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The Effects of Single Bouts of Physical Activity on Cognition in Adolescents and Young Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review

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Title: The Effects of Single Bouts of Physical Activity on Cognition in Adolescents and Young Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review
Language: English
Authors: Ting-Yu Chueh, Jia-Hao Wu, Wei-Kang Hung, Cheng-Chen Pan, Chien-Chih Chou, Chung-Ju Huang, Chien-Ting Wu
Source: Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 2025 38(2).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 12
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Information Analyses
Descriptors: Intellectual Disability, Physical Activity Level, Program Effectiveness, Physical Activities, Cognitive Ability, Cognitive Processes, Adolescents, Young Adults, Mild Intellectual Disability, Moderate Intellectual Disability
DOI: 10.1111/jar.70026
ISSN: 1360-2322
1468-3148
Abstract: Background: Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) typically exhibit cognitive deficits. While single bouts of physical activity (PA) have shown cognitive benefits in typically developing individuals, the effects on those with ID are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of single bouts of PA on cognition in individuals with ID. Method: This registered review followed the PRISMA guidelines and searched for eligible studies on PubMed and Scopus. Results: Eight studies were included, showing that participants demonstrated transient improvements in cognition, including information processing speed, inhibition and working memory, following moderate aerobic-based intensity PA. However, findings regarding the optimal intensity or types of PA for enhancing specific cognitions, and the effects on higher-level cognition (e.g., planning), are limited. Conclusions: Single bouts of PA may transiently enhance cognition in adolescents and young adults with mild to moderate ID, but more rigorous research with a feasible protocol is required to refine exercise prescriptions for maximal cognitive benefits.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1468806
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184768020;e0301mar.25;2025Apr29.07:57;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184768020-1">The Effects of Single Bouts of Physical Activity on Cognition in Adolescents and Young Adults With Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review </title> <p>Background: Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) typically exhibit cognitive deficits. While single bouts of physical activity (PA) have shown cognitive benefits in typically developing individuals, the effects on those with ID are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of single bouts of PA on cognition in individuals with ID. Method: This registered review followed the PRISMA guidelines and searched for eligible studies on PubMed and Scopus. Results: Eight studies were included, showing that participants demonstrated transient improvements in cognition, including information processing speed, inhibition and working memory, following moderate aerobic‐based intensity PA. However, findings regarding the optimal intensity or types of PA for enhancing specific cognitions, and the effects on higher‐level cognition (e.g., planning), are limited. Conclusions: Single bouts of PA may transiently enhance cognition in adolescents and young adults with mild to moderate ID, but more rigorous research with a feasible protocol is required to refine exercise prescriptions for maximal cognitive benefits.</p> <p>Keywords: acute exercise; brain health; executive functions; intellectual developmental disorder</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-2">Summary</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Single bouts of physical activity transiently enhance cognition in adolescents and young adults with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities.</item> <p></p> <item> The optimal intensity or types of physical activity for enhancing specific cognitions are not determined.</item> <p></p> <item> More rigorous research with feasible protocol is required to build acute exercise prescriptions for maximal cognitive benefits in individuals with intellectual disabilities.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0184768020-3">Introduction</hd> <p>According to a survey by the American Psychiatric Association, approximately 1% of the population suffers from intellectual disabilities, with around 85% of these cases being mild (American Psychiatric Association and Association [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref1">3</reflink>]). The possible causes of intellectual disabilities remain largely unknown but may include single‐gene mutations, chromosomal abnormalities, maternal exposure to toxins, infectious agents, delivery complications and postpartum trauma (Somanadhan et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref2">43</reflink>]). Individuals with intellectual disabilities often exhibit cognitive deficits in several areas, including information processing speed, executive functions (EFs) and memory engagement (Danielsson et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref3">15</reflink>]; Spaniol and Danielsson [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref4">44</reflink>]; Van der Molen et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref5">50</reflink>]). These cognitive abilities are crucial for managing daily activities and significantly impact quality of life (Hill et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref6">24</reflink>]; Sanz et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref7">42</reflink>]). For example, individuals require attention to focus on relevant information while relying on distinct EFs to suppress irrelevant distraction (inhibitory control), hold and mentally organise information (working memory) and adjust their behaviour or thoughts based on updated demands, rules or priorities (cognitive flexibility) to achieve goals (Diamond [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref8">17</reflink>]; Miller and Cohen [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref9">34</reflink>]; Miyake et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref10">35</reflink>]; Zelazo [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref11">55</reflink>]). Thus, several studies have developed certain interventions (e.g., cognitive training) aimed at facilitating cognition, such as working memory (Danielsson et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref12">16</reflink>]; Lanfranchi et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]; Torra Moreno et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref14">48</reflink>]), and the results have been beneficial for individuals with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities.</p> <p>Regularly engaging in physical activity is an effective means of promoting health‐related outcomes, such as physical fitness and metabolic health, in individuals with or without intellectual disabilities (Bull et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref15">7</reflink>]; Huang and Pan [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref16">27</reflink>]; Obrusnikova et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref17">37</reflink>]; Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref18">52</reflink>]). The positive effects of physical activity are also observed in cognition, with several studies indicating that physical activity transiently facilitates cognition during the post‐exercise period in healthy adults (Chueh, Hsieh, et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref19">14</reflink>]; Wen et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref20">53</reflink>]). Furthermore, a recent meta‐analytic study, which included 11 studies, found that single bouts of moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity result in facilitating effects on EFs, regardless of task demand, in children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Chueh, Hsieh, et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref21">14</reflink>]). Although the transient cognitive enhancements resulting from physical activity may be attributed to different underlying mechanisms, such as increased cerebral blood flow or catecholamines such as dopamine, norepinephrine or epinephrine that modulate arousal levels and motivation (McMorris [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref22">33</reflink>]; Pontifex et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref23">39</reflink>]), these findings suggest that single bouts of physical activity can serve as a transient approach for improving cognition in different populations.</p> <p>It is also crucial to consider the effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities, even though they experience chronic cognitive impairments. A study indicated that individuals with mild intellectual disabilities exhibited better information processing speed immediately and at 10, 20 and 30 min after moderate‐intensity (60% HRR) aerobic exercise compared to light‐intensity (30% HRR) aerobic exercise (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref24">2</reflink>]). While the cognitive improvements following a single exercise session may be transient, participants can experience immediate cognitive benefits during the post‐exercise period. These brief cognitive enhancements can improve their ability to complete daily tasks, engage in social interactions, participate more effectively in learning activities and better regulate their behaviour. However, the findings in the current literature remain inconclusive. The possible reasons may be attributed to the heterogeneity of study characteristics, such as physical activity protocols and cognitive measures. For example, no positive effects on information processing speed (e.g., choice reaction time) were observed following 30 min of voluntary cycling exercise (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref25">40</reflink>]), whereas 10 min of self‐selected intensity cycling exercise facilitated information processing speed. In addition, a single 30‐min bout of assisted cycling exercise and resistance exercise did not result in positive effects on planning (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref26">41</reflink>]). In contrast, Borji et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref27">5</reflink>]) indicated that both single bouts of 30‐min moderate‐intensity aerobic and resistance exercise improved information processing speed and working memory performance. Thus, it is necessary to synthesise the relevant literature to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current findings.</p> <p>Overall, the present study aimed to systematically review relevant literature to evaluate the effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities. It is expected to make a significant and practically relevant contribution by: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref28">1</reflink>) serving as a reference that guides future research on the acute effects of physical activity on cognition and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref29">2</reflink>) providing recommendations for employing exercise to optimise cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-4">Methods</hd> <p>The study protocol was registered in the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta‐analysis Protocols (INPLASY; registration number: INPLASY202450113) and complied with the PRISMA guidelines (Page et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref30">38</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-5">Eligibility Criteria</hd> <p>The inclusion criteria for articles in this review were developed using the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome and Study (PICOS) framework. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (P) the participants included in the studies were individuals with intellectual disabilities; (I) the studies used intervention designs to evaluate the effects of a single bout of physical activity; (C) the studies included at least one comparison condition or group (intervention vs. control or intervention A vs. intervention B); (O) the studies incorporated neuropsychological tests to evaluate cognition and (S) the studies included cross‐over or parallel group comparison trials.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-6">Information Sources and Search Strategy</hd> <p>PubMed and Scopus were used to search relevant literature. These two electronic databases encompass several databases, including Medline, EMBASE, Compendex, World Textile Index, Fluidex, Geobase, Biobase (Falagas et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref31">19</reflink>]) and most journals in Web of Science (Mongeon and Paul‐Hus [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref32">36</reflink>]). All identified articles published prior to May 2024 were included. Search terms were applied to titles and abstracts to identify potential articles for the review. The analysis was restricted to the English language and original research articles published in peer‐reviewed journals. The full search terms for each database are provided in Appendix S1. In addition to the database search, the reference lists of all included studies and other relevant review studies (Sung et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref33">47</reflink>]; Yang et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref34">54</reflink>]) were checked to identify additional eligible articles (Horsley et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref35">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-7">Selection Process</hd> <p>The titles and abstracts retrieved from different databases were loaded into EndNote software to remove duplicates automatically. Subsequently, titles/abstracts were independently assessed for eligibility by two authors (T.‐Y.C. and J.‐H.W.). A full‐text article review was performed by the same two authors. Decisions to include or exclude studies were made by consensus. Any disputes were settled by discussion with other authors (C.‐C.P., C.‐C.C., C.‐J.H. and C.‐T.W.) of this study. In addition to the database search, the reference lists of all included studies were checked to identify additional eligible articles (Horsley et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref36">25</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-8">Data Collection Process and Items</hd> <p>Two authors conducted the data extraction (T.‐Y.C. and J.‐H.W.). Disagreements were discussed until a consensus was reached. The extracted information from eligible articles included study information (first author's name, publication year and region), participant characteristics (sample size, age, sex, levels of intellectual disability and aetiology), study design, intervention protocols (type, intensity and duration), comparators, outcome measures and results.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-9">Study Risk of Bias Assessment</hd> <p>The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool (Higgins et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref37">23</reflink>]). Among methodological appraisal tools, the Cochrane tool has become the mainstream choice across a broad range of fields and has also been used in studies on physical activity and health‐related outcomes in individuals with intellectual disabilities (St. John et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref38">45</reflink>]; Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref39">52</reflink>]). It is tailored to randomised parallel‐group trials, cluster‐randomised parallel‐group trials and randomised cross‐over trials (Sterne et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref40">46</reflink>]). For randomised parallel‐group trials, five domains were assessed: D1, bias arising from the randomisation process; D2, bias due to deviations from intended interventions; D3, bias due to missing outcome data; D4, bias in the measurement of the outcome; and D5, bias in the selection of the reported result. For randomised cross‐over trials, an additional domain, DS, bias arising from period and carryover effects, was included. For non‐randomised control trials, the Risk of Bias in Non‐randomised Studies of Interventions (ROBINS‐I) tool was used. This tool assesses quality across seven domains: D1, confounding; D2, selection of participants; D3, classification of interventions; D4, deviations from intended interventions; D5, missing data; D6, measurement of outcomes; and D7, selection of the reported result. The quality assessment was conducted independently by two authors (J.‐H.W. and W.‐K.H.), with any disagreements resolved through discussion and adjudicated by a third author (T.‐Y.C.).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-10">Synthesis Methods</hd> <p>The data from this review were synthesised narratively, with a comprehensive tabulation of the results from all studies included. Studies that addressed the main outcome measures were categorised based on whether they reported positive, negative or neutral effects of acute exercise on cognition. A <emph>p</emph>‐value threshold of < 0.05, as reported in the original studies, was adopted to guide this classification in determining whether single bouts of PA resulted in a positive cognitive effect relative to a control condition or group, or which intensity of PA had a more pronounced impact on cognition. For example, if a significant difference in cognitive performance was observed between pre‐ and post‐exercise in both the exercise and control conditions, the results would not be considered indicative of positive effects from single bouts of PA on cognition. However, if a significant difference was found between pre‐ and post‐exercise in the exercise condition, but not in the control condition, this would suggest that single bouts of PA had a positive effect on cognition. The initial analysis of the data was conducted by one author (J.‐H.W.) and subsequently cross‐checked for verification by another author (T.‐Y.C.).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-11">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184768020-12">Search Selection</hd> <p>Five hundred fifty‐nine studies were initially identified from the electronic databases. Of these, 156 duplicates were removed. The remaining 403 articles were screened for titles and abstracts. After the first stage of screening, 12 articles were selected for full‐text screening. Of these, 8 studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. The indicated funding for the individual studies did not raise any suspicion. Figure 1 presents a flow diagram of the literature search.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/E03/01mar25/jar70026-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="jar70026-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Search processing." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184768020-14">Study Characteristics</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184768020-15">Participants Characteristics</hd> <p>Table 1 presents an overview of the study characteristics. Our literature search uncovered 8 studies published between 2013 and 2023, involving a total of 120 participants aged between 14 and 31 years. Three of these studies recruited individuals with mild intellectual disabilities, though no information about the aetiology was provided. Four studies did not report the levels of intellectual disabilities, but all recruited participants with Down Syndrome, suggesting the aetiology was a chromosomal abnormality. The remaining one study did not report either the levels or the aetiology of intellectual disabilities (Vogt et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref41">51</reflink>]).</p> <p>1 TABLE Summary characteristics of the included studies.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th align="left">Author/region</th><th align="center">Participant characteristics</th><th align="center">Study design (<italic>N</italic> of arms)</th><th align="center">Arms</th><th align="center">Outcomes</th><th align="center">Timing of outcome measure after PA</th><th align="center">Results</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Affes et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr2">2023</xref>)/Africa</td><td align="center">N (female) = 12 (0);Age = 15 ± 2.8;Levels of ID = mild (M = 65, SD = 2.8);Aetiology of ID = NR</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (2)</td><td align="center">Light‐intensity AE(30 min treadmill, 30% HRR)versusModerate‐intensity AE(30 min treadmill, 60% HRR)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed(VSRT, ASRT and CRT)</td><td align="center">IM, 10, 20 and 30 min</td><td align="center">Information processing speed—VSRT:Moderate‐intensity AE > light‐intensity(all time points)Information processing speed—ASRT:Light‐intensity AE > moderate‐intensity(Post‐ex 30 min)Information processing speed—CRT:Light‐intensity AE = moderate intensity(all time points)</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Borji et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr5">2023</xref>)/Africa</td><td align="center">N (female) = 13 (0);Age = 15 ± 0.4;Levels of ID = mild (M = 66, SD = 0.5);Aetiology of ID = NR</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (3)</td><td align="center">Moderate‐intensity AE(30 min treadmill, 60% HRR)versusModerate‐intensity RE(30 min, 70% 10 RM)versusCon(30 min watching video)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed (VSRT and CRT)WM (Corsi Test)</td><td align="center">5 min</td><td align="center">Information processing speed—VSRT and CRT:Moderate‐intensity RE > moderate‐intensity AE > ConWM:Moderate‐intensity AE > Con;Moderate‐intensity RE = Con</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ringenbach et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr41">2021</xref>)/USA</td><td align="center">N (female) = 14 (6);Age = 26 ± 5.2;Levels of ID = mild to moderate (Down syndrome)Aetiology of ID = chromosomal abnormality</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (3)</td><td align="center">AE‐assisted cycling(20 min, 135% of voluntary speed)versusModerate‐intensity RE(30 min 75% 1 RM)versusCon(30 min board games)</td><td align="center">Inhibition (Flanker task)Planning (Tower of London Test)</td><td align="center">10 min</td><td align="center">Inhibition:AE‐assisted cycling > Con;Moderate‐intensity RE = ConPlanning:AE‐assisted cycling and RE = Con</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Affes et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr1">2021</xref>)/Africa</td><td align="center">N (female) = 13 (0);Age = 15 ± 2.7;Levels of ID = mild(M = 65, SD = 2.8)Aetiology of ID = NR</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (2)</td><td align="center">Light‐intensity AE(30 min treadmill, 30% HRR)versusModerate‐intensity AE(30 min treadmill, 60% HRR)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed (VSRT, ASRT and CRT)WM (Corsi Test)</td><td align="center">5 min</td><td align="center">Information processing speed—VSRT:Moderate > light‐intensity AEInformation processing speed—ASRT:Light‐intensity > moderate‐intensity AECRT and WM:Light = moderate‐intensity AE</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chen and Ringenbach (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr9">2019</xref>)/USA</td><td align="center">N (female) = 28 (7);Age = 14–31;Levels of ID = mild to moderate (Down syndrome)Aetiology of ID = chromosomal abnormality</td><td align="center">Non‐RCTParallel group (3)</td><td align="center">Moderate‐intensity AE(20 min treadmill, 50%–69% HRmax)versusHigh‐intensity AE(20 min treadmill, 70%–85% HRmax)versusCon(20 min watching video)</td><td align="center">Verbal fluency(Semantic and Phonetic)</td><td align="center">5–10 min</td><td align="center">Semantic fluency:Moderate‐intensity AE > ConPhonetic fluency:Moderate and high‐intensity AE = Con</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Ringenbach et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr40">2014</xref>)/USA</td><td align="center">N (female) = 9 (3);Age = 19.2 ± 3.7;Levels of ID = mild to moderate (Down syndrome)Aetiology of ID = chromosomal abnormality</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (3)</td><td align="center">AE‐ voluntary cycling(30 min, self‐selected rate)versusAE‐ assisted cycling(30 min, 80 rpm)versusCon(30 min sitting and listening music)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed (SRT)Planning (Tower of London Test)</td><td align="center">5 min</td><td align="center">Information processing speed—VSRT:AE‐assisted cyclin > ConPlanning:AE‐assisted and voluntary cycling = Con</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Chen et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr12">2015</xref>)/USA</td><td align="center">N (female) = 20 (NR);Age = 15–30;Levels of ID = mild to moderate (Down syndrome)Aetiology of ID = chromosomal abnormality</td><td align="center">RCTParallel group (2)</td><td align="center">Moderate‐intensity AE(20 min treadmill, 56%–73% HRmax)versusCon(20 min watching video)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed (CRT)Attention shifting (DCCS)Inhibition(Knock‐Tap test)</td><td align="center">5–10 min</td><td align="center">CRT and attention shifting:Moderate‐intensity AE = ConInhibition:Moderate‐intensity AE > Con</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Vogt et al. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="bibr51">2013</xref>)/Germany</td><td align="center">N (female) = 11 (5);Age = 16 ± 1.3;Levels of ID = NRAetiology of ID = NR</td><td align="center">RCTCross‐over (2)</td><td align="center">AE(10 min cycling, self‐selected rate)versusCon(10 min sitting and listening music)</td><td align="center">Information processing speed (CRT)</td><td align="center">Immediately</td><td align="center">Information processing speed—CRT:AE > Con</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note:</emph> In the results column: '>' indicates favourable cognitive effects of specific arms; '=' indicates no significant cognitive effects between arms.</p> <p>2 Abbreviations: AC, assisted cycling; AE, aerobic exercise; ASRT, auditory simple reaction time; Con, control group or control condition; CRT, choice reaction time; DCCS, dimensional change card sort test; Ex, exercise; HR, heart rate; HRR, heart rate reserve; IM, immediately; NR, not reported; PA, physical activity; RE, resistance exercise; RT, reaction times; VC, voluntary cycling; VCRT, visual choice reaction time; VSRT, visual simple reaction time; WM, working memory.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-16">Physical Activity Intervention Characteristics</hd> <p>One study employed a moderate‐intensity (56%–73% HRmax) aerobic exercise protocol involving treadmill exercise (Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref42">12</reflink>]). Three studies examined the effects of varying aerobic exercise intensities, with two comparing light and moderate‐intensity (30% vs. 60% HRR) aerobic exercises (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref43">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref44">1</reflink>]) and one comparing moderate‐ and vigorous‐intensity (50%–69% vs. 70%–85% HRmax) aerobic exercises (Chen and Ringenbach [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref45">9</reflink>]). Additionally, three studies explored the effects of different exercise types on cognitive function: one compared moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise with resistance exercise (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>]), one compared resistance exercise with assisted cycling exercise (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref47">41</reflink>]), and the other compared voluntary cycling with assisted cycling exercises (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref48">40</reflink>]). The remaining one study employed aerobic exercise using self‐paced cycling (Vogt et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref49">51</reflink>]). Physical activity sessions in these studies typically lasted between 20 and 30 min, with one exception of a 10‐min session (Vogt et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref50">51</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-17">Results of Individual Studies</hd> <p>The included studies addressed the effects of PA bouts on various aspects of cognition, with 75% of the studies (<emph>n</emph> = 6) employing at least two cognitive tasks. Regarding information processing speed, studies typically utilised simple or choice reaction time tasks. Among these studies, four addressed the effects of PA bouts on simple reaction time. Of these, two found that individuals with mild intellectual disabilities or Down syndrome demonstrated improved visual simple reaction time following 30 min of moderate‐intensity (60% HRR) aerobic exercise, resistance exercise or assisted cycling exercise compared to a non‐exercise condition (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref51">5</reflink>]; Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref52">40</reflink>]). The other two studies found that individuals with mild intellectual disabilities exhibited better visual simple reaction times immediately after and at 10, 20 and 30 min following moderate‐intensity (60% HRR) aerobic exercise compared to light‐intensity (30% HRR) aerobic exercise (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref53">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>]). Conversely, a more positive effect on auditory simple reaction times was observed at 5 and 30 min after light‐intensity (30% HRR) aerobic exercise relative to moderate‐intensity (60% HRR) aerobic exercise.</p> <p>In addition, five studies examined the effects of PA bouts on choice reaction time tasks. Three of these found improved choice reaction time following 20–30 min of moderate‐intensity (56%–73% HRmax or 60% HRR) aerobic exercise, resistance exercise or 10 min of self‐paced cycling exercise compared to the non‐exercise condition or group in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities or Down syndrome (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref55">5</reflink>]; Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref56">12</reflink>]; Vogt et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref57">51</reflink>]). The remaining two studies showed no significant differences in choice reaction time between moderate‐ and light‐intensity aerobic exercise in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref58">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref59">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Regarding working memory, two studies focused on this cognitive domain in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities, both utilising the Corsi Test. One study found that participants exhibited improved working memory following 30 min of moderate‐intensity (60% HRR) aerobic exercise compared to a non‐exercise condition, but no positive effect was observed following resistance exercise (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref60">5</reflink>]). Another study reported no significant differences in working memory between light‐intensity and moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref61">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>Regarding inhibition, two studies targeted this cognitive domain in individuals with Down syndrome, employing either the Knock‐Tap or the flanker task. One study found that participants exhibited improved inhibition following 20 min of assisted cycling exercise compared to a non‐exercise group, but no significant effect was observed following 20 min of resistance exercise (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref62">41</reflink>]). Another study showed that participants demonstrated enhanced inhibition following 20 min of moderate‐intensity (56%–73% HRmax) aerobic exercise group relative to the non‐exercise group (Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref63">12</reflink>]).</p> <p>Regarding planning, two studies focused on this cognitive domain in individuals with Down syndrome. Both studies utilised the Tower of London Test, and neither reported significant improvement in planning following 30 min of voluntary cycling, assisted cycling exercise or resistance exercise, compared to the non‐exercise condition (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref64">40</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref65">41</reflink>]). Finally, one study addressed the impact of PA bouts on verbal fluency in individuals with Down syndrome. While no significant difference was found in phonetic fluency between moderate‐intensity (50%–69% HRmax), vigorous‐intensity (70%–85% HRmax) aerobic exercise and the non‐exercise group, participants demonstrated better semantic fluency performance following moderate‐intensity exercise compared to the non‐exercise group (Chen and Ringenbach [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref66">9</reflink>]). Table 1 presents an overview of the results of each study.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-18">Risk of Bias in Studies</hd> <p>Figure 2 presents the risk‐of‐bias judgements for randomised parallel‐group trials, while Figure 3 presents them for randomised cross‐over trials. Overall, potential biases were identified, particularly in relation to the randomisation process and missing outcome data. Although most studies (88%) reported random allocation of participants, only one study employed allocation concealment, suggesting potential allocation bias in the majority of the studies. Additionally, half of the studies (50%) demonstrated a bias related to missing outcome data due to participant withdrawal during HRmax measurements or the exercise intervention. However, none of the studies showed selection bias in the reporting of results, resulting in a classification of low risk of bias (100%) in this area, and low risks arising from period and carryover effects in the six cross‐over design studies. Finally, Figure 4 presents the risk‐of‐bias judgements for one non‐randomised study, which was scored based on the ROBINS‐I tool provided by Sterne et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref67">46</reflink>]). The interpretation of overall judgements is as follows: Low means that the study is comparable to a well‐performed randomised trial; Moderate means that the study appears to provide sound evidence for a non‐randomised study but cannot be considered comparable to a well‐performed randomised trial; Serious means that the study has some important problems.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/E03/01mar25/jar70026-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="jar70026-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 Risk‐of‐bias judgements for randomised parallel‐group trials." /> </p> <p></p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/E03/01mar25/jar70026-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="jar70026-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Risk‐of‐bias judgements for randomised cross‐over trials." /> </p> <p></p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/E03/01mar25/jar70026-fig-0004.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="jar70026-fig-0004.jpg" title="4 Risk‐of‐bias judgements for non‐randomised trials." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184768020-22">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to review the results of studies that investigated whether single bouts of physical activity would improve cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities. Eight studies were included, and the findings suggested that moderate‐intensity aerobic‐based physical activity resulted in positive effects on various cognitive domains, such as information processing speed, inhibition and working memory. However, the optimal intensity or types of physical activities for enhancing specific cognitive functions, and the effects on higher‐order EFs (e.g., planning), remain ambiguous due to the limited number of studies. Our findings are significant for parents, practitioners and teachers seeking to enhance daily performance in adolescents or young adults with mild intellectual disability or Down syndrome, ultimately improving their quality of life. Incorporating tailored physical exercise sessions, designed in terms of intensity and modality, may help facilitate learning, job performance and better behaviour regulation. Overall, the present study provides preliminary evidence of the positive effects on cognition resulting from single bouts of PA and underscores the need for a more rigorous study design with a feasible protocol to develop effective exercise prescriptions in this population.</p> <p>The present study found that adolescents and young adults with intellectual disabilities demonstrated better cognitive performance following single bouts of physical activity, especially 20–30 min of moderate‐intensity aerobic‐based physical activities relative to control groups or conditions. This finding aligns with previous review studies examining different populations, such as healthy individuals (Ludyga et al. [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref68">32</reflink>]) or children with ADHD (Chueh, Hsieh, et al. [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref69">14</reflink>]). These findings suggest that single bouts of moderate‐intensity physical activity can be an effective means of enhancing cognition in different populations. Improvements were observed within 10 min of ceasing physical activity, including enhanced information processing speed, working memory, verbal fluency and inhibitory control in adolescents and young adults with mild intellectual disabilities or Down syndrome (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref70">5</reflink>]; Chen and Ringenbach [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref71">9</reflink>]; Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref72">12</reflink>]). However, no significantly positive effects were observed in planning (Tower of London task) following a self‐selected intensity of voluntary cycling or assisted cycling exercises in individuals with Down syndrome (Ringenbach et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref73">40</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref74">41</reflink>]). The intensity of exercise in these two studies was considered "light" based on reported HR data (Garber et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref75">21</reflink>]). Given that enhancement in cognition resulting from single bouts of physical activity may correspond to an inverted‐U perspective (Pontifex et al. [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref76">39</reflink>]), which suggests that participants could receive greater cognitive benefits following moderate‐intensity physical activity rather than vigorous and light‐intensity physical activity, the intensity of exercise may have been too low to induce cognitive benefits in the planning task in these studies. Previous studies found that healthy young adults showed better planning performance following single 30‐min bouts of moderate‐intensity cycling exercise compared to control groups (Chang et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref77">8</reflink>]; Hung et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref78">28</reflink>]). Nevertheless, due to the small sample sizes in these limited studies and the lack of rigorous randomisation with concealed allocation in many of them, future research is needed to confirm this speculative argument.</p> <p>Among the included studies, few examined the acute effects of different intensities of physical activity on cognition. Interestingly, different intensities of aerobic exercise may result in distinct effects on various cognitive functions. Participants demonstrated better visual simple reaction times following moderate‐intensity exercise compared to light‐intensity exercise (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref79">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref80">1</reflink>]). Additionally, individuals with intellectual disabilities showed better improvement in semantic fluency performance after moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise compared to high‐intensity aerobic exercise (Chen and Ringenbach [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref81">9</reflink>]). These findings may correspond to the inverted‐U perspective. However, the positive effect of single bouts of physical activity on auditory simple reaction times was observed following the cessation of light‐intensity exercise but not moderate‐intensity exercise (Affes et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref83">1</reflink>]). Furthermore, there were no significant differences in choice reaction time and working memory performance between light‐intensity and moderate‐intensity physical activity and only one of the studies included a control group (Chen and Ringenbach [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref84">9</reflink>]). In addition, the minimum number of trials needed to reliably quantify reaction time depends on the type of cognitive assessment. For example, 18 trials are sufficient for simple reaction time tasks, whereas a choice reaction time task requires a minimum of 30 correct trials (Hamsher and Benton [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref85">22</reflink>]). Cognitive assessments with an insufficient number of trials are particularly problematic psychometrically because they cannot reliably determine if changes in performance reflect meaningful differences resulting from intervention or are simply due to random fluctuations in behaviour (Brown et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref86">6</reflink>]). As only 10 trials were determined for these reaction time task performances, it is necessary to examine whether the inverted‐U perspective of enhancements resulting from single bouts of physical activity is moderated by different cognitive domains in well‐established studies.</p> <p>To provide alternative exercise‐induced cognition options for individuals with intellectual disabilities, few studies have examined the effects of different modalities of physical activity on cognition, including resistance exercise and assisted cycling. Although previous studies found that resistance exercise facilitated information processing and working memory in healthy individuals (Hsieh et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref87">26</reflink>]; Lin et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref88">31</reflink>]), the favourable findings resulting from resistance exercise were not observed in individuals with intellectual disabilities. For example, Ringenbach et al. ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref89">41</reflink>]) found that assisted cycling improved inhibition, while resistance exercise did not show this benefit. Similarly, Borji et al. ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref90">5</reflink>]) observed that aerobic exercise (treadmill running) had positive effects on working memory, whereas resistance exercise did not. Compared to aerobic exercises such as cycling or treadmill running, resistance exercise involves greater task complexity. The lack of exercise‐induced cognitive benefits from resistance exercise in individuals with intellectual disabilities may be attributed to the unfamiliarity with resistance exercise protocols, leading to variability among participants and diminishing its positive effects. Nevertheless, resistance exercise seems to offer more cognitive benefits related to information processing compared to aerobic exercise (Borji et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref91">5</reflink>]). Thus, further studies are encouraged to include familiarisation sessions in resistance exercise protocols to effectively elucidate the relationship between resistance exercise and cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities.</p> <p>To advance future studies, we summarised the suggestions here based on the current literature. First, future studies are encouraged to increase the quality of studies by implementing rigorous randomisation with concealed allocation. Secondly, securing a sufficient sample size based on a prior power analysis could help avoid failing to detect the true effects. Thirdly, given that a small sample size is a common challenge for researchers working with individuals with intellectual disabilities, we suggest that researchers consider using a cross‐over design (within‐subject) recommended by Pontifex et al. ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref92">39</reflink>]). This design requires fewer participants to achieve the same level of precision in estimating intervention effects compared to a between‐subjects design. Additionally, since each participant acts as their own control, it reduces variability between participants (Dwan et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref93">18</reflink>]). Fourthly, increasing the number of trials in cognitive tests and considering the mental age (or levels of intellectual disabilities) when selecting suitable cognitive tasks could potentially reduce variability, thereby effectively revealing the true effects of PA on cognition. Fifthly, as chronotropic issues (such as in Down Syndrome) or a lack of motivation, the challenge of identifying maximum heart rate (HRmax) in individuals with intellectual disabilities can limit the design of prescribed exercise intensity aimed at enhancing cognition from single bouts of PA. Although no perfect method exists to determine HRmax in this population, researchers should employ relatively appropriate methods, such as the [210−0.56 (age)–31] formula proposed by Fernhall et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref94">20</reflink>]), to determine HRmax. Additionally, incorporating music during the testing session might serve as a feasible method to motivate participants to exert maximum effort (Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>]). This should also be accompanied by utilising suitable subjective questionnaires for this population, such as the modified rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale (Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref96">10</reflink>]), to better monitor exercise intensity during the exercise sessions. Sixthly, in the same vein, individuals with intellectual disabilities might experience discomfort during exercise sessions, particularly during moderate to vigorous intensity exercises, which could affect their engagement and willingness to participate. Future studies are encouraged to develop favourable exercise protocols that address this issue while still achieving the proposed cognitive benefits. For example, incorporating music during exercise (Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref97">11</reflink>]; Tsai et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref98">49</reflink>]), designing game‐based exercise (Benzing et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref99">4</reflink>]) or implementing challenging exercises (Chueh, Hung, et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref100">13</reflink>]) could enhance positive affective responses while maintaining sufficient intensity. All these suggestions aim to provide compelling evidence for establishing optimal exercise prescriptions for maximal cognitive benefits in this population.</p> <p>Finally, although this is the first study to systematically review the effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities, some limitations should be noted. First, while a floor effect may result in observable short‐term gains in individuals with intellectual disabilities following single bouts of physical activity, due to their lower cognitive baseline, these improvements remain valuable for transiently enhancing daily functioning in this population. However, the overall range of improvement may be limited due to inherent cognitive impairments. In other words, while short‐term gains are achievable, the extent of these improvements may be constrained, potentially limiting the long‐term cognitive benefits. This suggests that acute gains may not necessarily reflect long‐term potential improvements, which is acknowledged as a limitation of our findings. Secondly, due to the methodological heterogeneity of the included studies and limited evidence, this review was limited in performing a meta‐analysis to provide estimated effects or determine whether the observed effects are consistent across different etiologies of intellectual disabilities, such as Down Syndrome or mild to moderate intellectual disabilities, given their potentially different baseline cognitive performance (Inui et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref101">29</reflink>]). Thirdly, since the participants in the included studies were exclusively adolescents and young adults, the effects of single bouts of physical activity may not generalise to other age groups. These limitations could serve as references for future review studies on this issue.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-23">Conclusions</hd> <p>This study systematically reviewed the effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognition in individuals with intellectual disabilities, indicating that moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise positively impacts cognitive domains like information processing (i.e., reaction time tasks), inhibitory control and working memory in adolescents and young adults with intellectual disabilities. However, the optimal intensity and types of exercise for enhancing specific cognitive functions remain unclear. Overall, the study emphasises the need for more rigorous research to provide conclusive evidence on the cognitive enhancements resulting from a single bout of physical activity in individuals with intellectual disabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-24">Author Contributions</hd> <p> <bold>Ting‐Yu Chueh:</bold> conceptualisation, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, and writing – original draft. <bold>Jia‐Hao Wu</bold> and <bold>Wei‐Kang Hung:</bold> formal analysis, methodology and investigation. <bold>Cheng‐Chen Pan, Chien‐Chih Chou, Chung‐Ju Huang</bold> and <bold>Chien‐Ting Wu:</bold> validation and writing – review and editing.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-25">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>The authors have nothing to report.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-26">Consent</hd> <p>The authors have nothing to report.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-27">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0184768020-28">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>Datasets are available on request.</p> <p>GRAPH: Data S1.</p> <ref id="AN0184768020-29"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref28" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Funding: This study was partially supported by the University Social Responsibility Project of the Ministry of Education to the corresponding author.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0184768020-30"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Affes, S., R. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: The Effects of Single Bouts of Physical Activity on Cognition in Adolescents and Young Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ting-Yu+Chueh%22">Ting-Yu Chueh</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jia-Hao+Wu%22">Jia-Hao Wu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wei-Kang+Hung%22">Wei-Kang Hung</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Cheng-Chen+Pan%22">Cheng-Chen Pan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chien-Chih+Chou%22">Chien-Chih Chou</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chung-Ju+Huang%22">Chung-Ju Huang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Chien-Ting+Wu%22">Chien-Ting Wu</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Applied+Research+in+Intellectual+Disabilities%22"><i>Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities</i></searchLink>. 2025 38(2).
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 12
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Information Analyses
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intellectual+Disability%22">Intellectual Disability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activity+Level%22">Physical Activity Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Program+Effectiveness%22">Program Effectiveness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Physical+Activities%22">Physical Activities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Ability%22">Cognitive Ability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Cognitive+Processes%22">Cognitive Processes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Young+Adults%22">Young Adults</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mild+Intellectual+Disability%22">Mild Intellectual Disability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Moderate+Intellectual+Disability%22">Moderate Intellectual Disability</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/jar.70026
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1360-2322<br />1468-3148
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Background: Individuals with intellectual disabilities (ID) typically exhibit cognitive deficits. While single bouts of physical activity (PA) have shown cognitive benefits in typically developing individuals, the effects on those with ID are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of single bouts of PA on cognition in individuals with ID. Method: This registered review followed the PRISMA guidelines and searched for eligible studies on PubMed and Scopus. Results: Eight studies were included, showing that participants demonstrated transient improvements in cognition, including information processing speed, inhibition and working memory, following moderate aerobic-based intensity PA. However, findings regarding the optimal intensity or types of PA for enhancing specific cognitions, and the effects on higher-level cognition (e.g., planning), are limited. Conclusions: Single bouts of PA may transiently enhance cognition in adolescents and young adults with mild to moderate ID, but more rigorous research with a feasible protocol is required to refine exercise prescriptions for maximal cognitive benefits.
– Name: AbstractInfo
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  Data: As Provided
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  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1468806
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1468806
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1111/jar.70026
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 12
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Intellectual Disability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activity Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Program Effectiveness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Physical Activities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Ability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Cognitive Processes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Young Adults
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Mild Intellectual Disability
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Moderate Intellectual Disability
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Effects of Single Bouts of Physical Activity on Cognition in Adolescents and Young Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: A Systematic Review
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            NameFull: Ting-Yu Chueh
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            NameFull: Jia-Hao Wu
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            NameFull: Chien-Chih Chou
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            NameFull: Chung-Ju Huang
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            NameFull: Chien-Ting Wu
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              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1360-2322
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            – TitleFull: Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities
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