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Developmental Trends in the Relationships between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors in South Korea: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies

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Title: Developmental Trends in the Relationships between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors in South Korea: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies
Language: English
Authors: Sookyoung Son (ORCID 0000-0002-3226-169X), Yoona Jang, Miri Yoon
Source: Journal of Career Development. 2025 52(2):256-273.
Availability: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 18
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Information Analyses
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Adolescents, Vocational Maturity, Longitudinal Studies, Self Esteem, Social Influences, Social Support Groups, Meta Analysis, Peer Relationship, Parent Child Relationship, Teacher Student Relationship, Gender Differences, Age Differences
Geographic Terms: South Korea
DOI: 10.1177/08948453241311887
ISSN: 0894-8453
1556-0856
Abstract: This study examines how self-esteem and social support (parental, teacher, and peer) influence the career maturity of Korean adolescents over time. By synthesizing findings from 18 longitudinal studies, a meta-analysis was conducted. Results reveal that while self-esteem initially shows a strong correlation with career maturity, this relationship weakens significantly as adolescents age. In contrast, peer support maintains a relatively stable correlation with career maturity, even in late adolescence. Parental support also shows a gradual decline in its effect, but less sharply than self-esteem. Teacher support, though initially the weakest predictor, remains consistently correlated with career maturity throughout adolescence. These findings underscore the critical role of early self-esteem and social support in fostering career maturity and highlight the differing impacts of these factors over time.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1467829
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0183272753;[2yf6]01apr.25;2025Feb28.00:37;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0183272753-1">Developmental Trends in the Relationships Between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors in South Korea: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies </title> <p>This study examines how self-esteem and social support (parental, teacher, and peer) influence the career maturity of Korean adolescents over time. By synthesizing findings from 18 longitudinal studies, a meta-analysis was conducted. Results reveal that while self-esteem initially shows a strong correlation with career maturity, this relationship weakens significantly as adolescents age. In contrast, peer support maintains a relatively stable correlation with career maturity, even in late adolescence. Parental support also shows a gradual decline in its effect, but less sharply than self-esteem. Teacher support, though initially the weakest predictor, remains consistently correlated with career maturity throughout adolescence. These findings underscore the critical role of early self-esteem and social support in fostering career maturity and highlight the differing impacts of these factors over time.</p> <p>Keywords: career maturity; self-esteem; social support; meta-analysis; longitudinal study</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Career maturity, also known as vocational maturity, refers to an individual's readiness and preparedness to make informed and responsible career choices ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref1">57</reflink>]). Enhancing career maturity during adolescence is crucial as it fosters the necessary knowledge, self-understanding, career exploration, and decision-making strategies ([<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref2">48</reflink>]). Fully developed career maturity helps adolescents envision their future and set and achieve goals accordingly. Current studies highlight that adolescents' career maturity is influenced by various variables, but the relationship between these variables and career maturity changes as adolescents develop. There is a significant lack of comprehensive understanding of these changing patterns and which variables become more crucial at certain developmental stages. Empirical studies have shown that self-esteem positively impacts the growth of career maturity in adolescence using longitudinal models (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref3">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref4">47</reflink>]). However, these studies often span different adolescent age groups and do not fully address changes in the relationship at different developmental stages, limiting our understanding. This study aims to comprehensively understand how the relationship between career maturity and its predictors changes with age by conducting a meta-analysis of accumulated longitudinal empirical research. The predictive factors selected are self-esteem and social support (from parents, teachers, and peers), based on the number of studies accumulated so far. Additionally, this study focuses on Korean youth within the age range of elementary to college/university students to consider Korea's cultural characteristics and suggest customized implications for career education and policy.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-3">Adolescent Career Maturity in South Korea</hd> <p>Career maturity refers to an individual's readiness to make informed and appropriate career decisions, encompassing career preparation, self-understanding, planning, and decision-making ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref5">50</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref6">56</reflink>]). It includes both cognitive dimensions (e.g., decision-making skills) and affective dimensions (e.g., attitudes toward career development) ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref7">13</reflink>]). Studies show that adolescents with high career maturity are motivated learners who demonstrate better academic achievement and adaptability in school environments ([<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref8">59</reflink>]). While career maturity is a crucial developmental task for successful career preparation during adolescence, many adolescents struggle with preparing for and deciding on their future careers due to the uncertainties of a rapidly changing modern society. According to the 2019 Youth Statistics Report by [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref9">53</reflink>].05.01), "occupation" was the most significant concern (30.2%) for Korean youth aged 13 and older, followed closely by "study" (29.6%). In response, the South Korean government enacted the Career Education Act in 2015 to promote career exploration and preparation. Despite these efforts, the percentage of students with aspirations for specific occupations has steadily declined (elementary school: 91.3% in 2015 to 79.3% in 2023; middle school: 73.0%–59.0%; high school: 81.7%–74.5%) ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref10">44</reflink>]). Additionally, many students report being unclear about their interests or strengths and weaknesses. Further, studies have revealed that both limitations in Korea's career guidance system and broader macroeconomic factors, such as low economic growth and job scarcity, contribute to high youth unemployment (ranked 5th among OECD countries) ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref11">28</reflink>]). This context underscores the need for effective career education to enhance career readiness and resilience among adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-4">Relationship Between Career Maturity and Self-Esteem</hd> <p>Self-esteem is a set of emotions, attitudes, and behaviors related to self-evaluation, reflecting how positively or negatively individuals perceive themselves. According to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref12">3</reflink>]), individuals' self-perceptions, including self-esteem, play a critical role in shaping their actions and decision-making processes. Further expanding on this, Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref13">39</reflink>]) explains how psychological and environmental factors influence the processes by which individuals choose careers, set career-related goals, and achieve career success. In this theory, self-esteem serves as an important psychological resource that indirectly affects career choice and achievement by enhancing self-efficacy. Career maturity involves an understanding of one's abilities, values, and interests, all of which are influenced by self-esteem. High self-esteem enhances self-efficacy, enabling individuals to approach career-related challenges proactively and with persistence. Adolescents with high self-esteem tend to believe in their ability to accomplish career-related tasks, promoting career exploration and planning. This aligns with findings linking higher self-esteem to greater exploration and adaptability ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref14">12</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref15">46</reflink>]). A meta-analysis of South Korean adolescents found a moderate effect size (r =.33) between self-esteem and career maturity, highlighting its significance ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref16">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several studies have examined the temporal relationship between self-esteem and career maturity. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref17">10</reflink>] found that higher self-esteem, self-trust, and self-control in ninth grade predicted increased career maturity over time in Korean adolescents. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref18">43</reflink>] confirmed a significant relationship between self-esteem and career adaptability in Swiss eighth graders, with stronger effects at the start of ninth grade than at the end. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>] found that in Korean adolescents, earlier self-esteem predicted later career maturity, but not vice versa, with this effect weakening over time. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref20">55</reflink>] found a consistent relationship between self-esteem and career maturity across grades 7 to 10. These mixed findings highlight the need to synthesize research on how this relationship evolves with age.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-5">Relationship Between Career Maturity and Social Support</hd> <p>Environmental factors, such as social support, along with personal factors like self-esteem, play a crucial role in career development ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref21">15</reflink>]). According to SCCT, career development is influenced by the interaction between personal factors (e.g., self-esteem) and environmental factors (e.g., social support) ([<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref22">40</reflink>]). SCCT explains that social support is essential for enhancing an individual's self-efficacy and setting career goals, enabling students to engage more actively in career exploration and planning. Furthermore, Career Construction Theory (CCT) suggests that social support is a key contextual determinant in the development of career adaptability ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref23">49</reflink>]). CCT views career adaptability as a psychological resource that helps individuals cope with career tasks, transitions, and challenges. Social support promotes this adaptability, thus playing an important role in the development of career maturity.</p> <p>Parental support, in particular, is a critical environmental factor in the adaptation and motivation of adolescents, often having a greater impact than other types of social resources ([<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref24">60</reflink>]). When parents support their children's autonomy, these children show greater interest in diverse career paths, are encouraged to explore alternatives, and demonstrate higher levels of career consciousness and decision-making ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref25">14</reflink>]). Parents, who spend significant time with their children and share their concerns, are crucial in career guidance ([<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref26">34</reflink>]). However, excessive parental intervention and control can lead adolescents to halt the exploration process and make career decisions without adequate consideration ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref27">49</reflink>]). When children perceive excessive parental support as stressful, it can result in a gradual decline in career maturity ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref28">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>While the impact of teacher and peer support on career maturity is generally lower than that of parental support, it remains significant ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref29">11</reflink>]). A meta-analysis by [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref30">23</reflink>] revealed a small effect size (.2–.3) in the relationships between parental support, teacher support, peer support, and career attitude maturity, with the effect size tending to decrease as the school level increases. However, empirical studies present inconsistent results. For instance, [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref31">47</reflink>] found that teacher support did not significantly predict career maturity in male high school students but did in female students. Additionally, parental, teacher, and peer support did not significantly predict changes in career maturity. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref32">26</reflink>] reported that positive peer relationships were associated with a higher likelihood of belonging to a group with high career maturity among middle and high school students, while the level of teacher relationships did not show a significant relationship with career maturity group distinctions. Given these varying research findings, this study aims to comprehensively examine the relationships between parental support, teacher support, and peer support with career maturity and investigate whether these relationships vary according to adolescent age.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-6">Impact of Moderator Variables</hd> <p>It is expected that variables related to the study subjects and research characteristics, such as gender, birth cohort, and dataset, might have a significant moderating effect on the relationships between career maturity and predictors of self-esteem and social support.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-7">Gender</hd> <p>Adolescence is a period of significant change, and the relationships between career maturity and its associated factors can vary by gender ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref33">12</reflink>]). Studies with Korean adolescents present mixed results. Some research indicates higher career maturity for female students ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref34">9</reflink>]), while others report higher maturity for male students ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref35">7</reflink>]) or no significant gender differences ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref36">36</reflink>]). Regarding changes in career maturity over time, results are also varied. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref37">30</reflink>] found that career maturity increases over time for female students but decreases for male students using a multi-group latent growth model. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref38">10</reflink>], however, found no significant gender differences in changes in career maturity. The relationship between career maturity and its associated factors also shows differing results concerning gender. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref39">16</reflink>] reported no gender difference in the relationship between self-esteem and career maturity. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref40">10</reflink>] found that self-esteem has a stable positive influence on career maturity growth, with parental and peer stress having negative effects, but these relationships do not vary by gender. Conversely, some studies suggest that the positive impact of self-esteem on career maturity is more pronounced in male students ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref41">47</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref42">7</reflink>] also suggested that male students have higher levels of career maturity and that those with high emotional support from parents have greater abilities to choose and explore their careers.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-8">Birth of Cohort</hd> <p>Development occurs not only within an individual's life but also across generations in psychological domains. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref43">52</reflink>] found that depressive symptoms among Korean adolescents increased with more recent birth cohorts, suggesting cohort effects in mental health trends. Similarly, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref44">58</reflink>] reported lower subjective well-being in recent cohorts facing economic hardships or limited education. While early research addressed cohort effects on adults' vocational interests ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref45">54</reflink>]), adolescent-specific insights remain scarce. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>] identified increased entrepreneurial and social interests in recent college student cohorts. However, research on cohort effects in career maturity development is limited, emphasizing the need for further study. This meta-analysis examines whether the relationship between career maturity and its predictors varies across generational cohorts.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-9">Datasets</hd> <p>In conventional meta-analyses, the scale used to measure variables is often included as a moderating variable when analyzing moderating effects. However, this study includes datasets as a moderating variable. Since the primary studies analyzed are longitudinal and use large-scale panel data surveyed by countries or local governments, researchers often create simplified or modified versions of original scales instead of using generalized raw scales. Therefore, it is reasonable to use the dataset as a moderating variable, given that measuring items are consistent within the same panel data. The datasets in this study can be categorized into two types: nationwide panel studies and regional panel studies. Nationwide panel studies include surveys conducted by national research institutions through random sampling of adolescents. Examples are the Korean Youth Panel Study for second-year middle school students (initiated in 2003) and a panel for fourth-year elementary school students (initiated in 2004) by the Korea Youth Policy Institute. Additionally, the Korean Education Longitudinal Study's first cycle for first-year middle school students, conducted by the Korea Education Development Institute, concluded in 2020, while the second cycle for fifth-year elementary school students, initiated in 2013, is ongoing. Regional panel studies survey adolescents in specific areas through local government initiatives. This study incorporates panel studies conducted in Seoul, Gyeonggi, Busan, and Daegu through random sampling by respective local authorities. Previous studies are expected to report different results depending on the research design, such as youth samples of different ages and datasets with varying collection periods and measurements. This study seeks to synthesize research results by analyzing whether the relationship between predictive factors of career maturity, self-esteem, and social support varies depending on gender, birth cohort, and dataset.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-10">Current Study</hd> <p>Previous studies have provided insight into adolescent career maturity and its predictors, such as self-esteem and social support from parents, teachers, and peers. However, how these relationships evolve as adolescents grow and which factors become more significant at different stages remain unclear. This study aims to: (a) examine developmental patterns in the relationship between career maturity and its predictors, and (b) assess the moderating effects of gender, birth cohort, and dataset. Specifically, the research questions are: (a) What is the overall effect size of the positive relationship between career maturity and its predictors? Is there significant heterogeneity across studies? (b) Do these relationships vary by age, and are they linear or nonlinear? At what stage do the effect sizes strengthen or weaken? (c) How do moderators such as proportion of female students, birth cohort, and datasets influence these relationships?</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-11">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183272753-12">Literature Search</hd> <p>A comprehensive literature search identified 697 studies (402 academic papers, 295 dissertations). These were assessed for longitudinal data and abstract contents, narrowing to 103 academic papers and 20 dissertations. Studies with longitudinal correlation tables were further screened, resulting in 49 academic papers and 10 dissertations. A final review excluded duplicates and older studies, yielding 18 studies (14 academic papers and 4 dissertations).</p> <p>The meta-analysis focused on studies involving age groups from children to adolescents, employing search phrases such as "children," "adolescents," "elementary," "middle school," "high school," and "young people." Additional search phrases included "career maturity," "career maturity and self-esteem," "career maturity and social support," "career maturity and parental support," "career maturity and teacher support," and "career maturity and peer support." The archives of the Korea Educational Information Service, Research Information Sharing Service, and the EBSCOhost database were searched for academic journals and degree papers published in Korea. Three criteria were established for inclusion in the meta-analysis. First, the analysis focused on publications that examined the correlations between (a) career maturity and self-esteem, or (b) career maturity and social support (parental support, teacher support, and peer support) at least twice, with an interval of more than a year. Second, qualitative studies such as case studies were excluded. Third, master's and doctoral theses were included. Finally, studies using the same dataset were included if they provided different information (e.g., different variables or different grade levels).</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-13">Inclusion Criteria and Coding</hd> <p>The correlations and study characteristics of the 18 selected papers were independently coded by three coders. Given the small number of publications, the coders collaborated closely to minimize errors. The following coding rules were established and applied. First, time-delayed correlation coefficients between career maturity and related factors with a time difference of more than one year were coded. For example, if career maturity data were collected at three points and parental support data only at the first point, the correlation between the second point of career maturity and the first point of parental support, as well as the correlation between the third point of career maturity and the first point of parental support, was coded. The survey time interval was also coded. Second, when correlations between career maturity and related variables at all survey points were reported, a correlation coefficient with a time difference of one year was coded. For instance, if career maturity and self-esteem data were collected at three points, the correlation between the second point of career maturity and the first point of self-esteem, as well as the correlation between the third point of career maturity and the second point of self-esteem, was coded. Since the study focuses on changes in the relationship between variables over time, the age of participants in the primary studies was coded. Recognizing that the relationship between variables may be influenced by age, the birth cohort of the primary studies was also coded. Additionally, the proportion of female students in the sample, the year of publication, the publication mode (degree thesis or peer-reviewed journal), and the type of dataset were coded.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-14">Statistical Analysis</hd> <p>The analysis in this study was performed using R version 4.1.1. Given the dependency of effect sizes in longitudinal studies, a three-level random-effects meta-analysis was conducted, extending the two-level model ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref47">6</reflink>]). Due to the nature of longitudinal studies, the effect size for each correlation is not independent of the effect size evaluated at different intervals. To address this dependency issue, effect sizes were synthesized by nesting participants (Level 1) within effect sizes (Level 2) and studies (Level 3). Synthesized effect sizes were adjusted for time intervals (1 year) without any covariates. The time interval was standardized to 1 year to ensure consistency and comparability across studies, as the original intervals varied from 0.5 to 2 years. Standardizing to a 1-year interval allowed for the capture of prospective relationships and developmental trends across studies, enhancing the comparability of findings and enabling a clearer interpretation of how relationships between career maturity and its predictors evolve with age. A heterogeneity test using Cochran's Q was employed to determine whether systematic variations existed between studies. After aggregating effect sizes adjusted for the 1-year time interval, an analytical procedure predicted the association of career maturity and its predictors by incorporating age as a continuous independent variable to test for age-dependent effects. Polynomial regression was performed to predict the effects (Cohen's d) by mean sample age as the predictor and sample size as weights. This relationship was graphically presented to illustrate whether there is a change in the relationship between career maturity and other variables according to age. Subsequently, a mixed-effects meta-regression analysis was conducted to estimate the effects of the moderator variables on the effect sizes of the relationship between career maturity and its predictors. Moderator variables included publication type, proportion of female students, publication year, birth cohort, and dataset types. Confidence intervals were estimated to interpret whether each moderator variable had a different effect. To assess publication bias, Egger's test and sensitivity analysis were used to assess publication bias and confirm the robustness of results.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-15">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0183272753-16">Study Characteristics</hd> <p>Table 1 provides an overview of the selected studies, which included a total of 61,201 participants across 18 studies. These studies reported correlations between career maturity and the predictors of self-esteem, parental support, teacher support, and peer support. For the analysis of the prospective relationship between career maturity and self-esteem, 5 studies (20 effect sizes) were utilized. For parental support, teacher support, and peer support, 10 studies (25 effect sizes), 8 studies (22 effect sizes), and 9 studies (23 effect sizes) were utilized, respectively. On average, each study investigated the relationship between career maturity and predictor variables in approximately 3400 adolescents. Male and female students were roughly equally represented in each study, with the average percentage of female students being 50.6%. Participants in the primary studies were born between 1989 and 2003, with an average birth year of 1997.3. Longitudinal career research on Korean youth is being conducted through various national panel datasets. KELS and KYPS, collected by the Korea Educational Development Institute and the Korea Youth Policy Institute, were used, along with longitudinal data constructed by city/provincial education policy research institutes, such as SELS in Seoul, BELS in Busan, and DELS in Daegu.</p> <p>Table 1. Studies Included in Meta-Analyses.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Author (s)</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Publication type</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Dataset (panel)</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Data collection</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Year of birth</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Grade</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Sample size</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">Proportion of female (%)</th><th align="center" colspan="4">Predictors</th></tr><tr><th align="left">Start year</th><th align="center">End year</th><th align="center">Self-esteem</th><th align="center">Parental support</th><th align="center">Teacher support</th><th align="center">Peer support</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr21">Ju (2013)</xref></td><td align="left">Dissertation</td><td align="left">KYPS M 2nd</td><td align="center">2003</td><td align="center">2008</td><td align="center">1989</td><td align="left">M2 to C1</td><td align="center">1057</td><td align="char" char=".">63.0</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr33">Lee (2016)</xref></td><td align="left">Dissertation</td><td align="left">SELS 2010 M 1st</td><td align="center">2011</td><td align="center">2013</td><td align="center">1996</td><td align="left">M2 to H1</td><td align="center">4187</td><td align="char" char=".">50.0</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">Shin (2019)</xref></td><td align="left">Dissertation</td><td align="left">KELS 2005</td><td align="center">2009</td><td align="center">2014</td><td align="center">1989</td><td align="left">H2, C1, C4</td><td align="center">1309</td><td align="char" char=".">60.8</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr8">Choi (2022)</xref></td><td align="left">Dissertation</td><td align="left">DELS 2017</td><td align="center">2017</td><td align="center">2020</td><td align="center">2003</td><td align="left">M2 to H1</td><td align="center">2726</td><td align="char" char=".">47.4</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr32">Lee (2007)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KYPS E 4th</td><td align="center">2004</td><td align="center">2005</td><td align="center">1993</td><td align="left">E4 to E5</td><td align="center">2844</td><td align="char" char=".">46.4</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr38">Lee and Chung (2016)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">SELS 2010 H 1st</td><td align="center">2013</td><td align="center">2015</td><td align="center">1996</td><td align="left">H1 to H3</td><td align="center">2307</td><td align="char" char=".">45.6</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr11">Chung et al. (2017)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="center">2010</td><td align="center">2015</td><td align="center">1999</td><td align="left">E4 to M3</td><td align="center">5059</td><td align="char" char=".">48.2</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr41">Lim and Lee (2017)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2013</td><td align="center">2013</td><td align="center">2015</td><td align="center">2001</td><td align="left">E5 to M1</td><td align="center">6537</td><td align="char" char=".">51.0</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr24">Jung et al. (2018b)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KoWePS</td><td align="center">2009</td><td align="center">2012</td><td align="center">1993</td><td align="left">M1 to H3</td><td align="center">512</td><td align="char" char=".">48.4</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr25">Jung et al. (2018a)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2013</td><td align="center">2013</td><td align="center">2016</td><td align="center">2001</td><td align="left">E5 to M2</td><td align="center">6151</td><td align="char" char=".">51.3</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr27">Kim et al. (2019)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2005</td><td align="center">2011</td><td align="center">2014</td><td align="center">1989</td><td align="left">C1, C4</td><td align="center">678</td><td align="char" char=".">-</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr31">Kwon and Koo (2019)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">SELS 2010 M 1st</td><td align="center">2012</td><td align="center">2014</td><td align="center">1996</td><td align="left">M3 to H2</td><td align="center">2993</td><td align="char" char=".">50.0</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr22">Ju et al. (2020)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">BELS 2016 M 1st</td><td align="center">2016</td><td align="center">2018</td><td align="center">2002</td><td align="left">M1 to M3</td><td align="center">2869</td><td align="char" char=".">46.1</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr19">Jeon and Park (2020)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2013</td><td align="center">2015</td><td align="center">2018</td><td align="center">2001</td><td align="left">M1 to H1</td><td align="center">5377</td><td align="char" char=".">51.7</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr45">Nam et al. (2020)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="center">2013</td><td align="center">2017</td><td align="center">1999</td><td align="left">M1 to H2</td><td align="center">3109</td><td align="char" char=".">48.5</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr17">Heo and Cho (2021)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2013</td><td align="center">2017</td><td align="center">2018</td><td align="center">2001</td><td align="left">M3 to H1</td><td align="center">6162</td><td align="char" char=".">50.6</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr47">Park et al. (2021)</xref></td><td align="left" rowspan="2">Journal</td><td align="left" rowspan="2">DELS 2017</td><td align="center" rowspan="2">2017</td><td align="center" rowspan="2">2020</td><td align="center" rowspan="2">2003</td><td align="left" rowspan="2">M1 to H1</td><td align="center">768</td><td align="char" char=".">100</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="center">809</td><td align="char" char=".">0</td><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td><td align="left">✓</td></tr><tr><td align="left"><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr20">Jin (2022)</xref></td><td align="left">Journal</td><td align="left">KELS 2013</td><td align="center">2014</td><td align="center">2018</td><td align="center">2001</td><td align="left">E6 to H1</td><td align="center">5747</td><td align="char" char=".">51.1</td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left">✓</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> KYPS: The Korean Youth Panel Study, KELS: Korea Education Longitudinal Study, SELS: Seoul Education Longitudinal Study, DELS: Daegu Education Longitudinal Study, BELS: Busan Education Longitudinal Study, KoWePS: Korea Welfare Panel Study, E: Elementary School, M: Middle School, H: High School, Grade levels are indicated by numbers (e.g., M2 = 2nd grade of middle school). The range (e.g., M2-C1) represents the starting grade to the ending grade within the educational levels. The sample size was presented at the first measurement point.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-17">Overall Relationship Between Career Maturity and Their Predictors</hd> <p>As shown in Table 2, the overall prospective effect sizes between career maturity and its predictors are : self-esteem ( <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math> </ephtml> =.297), peer support ( <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math> </ephtml> =.277), parental support ( <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math> </ephtml> =.205), and teacher support ( <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math> </ephtml> =.199), all statistically significant (<emph>p</emph> <.0001). Self-esteem and peer support showed medium effect sizes, while parental and teacher support showed small effect sizes. Heterogeneity across studies was substantial, with I<sups>2</sups> exceeding 80%.</p> <p>Table 2. Overall Effect Size.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="3">Predictors</th><th align="center" rowspan="3"><p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><msub><mi>k</mi><mi>E</mi></msub></mrow></math></p></th><th align="center" rowspan="3"><p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math></p></th><th align="center" colspan="2" rowspan="2">95%CI</th><th align="center" rowspan="3"><p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><mi>Q</mi></mrow></math></p></th><th align="center" colspan="2" /><th align="center" /><th align="center" /></tr><tr><th align="center" colspan="2">Heterogeneity <p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><msup><mi>I</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></math></p> (%)</th><th align="center" rowspan="2"><p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><mi>d</mi><mi>f</mi></mrow></math></p></th><th align="center" rowspan="2"><p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow xmlns=""><mi>p</mi></mrow></math></p></th></tr><tr><th align="left">LB</th><th align="center">UB</th><th align="center">Between</th><th align="center">Within</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Self-esteem</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="char" char=".">.297</td><td align="char" char=".">.236</td><td align="char" char=".">.359</td><td align="char" char=".">252.723</td><td align="char" char=".">87.1</td><td align="char" char=".">12.9</td><td align="char" char=".">18</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Social support</td><td align="left">Parents</td><td align="center">25</td><td align="char" char=".">.205</td><td align="char" char=".">.146</td><td align="char" char=".">.264</td><td align="char" char=".">749.757</td><td align="char" char=".">94.1</td><td align="char" char=".">5.9</td><td align="char" char=".">23</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Teacher</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="char" char=".">.199</td><td align="char" char=".">.164</td><td align="char" char=".">.235</td><td align="char" char=".">180.265</td><td align="char" char=".">82.6</td><td align="char" char=".">17.4</td><td align="char" char=".">20</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Peer</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="char" char=".">.277</td><td align="char" char=".">.238</td><td align="char" char=".">.316</td><td align="char" char=".">100.467</td><td align="char" char=".">96.4</td><td align="char" char=".">3.6</td><td align="char" char=".">21</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note.</emph><ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><msub><mi>k</mi><mi>E</mi></msub></mrow></math> </ephtml><emph>=</emph> number of effect sizes. <ephtml> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mi>ρ</mi></mrow></math> </ephtml><emph>=</emph> population estimates, CI = confidence interval, LB = lower bound of CI, UB = upper bound of CI, df: degrees of freedom for the Q statistic, <emph>p</emph>: p value of the Q statistic.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-18">Age-Dependent Effects</hd> <p>This study examined how the relationships between career maturity and predictor variables—self-esteem and social support (from parents, teachers, and peers)—change with age. Results from a second-order polynomial regression (Table 3, Figure 1) indicate that the relationship between career maturity and each predictor decreases with age, as shown by a significant negative first-order coefficient for all predictors except teacher support. This suggests a general weakening of these relationships over time, while the second-order coefficient was not significant for any variable. Self-esteem had a moderate initial effect size (.285) at age 14, decreasing most rapidly. Parental support began with a moderate effect size (.223) at age 11, also declining with age. Teacher support showed the smallest initial effect size (.198) at age 11, with no statistically significant decline. Although the linear term was not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level, it was estimated as negative at the 90% level, indicating a weakening relationship with age similar to other variables. Peer support started with a moderate effect size (.283) at age 12 and showed the smallest decline among the variables over time.</p> <p>Table 3. Results of a Second-Order Polynomial Regression Analysis of Effect Size on Age.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" colspan="2">Predictors</th><th align="center">B</th><th align="center">SE</th><th align="center">t</th><th align="center"><italic>p</italic></th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Self-esteem</td><td align="left"><bold>Intercept</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.285</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.040</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>7.168</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>First order</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.703</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.230</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−3.056</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.007</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Second order</td><td align="char" char=".">−.175</td><td align="char" char=".">.498</td><td align="char" char=".">−.352</td><td align="char" char=".">.729</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Parents support</td><td align="left"><bold>Intercept</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.223</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.018</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>12.486</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>First order</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.364</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.140</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−2.597</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.017</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Second order</td><td align="char" char=".">−.018</td><td align="char" char=".">.137</td><td align="char" char=".">−.133</td><td align="char" char=".">.896</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Teacher support</td><td align="left"><bold>Intercept</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.198</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.014</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>14.136</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">First order</td><td align="char" char=".">−.183</td><td align="char" char=".">.101</td><td align="char" char=".">−1.815</td><td align="char" char=".">.085</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Second order</td><td align="char" char=".">−.141</td><td align="char" char=".">.100</td><td align="char" char=".">−1.407</td><td align="char" char=".">.176</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="3">Peer support</td><td align="left"><bold>Intercept</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.283</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.008</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>33.490</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><bold>First order</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−0.162</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.072</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−2.261</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.035</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">Second order</td><td align="char" char=".">−0.149</td><td align="char" char=".">.086</td><td align="char" char=".">−1.728</td><td align="char" char=".">.099</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Note.</emph> Results of significant parameters are shown in bold.</p> <p>Graph: Figure 1.Age-dependent effect size, along with 95% confidence intervals (Shaded area). (a) Self-esteem, (b) parental support, (c) teacher support, (d) peer support.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-19">Moderating Effects</hd> <p>The study conducted mixed-effects meta-regression analyses to examine moderators of the relationship between career maturity and predictors (self-esteem and social support from parents, teachers, and peers; see Table 4). Residual heterogeneity tests showed significant <emph>p</emph>-values (<.0001) for all moderators. In the career maturity–self-esteem relationship, publication year, birth cohort, and dataset were significant moderators. For social support predictors, the dataset was the only significant moderator. Publication type and gender proportion showed no significant effects, likely due to the consistent use of large-scale panels with balanced gender sampling.</p> <p>Table 4. Moderators for the Relationship Between Career Maturity and Predictors.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="top"><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Predictors</th><th align="center" colspan="4" rowspan="2">Moderators</th><th align="center" rowspan="2"><italic>B</italic></th><th align="center" colspan="2">95% CI</th><th align="center" rowspan="2">SE</th><th align="center" rowspan="2"><italic>p</italic></th></tr><tr><th align="center">LB</th><th align="center">UB</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left" rowspan="9">Self- esteem</td><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication type</td><td align="char" char=".">.084</td><td align="char" char=".">−.031</td><td align="char" char=".">.200</td><td align="char" char=".">.059</td><td align="char" char=".">.152</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Proportion of female students</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td><td align="char" char=".">−.002</td><td align="char" char=".">.003</td><td align="char" char=".">.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.840</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><bold>Publication year</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.018</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.003</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.034</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.008</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.022</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><bold>Birth of cohort</bold></td><td align="char" char=".">.010</td><td align="char" char=".">.000</td><td align="char" char=".">.020</td><td align="char" char=".">.005</td><td align="char" char=".">.055</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="5">Dataset</td><td align="left" colspan="2">KYPS M 2nd</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.133</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.243</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.023</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.056</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.017</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">KoWePS</td><td align="char" char=".">−.049</td><td align="char" char=".">−.195</td><td align="char" char=".">.097</td><td align="char" char=".">.075</td><td align="char" char=".">.510</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">DELS 2017 M 1st</td><td align="char" char=".">.029</td><td align="char" char=".">−.067</td><td align="char" char=".">.125</td><td align="char" char=".">.049</td><td align="char" char=".">.552</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">BELS 2016 M 1st</td><td align="char" char=".">−.045</td><td align="char" char=".">−.154</td><td align="char" char=".">.063</td><td align="char" char=".">.055</td><td align="char" char=".">.413</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="char" char=".">.093</td><td align="char" char=".">−.013</td><td align="char" char=".">.199</td><td align="char" char=".">.054</td><td align="char" char=".">.084</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="9">Parents support</td><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication type</td><td align="char" char=".">.069</td><td align="char" char=".">−.053</td><td align="char" char=".">.192</td><td align="char" char=".">.062</td><td align="char" char=".">.267</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Proportion of female students</td><td align="char" char=".">.002</td><td align="char" char=".">−.014</td><td align="char" char=".">.018</td><td align="char" char=".">.008</td><td align="char" char=".">.804</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication year</td><td align="char" char=".">.005</td><td align="char" char=".">−.023</td><td align="char" char=".">.037</td><td align="char" char=".">.017</td><td align="char" char=".">.757</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Birth of cohort</td><td align="char" char=".">.007</td><td align="char" char=".">−.006</td><td align="char" char=".">.021</td><td align="char" char=".">.007</td><td align="char" char=".">.257</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" rowspan="5">Dataset</td><td align="left" colspan="2">DELS 2017 M 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.135</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.226</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.044</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.047</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.004</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="char" char=".">.059</td><td align="char" char=".">−.014</td><td align="char" char=".">.132</td><td align="char" char=".">.037</td><td align="char" char=".">.112</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">SELS 2010 M 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.145</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.220</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.070</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.038</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">SELS 2010 H 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.155</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.249</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.061</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.048</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.001</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2">KELS 2005</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.093</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.183</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.003</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.046</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.043</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="9">Teacher support</td><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication type</td><td align="char" char=".">.034</td><td align="char" char=".">−.077</td><td align="char" char=".">.145</td><td align="char" char=".">.057</td><td align="char" char=".">.553</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Proportion of female students</td><td align="char" char=".">.001</td><td align="char" char=".">−.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.002</td><td align="char" char=".">.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.323</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication year</td><td align="char" char=".">.005</td><td align="char" char=".">−.004</td><td align="char" char=".">.013</td><td align="char" char=".">.004</td><td align="char" char=".">.271</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Birth of cohort</td><td align="char" char=".">.006</td><td align="char" char=".">−.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.013</td><td align="char" char=".">.004</td><td align="char" char=".">.074</td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="5">Dataset</td><td align="left" colspan="3">KYPS E 4th</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.134</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.214</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.055</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.041</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.001</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3">DELS 2017 M 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.067</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.131</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.003</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.033</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.039</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.107</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.164</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.051</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.029</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.000</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3">SELS 2010 H 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.112</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.183</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.041</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.036</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.002</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3">KELS 2005</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.118</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.200</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.036</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.042</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.005</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="9">Peer support</td><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication type</td><td align="char" char=".">.057</td><td align="char" char=".">−.059</td><td align="char" char=".">.174</td><td align="char" char=".">.059</td><td align="char" char=".">.334</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Proportion of female students</td><td align="char" char=".">.001</td><td align="char" char=".">−.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.002</td><td align="char" char=".">.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.532</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Publication year</td><td align="char" char=".">.010</td><td align="char" char=".">−.010</td><td align="char" char=".">.030</td><td align="char" char=".">.010</td><td align="char" char=".">.327</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4">Birth of cohort</td><td align="char" char=".">.007</td><td align="char" char=".">−.001</td><td align="char" char=".">.015</td><td align="char" char=".">.004</td><td align="char" char=".">.070</td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" rowspan="5">Dataset</td><td align="left">KoWePS</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.186</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.302</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.070</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.059</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.002</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">DELS 2017 M 1st</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.070</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.135</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.005</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.033</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.035</bold></td></tr><tr><td align="left">SELS 2010 E 4th</td><td align="char" char=".">−.059</td><td align="char" char=".">−.135</td><td align="char" char=".">.017</td><td align="char" char=".">.039</td><td align="char" char=".">.126</td></tr><tr><td align="left">SELS 2010 H 1st</td><td align="char" char=".">−.049</td><td align="char" char=".">−.128</td><td align="char" char=".">.030</td><td align="char" char=".">.040</td><td align="char" char=".">.222</td></tr><tr><td align="left">KELS 2005</td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.108</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.193</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>−.023</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.043</bold></td><td align="char" char="."><bold>.013</bold></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Note.</emph> Results of significant variables are shown in bold. In the analysis of the moderating effect of the dataset, KELS 2013 was used as a reference variable. KYPS: The Korean Youth Panel Study, KELS: Korea Education Longitudinal Study, SELS: Seoul Education Longitudinal Study, DELS: Daegu Education Longitudinal Study, BELS: Busan Education Longitudinal Study, KoWePS: Korea Welfare Panel Study, E: Elementary School, M: Middle School, H: High School.</p> <p>Examining the moderating variables, more recent research publications and birth cohorts showed stronger positive relationships between career maturity and self-esteem (B =.018, <emph>p</emph> =.008; B =.010, <emph>p</emph> =.005), suggesting this relationship is stronger in recent generations. Using KELS 2013 as the reference, dataset effects were significant across all predictors. For self-esteem, a weaker effect size was observed in the KYPS middle school panel (B = −.133, <emph>p</emph> =.017). Parental support showed weaker effects in KELS 2005 (B = −.093, <emph>p</emph> =.043), DELS 2017 (B = −.135, <emph>p</emph> =.004), SELS 2010 middle school (B = −.145, <emph>p</emph> =.000), and SELS 2010 high school panels (B = −.155, <emph>p</emph> =.001). Teacher support exhibited weaker effects across all other datasets compared to KELS 2013. For peer support, weaker effects were found in KELS 2005 (B = −.108, <emph>p</emph> =.013), Korea Welfare Panel Study (B = −.186, <emph>p</emph> =.002), and DELS 2017 (B = −.070, <emph>p</emph> =.035). Overall, KELS 2013 showed stronger relationships compared to other datasets.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-20">Publication Bias</hd> <p>Funnel plots and Egger's tests revealed significant publication bias for parental (z = −2.16, <emph>p</emph> =.031) and peer support (z = −2.16, <emph>p</emph> =.031) but not for self-esteem (z = −1.31, <emph>p</emph> =.190) or teacher support (z = −.71, <emph>p</emph> =.480). Although publication bias may inflate effect sizes, its impact on conclusions is typically limited ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref48">4</reflink>]). Sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness and stability of results, with minimal effect size changes (.01 or less) when specific studies were excluded.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-21">Discussion</hd> <p>Elevating career maturity during adolescence is crucial for enabling suitable career choices. Previous research has identified variables closely associated with career maturity, but there remains a gap in understanding how these relationships evolve as adolescents age. This study addresses this gap by synthesizing findings from 18 longitudinal studies, providing a comprehensive meta-analysis of the prospective relationships between career maturity and key predictor variables (self-esteem, parental, teacher, and peer social support). It extends existing research on the developmental trajectory of career maturity in Korean adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-22">Longitudinal Relationship Between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors</hd> <p>The relationships between self-esteem, parental support, teacher support, and peer social support with career maturity in Korean adolescents show a moderate correlation during elementary school years. However, contrary to the expectation that adolescents become more interested in future careers, leading to increased career preparedness as they age ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref49">12</reflink>]), this analysis revealed a weakening of the relationship between career maturity and predictors such as self-esteem and social support. This suggests that boosting self-esteem early in adolescence and receiving social support can be more effective in promoting career maturity than during later adolescence. These results align with previous longitudinal studies, such as [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref50">43</reflink>], who reported that self-esteem in the eighth grade had a stronger effect on early ninth-grade career adaptability than self-esteem in early ninth grade on late ninth-grade career adaptability. It also supports the findings in the meta-analysis by [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref51">23</reflink>], which showed a decrease in effect size as school grade increases. Specifically, self-esteem showed a stronger relationship with career maturity than other variables but decreased faster with age. In contrast, peer support had a comparable overall effect size with career maturity (self-esteem:.297, peer support:.277) but decreased more gradually with age (peer support: −.162 vs. self-esteem: −.703). Thus, even in late adolescence, the effect size of peer support did not significantly decrease, unlike the relationship strength of self-esteem. Similarly, the overall relationship between parental support and career maturity (.205) was slightly lower than that of self-esteem, but the decrease in effect size (−.364) was more gradual, indicating a similar magnitude in late adolescence. This suggests that in late adolescence, support from parents or peers may be more crucial than self-esteem in developing career maturity. Previous studies have reported that parental support is stronger than peer and teacher support ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref52">11</reflink>]). However, this meta-analysis indicates that peer support has an effect size comparable to parental support. Meanwhile, teacher support had the lowest initial values compared to other variables (self-esteem:.285, peers:.283, parents:.223, teachers:.198). The decrease in effect size was not significant, indicating a relatively stable pattern with little change as adolescents age. This suggests that teacher support has a weak positive relationship with career maturity, but that relationship remains consistent as grades progress.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-23">Explaining Heterogeneity with Moderators</hd> <p>The moderation analysis showed significant findings across the dataset. The reference dataset, KELS 2013, a nationwide longitudinal survey tracking fifth-grade elementary students, exhibited a stronger relationship between career maturity and predictive factors (self-esteem, social support from parents, teachers, and peers) than regional panel data (e.g., SELS in Seoul, DELS in Daegu) or earlier data (KELS, 2005, KYPS, 2003, KYPS, 2004). For the relationship between career maturity and self-esteem, the relationship was stronger in more recently published studies. The birth cohort had a <emph>p</emph>-value of.055, suggesting some evidence of a stronger relationship between career maturity and self-esteem in more recent cohorts, though not statistically significant at the 5% level. The moderating effects of datasets showed that regional-level datasets were not significant, but significant differences were noted based on the timing of data collection, indicating that temporal differences might be more impactful than regional variations. In the relationships between career maturity and the predictors of social support (parents, teachers, and peers), differences based on publication year or birth cohort were not significant. However, significant differences were observed among datasets. The analysis indicated weaker relationships in datasets collected earlier or at the regional level. For example, the relationship between career maturity and parental support was stronger in the KELS 2013 dataset compared to KELS 2005. Regional data from SELS 2010 and DELS 2017 showed lower effect sizes compared to KELS 2013. Similarly, in the relationship between career maturity and teacher support, findings indicated a stronger relationship in KELS 2013 compared to KELS 2005 and KYPS 2004. Regional datasets from SELS 2010 and DELS 2017 also showed lower effect sizes compared to KELS 2013. For peer support, the relationship was stronger in KELS 2013 compared to KELS 2005 and KoWePS 2006, with DELS 2017 showing lower effect sizes compared to KELS 2013. While the study did not analyze all urban areas' panel data, limiting comprehensive conclusions about regional differences, it provides evidence of potential regional disparities in the relationship between career maturity and predictive factors.</p> <p>Gender differences in the relationship between career maturity and predictive factors were challenging to confirm. Unlike previous research ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref53">16</reflink>]) that indicated no significant gender differences in the relationship between career maturity and self-esteem, this study could not verify such differences due to insufficient data. All included studies utilized panel data from national research institutions with balanced gender representation (female students ranging from 45.6% to 63%). Only one study ([<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref54">47</reflink>]) reported results separately for each gender group, making it reasonable to expect no significant gender-based differences in the relationship between career maturity and predictive factors.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-24">Limitations and Future Research Directions</hd> <p>Despite this comprehensive meta-analysis of longitudinal data, most studies focused on middle and high school, with limited data from elementary school or beyond high school. Changes in the relationship between career maturity and self-esteem could only be estimated from the second year of middle school, and patterns after high school remained unclear. Similarly, data on peer support during elementary school were lacking. Future research should address these gaps to better understand changes in career maturity and its predictors over time. While this study examined self-esteem and social support, other factors like family background (e.g., income and parental education; [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>]), career interventions (e.g., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref56">29</reflink>]), educational achievement ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref57">18</reflink>]), and personality traits ([<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref58">49</reflink>]) should also be investigated. Exploring these variables across age groups will provide more comprehensive insights into vocational maturity.</p> <p>The term career maturity, rooted in [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref59">56</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref60">57</reflink>] career development theory, was used in this study without differentiating it from related concepts like career readiness, attitudes, competencies, adaptability, and preparedness. The primary studies relied on large-scale panel data from national research institutions, but varying tools or modified instruments may have conflated related career development concepts. As a result, distinguishing these concepts through meta-analysis was not feasible, raising the possibility of jingle-jangle fallacies in measuring career maturity. However, it is reasonable to assume that the tools used in these panels share theoretical foundations within the broader concept of career preparedness, encompassing attitudes, knowledge, competencies, and behaviors ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]).</p> <p>Lastly, previous studies have shown that culture influences youth career maturity. For example, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>] found that 11th-grade students in the United States had higher overall career maturity than their Korean counterparts, excelling in goal orientation, confidence, and independence, while Korean students scored higher in preparation. These differences likely stem from social environments; Korean students often prioritize college admissions over career exploration, and the country's collectivist culture emphasizes external influences, such as parental and societal expectations ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref63">1</reflink>]). Future research should examine how the longitudinal relationships between career maturity and its predictors differ across cultural contexts.</p> <hd id="AN0183272753-25">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study provides a comprehensive meta-analysis of the longitudinal relationships between career maturity and key predictors—self-esteem, as well as social support from parents, teachers, and peers—among Korean adolescents. Unlike previous studies, we found that while the initial correlation between self-esteem and career maturity was strong, it significantly weakened over time, highlighting the critical role of early self-esteem in career development. In contrast, peer support maintained a relatively stable influence throughout adolescence, underscoring its continuous importance. Parental support showed a gradual decline in its impact, suggesting its ongoing relevance even in late adolescence. Teacher support, although initially weaker, remained consistently influential over time. 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Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child Development, 83(3), 877–895. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01745.x</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0183272753-28"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF-2022S1A5A8055617).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Sookyoung Son; Yoona Jang and Miri Yoon</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> <p></p> <p>Dr. Sookyoung Son earned her Ph.D. in Education from Korea University in 2019, with a specialization in educational measurement and statistics. She is currently an Assistant Professor at Woosuk University, where she teaches courses such as Data Literacy and Research Methodology. Her research focuses on educational achievement and psychosocial development trajectories from adolescence into adulthood, longitudinal study methodology in the social sciences, and multiple group analysis by gender or school level. In her leisure time, she enjoys hiking with her family and exploring local cuisines.</p> <p>Dr. Yoona Jang is a lecturer in the Department of Education at Korea University and earned her Ph.D. in Educational Measurement and Statistics from the same institution in 2023. Her primary research interests include simulation studies on mixed models and dynamic structural equation modeling. In her free time, she enjoys playing board games with friends and listening to music.</p> <p>Dr. Miri Yoon is a lecturer in the Department of Education at Korea University and obtained her Ph.D. in Educational Measurement and Statistics from Korea University in 2021. Her research interests encompass adolescent development, career planning, scale development, and panel study design, with a particular focus on constructing longitudinal panel data for educational research. She spends her free time with her family and enjoys watching musicals and movies.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref24"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref43"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref62"></nolink>
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  Data: Developmental Trends in the Relationships between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors in South Korea: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sookyoung+Son%22">Sookyoung Son</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3226-169X">0000-0002-3226-169X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yoona+Jang%22">Yoona Jang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Miri+Yoon%22">Miri Yoon</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Career+Development%22"><i>Journal of Career Development</i></searchLink>. 2025 52(2):256-273.
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  Data: SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Data: 18
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Information Analyses<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Vocational+Maturity%22">Vocational Maturity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Longitudinal+Studies%22">Longitudinal Studies</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Esteem%22">Self Esteem</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Influences%22">Social Influences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Support+Groups%22">Social Support Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Meta+Analysis%22">Meta Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Student+Relationship%22">Teacher Student Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age+Differences%22">Age Differences</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22South+Korea%22">South Korea</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/08948453241311887
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  Data: 0894-8453<br />1556-0856
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  Data: This study examines how self-esteem and social support (parental, teacher, and peer) influence the career maturity of Korean adolescents over time. By synthesizing findings from 18 longitudinal studies, a meta-analysis was conducted. Results reveal that while self-esteem initially shows a strong correlation with career maturity, this relationship weakens significantly as adolescents age. In contrast, peer support maintains a relatively stable correlation with career maturity, even in late adolescence. Parental support also shows a gradual decline in its effect, but less sharply than self-esteem. Teacher support, though initially the weakest predictor, remains consistently correlated with career maturity throughout adolescence. These findings underscore the critical role of early self-esteem and social support in fostering career maturity and highlight the differing impacts of these factors over time.
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        PageCount: 18
        StartPage: 256
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      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Vocational Maturity
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
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      – SubjectFull: Self Esteem
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      – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Student Relationship
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      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
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      – SubjectFull: Age Differences
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      – SubjectFull: South Korea
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      – TitleFull: Developmental Trends in the Relationships between Adolescent Career Maturity and Predictors in South Korea: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies
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