depending on the policies of the organisation. In many cases, especially for associations of instruments, membership requires a technical audition, although there are some workshops and projects inviting open participation, such as Home Sweet Home amateur choir project offered by INECC,[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref77">29</reflink>] which allows anyone – regardless of music literacy or experience – to participate.</p> <p>In terms of workshops for children, there are initiatives by public school music teachers, for example, with the <emph>Maison Relais</emph> (childhood education and care offered in afterschool facilities). Also, professional musicians (under the initiative by Philharmonie – which is the concert venue of the professional ensemble Orchestre Philharmonique du Luxembourg) occasionally provide opportunities for children to experience and learn music.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref78">30</reflink>] There are some music jams and improvisation sessions for young adults (such as university students.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref79">31</reflink>]</p> <p>Mapping the organisations in the field of music education shows the diversity of settings for music education (see Figure 1). Note that this map is neither absolute nor static, intended merely to visualise the existing organisations according to whether they may be categorised as formal–nonformal-informal (along the vertical axis) and their accessibility (along the horizontal axis). Although there are many different organisations involved, the music educational field in Luxembourg is strongly influenced by formal organisations such as the conservatoire, music schools, and professional ensembles. This relates to widespread belief in the aesthetic value of music, and common public perception that <emph>learning music well means learning '</emph>good<emph>' music from experts</emph>.</p> <p>MAP: Figure 1. Map of organisations in the field of music education (Luxembourg). Source: Author.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-17">Japan</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183055871-18">(i) Development and characteristics of music education system in Japan</hd> <p>The historical development of music education in Japan shows long-term efforts to extend music education to all within general school education settings (Hebert [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref80">24</reflink>]; Ogawa [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref81">39</reflink>]). Public music education in Japan has been developed since the Meiji period (1868–) when the government tried to modernise the country, opening its doors to the world. This became part of the official modern curriculum, based on Western models, from 1873 (<emph>Gakusei</emph>, meaning Fundamental Code of Education), in which music (called <emph>Shoka</emph> or 'singing' in elementary school and <emph>Sogaku</emph> or 'playing music' in junior high school) was included as one of the required subjects in both elementary and junior high schools (Ogawa [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref82">38</reflink>]).[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref83">32</reflink>]</p> <p>After World War II, Japan restructured its educational system, a new education law and national curriculum (National Course of Study) were issued, and 'music education' became one of the compulsory subjects in general schooling. While the purpose of music education in general public schools before World War II was mainly for moral education (Koyama [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref84">33</reflink>]), after World War II its purpose was modified. The 1947 guidelines explained that music education should be an aim in itself, not merely a tool for outcomes in other subjects. In 1951, the Ministry of Education recommended that music educators encourage students to develop deep aesthetic sentiments, as well as a rich sense of humanity and an amicable personality, so students would become desirable members of society (Koyama [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref85">33</reflink>], 77). Since the 1970s, some experts criticised music education for emphasising technique, which led to the 1997 national course of study focusing on the feelings of students and their creativity (Koyama [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref86">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Currently, the general purposes of music education under the latest National Course of Study emphasises: (i) knowledge and skills to understand musical themes and structures, to develop musical views and ways of thinking, and to develop competencies related to sound and music in life and society; (ii) thoughtfulness, judgement, and expression to devise musical expression and to be able to listen to music deeply; and (iii), attitudes towards learning and humanity to develop a love of music and sensitivity to music as well as to cultivate an attitude of familiarity with music and cultivate rich emotionality.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-19">(ii) Views of 'inclusive music education'</hd> <p>In formal settings, the term 'inclusive education' <emph>is used mostly synonymously with special (support) education</emph> (Halder and Hiraga [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref87">20</reflink>]; Moberg et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref88">37</reflink>]). According to the explanation by the Ministry, referring to UNCRPD, inclusive education is defined to be the system where students with and without disabilities learn together under the purposes of enhancement, with respect for diversity and to maximise the ability of people with disabilities. Here, it is emphasised that individual reasonable accommodation should be provided. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref89">33</reflink>] Yuasa et al. ([<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref90">53</reflink>]) claim that, while some aspects of inclusive education have been developed in Japan, 'special (support) education' (or <emph>tokubetsu shien kyoiku</emph>: 特別支援教育) remains dominant, and, in sometimes controversial discussions of inclusive education, people focus on disability instead of broader conceptions of disadvantage and accessibility. This tendency has been found in prior studies about inclusive education and music. For example, Ozaki ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref91">40</reflink>]) explains his experiences in music education and inclusion focusing on students with special needs where he discusses the 'incompatibleness' of students with special needs in existing music education and proposes a modification, or flexible adjustment, of the standardised approach towards universally designed curricula for the holistic academic development of all students. Recently some Japanese studies challenge narrow definitions of inclusion, such as Enjoji et al. ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref92">14</reflink>], 135) with their statement that 'if we look at the purpose of inclusive education, inclusive education systems are not only for students with disabilities but for the construction of an educational system in which all students, in their diversity, can exert their own strength'. Their study covers field work among both students with disabilities and students with differing personalities – such as if a student prefers to be under strict rules or whether they rather prefer more unstructured guidance, or if a student pro-actively offers their opinions. The purpose of their study is to develop music lessons that assure the value of diversity and collaborations, especially utilising educational materials with which students they are familiar (using everyday items to create musical instruments).</p> <p>Nevertheless, the interviews in the present study confirm that a narrow understanding of inclusive music education predominates, as interviewees explain their views of inclusive education solely from the perspective of special needs education – i.e. how to integrate students with special needs <emph>into</emph> mainstream classes or how to guarantee that students with and without disabilities will learn together. Such an approach to inclusion of students with special (educational) needs may cause the unexpected 'separation' or segregation of these students, for example, as one of the interviewees explained, sometimes it is better to use 'partitions' in instrumental class to separate students with disabilities for their benefit so that they do not feel embarrassed that they cannot play at the same level as others. As another interviewee explained, 'I feel that in Japan it is a transitional period' towards a broader conceptualisation of inclusive education. Indeed, conversations between the UN disability rights committee and the Japanese government in September 2022 show a clear discrepancy between what they understand as 'inclusive education'. Although the UN's recommendation strongly criticises the situation of inclusive education in Japan, asking to 'cease the segregated system',[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref93">34</reflink>] the stance of the Japanese ministry is that their 'special support education system' is the way to achieve inclusive education. One may argue that a narrow interpretation of inclusive education can be justified with reasonable accommodations (for adequate individual support) required by the aforementioned global policies from the UN and UNESCO. However, the idea of 'reasonable accommodation' combined with heavily standardised curriculum and educational materials risks separation.</p> <p>Isoda ([<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref94">30</reflink>]) presents the case of music education in an elementary school in the Korean town district of Osaka city, cultivating a positive ethnic identity of <emph>Zainichi</emph> Korean students. Aiming to foster social integration, the elementary school infuses Korean culture throughout the general curriculum (<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref95">32</reflink>). <emph>Inclusion in this sense is understood as inclusion of an ethnic minority</emph> (Campbell [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref96">8</reflink>]). While appreciating this distinctive model, Isoda also points out how this approach also reinforces an explicit boundary between ethnic groups (Japanese as the majority norm and <emph>Zainichi</emph> Korean as the other) (<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref97">35</reflink>), and concludes that 'it is necessary to provide opportunities for children to work together' (<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref98">37</reflink>). School festivals, common across Japan, are an additional area in which a relatively more inclusive approach to music is evident, often featuring a brief celebration of diverse ethnicities in the local community (Hebert and Matsunobu [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref99">27</reflink>]). In non-formal and informal settings, <emph>inclusion in music education is also commonly understood as the integration of children or adults with disabilities</emph>.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref100">35</reflink>] For instance, there have been projects conducted by various non-profit organisations, such as those using body-percussion[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref101">36</reflink>] or hand gestures[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref102">37</reflink>] into informal and non-formal settings for inclusion of participants with disabilities. Also, like Luxembourg, <emph>inclusion and music have also been frequently connected with the integration of marginalised groups of people (or people in disadvantaged conditions) such as people of foreign origin in society.</emph>[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref103">38</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-20">(iii) Organisations in the music education field</hd> <p>In addition to music education in formal general school settings, a wide variety of organisations are active in the field of music education in Japan (Figure 2). In non-formal music education, music club activities such as wind bands are offered at schools after school hours.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref104">39</reflink>] At the same time, there are literally thousands of amateur orchestras for youth and adults[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref105">40</reflink>] as well as community choirs.[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref106">41</reflink>] When considered in global perspective, Japan's music organisations are among the world's largest, including for instance, the All-Japan Band Association (<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref107">14</reflink>,000 ensembles), Japan Choral Association (over 4,000 member choirs) and the Piano Teachers National Association (<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref108">17</reflink>,000 members), to name but a few prominent examples. Reasons for such a highly active non-formal and informal music education environment in Japan can be explained by the foundations provided in general schools for all students as well as the wider culture in which children, especially girls, learn to play an instrument from a young age, notably the piano.[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref109">42</reflink>]</p> <p>MAP: Figure 2. Map of organisations in the field of music education (Japan). Source: Author.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-21">Summary of findings</hd> <p>How are issues of inclusion understood in music education contexts in Luxembourg and Japan? We find that both countries can boast some notable success stories, yet there is also undeniable room for further development in this area.</p> <p>To begin, this study revealed the different historical constructions of the formal music systems in the two countries which influence current music offerings in schools. In Luxembourg, although music education is supposed to be provided in general school settings according to the curriculum, actual practices vary depending on teachers (some of whom reportedly 'don't know how'). Sociologists call such situations 'loose coupling', where a gap is evident between policies and actual implementation in educational institutions (Hallett and Ventresca [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref110">21</reflink>]). At the same time, specialised music schools (conservatoires and public music schools) remain quite powerful, in which the goals of music education have tended to be narrowly understood, with a focus on skill acquisition. Such systems may structurally prevent the inclusion of diverse students by limiting access – even while acknowledging 'we are all different' – for reasons that may be not only financial, but also logistical, cultural or demographic in nature.</p> <p>Compared to the situation in Luxembourg, the system in Japan where music education has been offered at general schools (under compulsory education) gives opportunities for all students to learn music, although there have been discussions about the limited contents and pedagogies of this education and claims of excessive standardisation based on 'authorised' textbooks. There have been initiatives in research and practice to transform music education; however, discussions reportedly remain in a 'transitional period' concerning ways of implementing inclusive music education whereby students with different characteristics can learn together. Slow progress in this regard could be due to a narrow definition of inclusion which fragments student populations into different categories while aiming to integrate them into the mainstream.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-22">Discussion</hd> <p>Our analysis of inclusive music education in terms of policy research questions revealed interesting similarities and differences between Luxembourg and Japan (see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2. Similarities and differences between Luxembourg and Japan.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody><tr><td>Similarities</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Written curriculum for music education in general schooling.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Diverse music educational organisations with different educational goals.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Perceptions and interpretations of inclusive education vary even within the country.</p></list-item><list-item><p>In general, inclusion in music is understood to integrate certain marginalised group populations into mainstream education.</p></list-item></list></td></tr><tr><td>Differences</td><td><list list-type="Bullet"><list-item><p>Music education curriculum for general schooling only has general descriptions, therefore its implementation depends on each teacher and their varying practices (i.e. 'loose-coupling')</p></list-item><list-item><p>Formal music education was heavily influenced by the historical contexts of development of specialised music schools (e.g. conservatoires) with a focus of music literacy based on western classic music education.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Specialised music schools have a strong influence on other organisations in the music education field.</p></list-item><list-item><p>National curriculum of music education in general schooling is standardised with 'authorised' textbooks.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Music education in general school settings assures a certain degree of equal access to music education for everyone.</p></list-item><list-item><p>Purpose of music education has been historically entangled between the competing ideas of music education for music itself and as a tool for broader social development.</p></list-item></list></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As illustrated by the table, the two countries share rather similar approaches to music in general school education and benefit from a diverse array of community organisations. In general, in both Luxembourg and Japan, inclusion in music is understood to integrate certain groups (such as students with disabilities, migrants or refugees and students from disadvantaged socio-economic family backgrounds) into existing mainstream music education, which shows the powerful influence of global discourses of 'inclusive education'. It is also interesting that although cultural differences, social class, and various kinds of disabilities are seen to be highly relevant, other potentially significant factors such as religious diversity, gendered practices, and sexual identities appear to receive less attention in discussions of inclusion in music education in Luxembourg and Japan. This may be because these features of identity are less widely viewed as having a special relevance to music as a subject area, but this suggests a need for further research.</p> <p>Among the notable differences is that the curriculum of music education in general school settings in Japan is standardised with authorised textbooks, while the curriculum in Luxembourg only has general descriptions and therefore its implementation depends on each teacher and their varying practices. There has been the risk of 'loose coupling' (i.e. discrepancies between policy and practices) in Luxembourg. This is due to the historical institutionalisation of music education and persistent sense of what a 'normal' music education should be. The formal music education system in Luxembourg has been heavily influenced in the historical contexts of the development of specialised music schools (conservatoires and public music schools) where the focus has been to cultivate music literacies and skills to which not all students have access due to enrolment requirements and practical logistical burdens. On the other hand, while there are specialised music education organisations in Japan, comparatively, the music education system in general schools (under compulsory education) assure a certain degree of equal access to music education for everyone. The formal purposes of music education in Japan, although historically entangled between the competing ideas of music education for music itself and as a tool for wider human development in society, generally prompt schools to offer forms of music learning that harness the multiple advantages of music education.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-23">Recommendations to strengthen inclusion in music education</hd> <p>An array of formal, non-formal and informal organisations must be taken into account as one aims to consider the full picture of the 'organisational field' in systems of music education. Some relevant organisations offer forms of music education designed to deliberately 'include' people from disadvantaged backgrounds, often through collaboration with schools. Nevertheless, while appreciating all the efforts and contributions of these organisations, <emph>it is clear that common understandings of inclusion tend to be narrow and limited in such contexts</emph>.</p> <p>Returning to the A-B-C-D typology of inclusive education by Göransson and Nilholm ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref111">19</reflink>]), 'inclusion' viewed from their perspective entails attempts to include a specific group into music education, rendering music a tool for the integration of people into the mainstream community. The current limitations of inclusion stem from narrow interpretations of inclusivity – in (A) or (B) – which is due to the strong influence of global discourses on inclusive education. The idea of inclusive education has been further expanded towards (C) and (D) in recent global discourse, and music education can accordingly go far beyond skill and knowledge acquisition (based on traditional pedagogies often linked to western classical music). Policy makers and educators should take this as an opportunity to reflect on what kind of 'inclusion' they seek according to the ways they interpret inclusive music education and educational goal(s). Considering types (C) and (D), we could alternatively see inclusive music education as an opportunity in which students offer their own unique voices and take more control of the music and their own learning (Lindgren, Bergman, and Sæther [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref112">35</reflink>]). For a (D) inclusive music fostering community, discussion of how to reconstruct across the organisational field of music education is crucial, instead of only focusing on each separate institution's goals. We hope that our approach to organisational mapping in this study may offer helpful stimulus for further discussions by policy makers and teacher educators. Music education has tremendous potential for fostering inclusion, and it is our responsibility to understand various approaches and their underlying assumptions, as well as both the helpful and potentially harmful consequences that each approach may bring to society.</p> <hd id="AN0183055871-24">Disclosure statement</hd> <p>No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).</p> <ref id="AN0183055871-25"> <title> Notes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref3" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> UNESCO (2019) <emph>Cali Commitment</emph>https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000370910; also see UNESCO's (2005) <emph>Guidelines for Inclusion: Ensuring Access to Education for All</emph>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref26" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> See Hernández-Torrano et al. ([28]) for multiple directions in the research of inclusive education. Also, see Florian ([16]) for the paradoxical development of special education and inclusive education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref20" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> See Felder ([15]) "In aiming to determine the exact content and meaning of inclusion, we find a very fragmented field of discourse in education, where the term is defined in myriad ways. The orientations and focal points of these definitions vary greatly" (50).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref36" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Similar definition by the Council of Europe: https://<ulink href="http://www.coe.int/en/web/european-youth-foundation/definitions">www.coe.int/en/web/european-youth-foundation/definitions</ulink>.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref16" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> https://men.public.lu/en/publications/courriers-education-nationale/numeros-speciaux/plan-etudes-ecoles-fondamentale.html</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref27" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> https://<ulink href="http://www.mext.go.jp/a%5fmenu/shotou/new-cs/1387014.htm">www.mext.go.jp/a%5fmenu/shotou/new-cs/1387014.htm</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref31" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> The interviewees were non-native English speakers (Luxembourgish, German, or French as native languages). The interviews used the common language of English.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref50" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> See Bray and Thomas ([5], 475)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref7" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> The text is <emph>italicised</emph> in locations that offer particularly important indications of how inclusion is conceptualised.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sagrillo ([47]) explains that almost 15,000 pupils (17.3% of the total school population) attend extracurricular music courses at music schools. This is a remarkable number compared to the dramatically low proportions of France (1.9%) or Germany (2.03%), although the percentage is higher in Switzerland (19.2%) and Austria (18.9%). See also website of Conservatoire of Luxembourg <ulink href="http://www.conservatoire.lu/?page%5fid=83">http://www.conservatoire.lu/?page%5fid=83</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> UGDA website https://<ulink href="http://www.ugda.lu/">www.ugda.lu/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In Luxembourg, there has been active "fanfare" (wind bands) in almost every town. According to an interview conducted with a music teacher in 2018, these offer good opportunities for lifelong music learning, but participation is generally limited to local village residents.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> In 2016–2017, 1775 students enrolled in music courses and 3975 students enrolled at UGDA music schools. There were about 200 music teachers as of 2017 (UGDA brochure 2017/2018). The total number of students in conservatoires and public music schools is 16,000 supervised by 700 teachers across three conservatoires, eight regional music schools, four conventional UGDA music schools, and 27 other UGDA courses. (Lëtzebuerger Land dated 18.01.2019) https://<ulink href="http://www.land.lu/page/article/048/335048/FRE/index.html">www.land.lu/page/article/048/335048/FRE/index.html</ulink> (original in German). This is about 15% of the primary and secondary school population.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Unlike the conservatoires in other countries, the conservatoires in Luxembourg do not offer advanced higher education at university level. Students seeking advanced musical training at a higher level go to other countries to continue their education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The first curriculum of music education in general schools was created in 1964, however, the teachers were not given any methodological tools to implement the curriculum (Sagrillo [49], 205).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cycle 1: 3-6 years old, cycle 2: 6-8 years old, cycle 3 : 8-10 years old, cycle 4: 9-13 years old.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> This study focuses on public primary school education. There are several private schools in Luxembourg such as European schools and international schools with different curriculum and extra-curricular activities.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The issue of teacher education has been recognized and the University of Luxembourg with support for the conservatoires establishing the degree of BA music education to train music teachers from 2021 onwards.https://wwwen.uni.lu/university/news/slideshow/university_will_offer_a_bachelor_in_music_education_in_september_2021</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The issue of teacher training for music education in general schools has been discussed for a long time. See, for example, the article on Martin Straus, who tried to create and implement a music curriculum in general education in Luxembourg with an inclusive approach (Sagrillo [49]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> https://luxembourg.public.lu/en/living/education/studying-music.html</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> An interview revealed differences of opportunities in different cities and towns. There are certain cities and towns that are very active with such collaborations and some schools invite music teachers and professional musicians.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> There are two public inclusive model schools in Luxembourg for primary education. These schools were established in 2006 and 2008 as whole day schools accepting students with different characteristics to learn together.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Brochure (in French) https://<ulink href="http://www.vdl.lu/sites/default/files/media/document/SENSIBILISATION%5f2022%5fFR%5faccessible%5fv3.pdf">www.vdl.lu/sites/default/files/media/document/SENSIBILISATION%5f2022%5fFR%5faccessible%5fv3.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fondation EME https://<ulink href="http://www.fondation-eme.lu/en/praesentation">www.fondation-eme.lu/en/praesentation</ulink> , https://<ulink href="http://www.sistemaeurope.org/Network-Members/Fondation%5fEME%5fEl%5fSistema%5fLuxembourg/">www.sistemaeurope.org/Network-Members/Fondation%5fEME%5fEl%5fSistema%5fLuxembourg/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mir wëllen iech ons Heemecht weisen https://onsheemecht.lu/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> For example, <emph>Luxembourg Philharmonia</emph> is one of the amateur orchestras with members from secondary school students to persons over 90 years old (https://<ulink href="http://www.philharmonia.lu/),">www.philharmonia.lu/),</ulink> which offers intergenerational opportunities beyond that of the youth orchestra (https://onj.lu/). Recently, the professional symphony orchestra <emph>Luxembourg Philharmonie</emph> (with support from professional orchestra members) also created an opportunity for amateur musicians over 18 years old which is called <emph>Orchestre de la Place de l'Europe Philharmonie Luxembourg</emph> (https://<ulink href="http://www.philharmonie.lu/en/ope">www.philharmonie.lu/en/ope</ulink>).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> UGDA website https://<ulink href="http://www.ugda.lu/fr/federation/centre-de-documentation-musicale/le-centre-de-documentation-de-lugda">www.ugda.lu/fr/federation/centre-de-documentation-musicale/le-centre-de-documentation-de-lugda</ulink> Community chorus network website https://<ulink href="http://www.chouer.lu/all-chorus-luxembourg/">www.chouer.lu/all-chorus-luxembourg/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> l'Institut Européen de Chant Choral (INECC) https://<ulink href="http://www.inecc.lu/">www.inecc.lu/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Home Sweet Home (INECC) amateur choir project https://inecc.lu/en/ensembles/home-sweet-home</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Philharmonie of Luxembourg https://<ulink href="http://www.philharmonie.lu/en/education;">www.philharmonie.lu/en/education;</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> https://wwwen.uni.lu/students/culture_art_sports_well_being/espace_cultures2/unijam</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See Ogawa ([38]) for a detailed explanation of how the Japanese government developed music education in public education with the efforts of Izawa Shuji, Luther Whiting Mason, and other experts.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See <emph>Toward Society Living Together</emph>, by MEXT (https://<ulink href="http://www.mext.go.jp/b%5fmenu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/siryo/attach/1325884.htm">www.mext.go.jp/b%5fmenu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/siryo/attach/1325884.htm</ulink>)</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> UN Human Rights report https://<ulink href="http://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/09/un-disability-rights-committee-publishes-findings-bangladesh-china-indonesia">www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/09/un-disability-rights-committee-publishes-findings-bangladesh-china-indonesia</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See the report by Agency for Cultural Affairs, Government Japan (2021) 障害者による文化芸術活動推進事業事例集 [Case studies of projects to promote cultural and artistic activities by people with disabilities].https://<ulink href="http://www.bunka.go.jp/seisaku/geijutsubunka/shogaisha%5fbunkageijutsu/kyosei/pdf/r2%5fshogaigeijutsu%5fjirei.pdf">www.bunka.go.jp/seisaku/geijutsubunka/shogaisha%5fbunkageijutsu/kyosei/pdf/r2%5fshogaigeijutsu%5fjirei.pdf</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> One of the interviewees in Japan explained his project of body percussion, where students with and without disabilities enjoyed music together. He started this project at a school while he was working as a teacher in the 1980s. Initially, other teachers and education committees were skeptical, claiming it is not proper music education. He nevertheless continued and expanded it to non-formal school activities, ultimately receiving great attention from the public. The initiative is now in the authorized textbook of music education for primary schools in Japan. See: https://<ulink href="http://www.tebyoushi.com/">www.tebyoushi.com/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> White Hands chorus website: https://<ulink href="http://www.elsistemajapan.org/whitehands">www.elsistemajapan.org/whitehands</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> See, for example, Hugh de Ferranti ([12]) "Music Communities of Ethnic and Cultural Minorities in and from Japan" for discussion of issues for music and coexistence of different ethnicities in Japan.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> For a detailed explanation of Japanese wind band culture, see Hebert ([24]).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The Federation of Japan Amateur Orchestras is one of the umbrella organizations, however, not all the amateur orchestras are registered with this organization.https://<ulink href="http://www.jao.or.jp/">www.jao.or.jp/</ulink></bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Japan Choral Association, one of the umbrella organizations, initiates the competitions and festivals among members.https://jcanet.or.jp/</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> This is likely due to the influence of major instrument manufacturers in Japan, such as Yamaha and Kawai, and also the private schools such as Yamaha music schools and Suzuki Method schools.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0183055871-26"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Allan, Julie, and Roger Slee. 2008. 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Kyoto: Minerva Publishing.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zapp, Mike, and Justin J. W. Powell. 2016. " How to Construct an Organizational Field: Empirical Educational Research in Germany, 1995–2015." European Educational Research Journal 15 (5): 537 – 557. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904116641422.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Miwa Chiba and David G. Hebert</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Miwa Chiba received her PhD from the University of Luxembourg in 2023. Originally from Japan, she has taught piano lessons and collaborates with the Grieg Academy Music Education (GAME) research group of Western Norway University of Applied Sciences. Dr. Chiba's research has appeared in the Nordic Journal of Comparative and International Education as well as the edited volume Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education.</p> <p>David G. Hebert is a Professor of Music Education at the Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen. He is also an Honorary Professor with the Education University of Hong Kong and Affiliated Professor with the University of the Faroe Islands. He is a member of the Executive Committee and Board of ISME. He manages the Nordic Network for Music Education and currently has grant-funded projects in Uganda and China. He is author or editor of 11 books and has articles in over 30 different journals.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib124" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref66"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref75"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref78"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref82"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref91"></nolink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Education%22">Music Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Education%22">Comparative Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Diversity+Equity+and+Inclusion%22">Diversity Equity and Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Global+Approach%22">Global Approach</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cultural+Influences%22">Cultural Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Curriculum+Evaluation%22">Curriculum Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Policy%22">Educational Policy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Access+to+Education%22">Access to Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Music+Teachers%22">Music Teachers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Elementary+Secondary+Education%22">Elementary Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Attitudes%22">Teacher Attitudes</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Japan%22">Japan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Luxembourg%22">Luxembourg</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/14613808.2024.2434839
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1461-3808<br />1469-9893
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Educational policies tend to be shaped by the interaction of sociohistorical contexts with global forces, for which the issues of diversity and inclusion in music education are particularly complex. This study examines how inclusivity is conceptualised in the field of music education in both Luxembourg and Japan. Reviewing the historical construction and distinctive characteristics of national music education systems, we analyse how the notion of inclusive music education is understoood, and identify current opportunities and obstacles towards full inclusion of diverse students. The study applies the analytical frameworks of (i) global influences and isomorphism, (ii) "historical" institutionalism, and (iii) Göransson and Nilholm's typology of inclusive education. Based on analyses of curricula and policies, and interviews with (music) teachers in schools and organisations, we determined that unequal access to music education remains, and standardised approaches often hinder participation of diverse students while cross-sector partnerships offer new opportunities for inclusion.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1465901
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1465901
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/14613808.2024.2434839
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 17
        StartPage: 37
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Comparative Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Diversity Equity and Inclusion
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Global Approach
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cultural Influences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Curriculum Evaluation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Policy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Access to Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Music Teachers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary Secondary Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Japan
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Luxembourg
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Understandings of Inclusivity in Music Education: A Comparative Policy Study of Luxembourg and Japan
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Miwa Chiba
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: David G. Hebert
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1461-3808
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1469-9893
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 27
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Music Education Research
              Type: main
ResultId 1