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A Quantitative Analysis of the Underrepresentation of Women on Green Occupational Programmes Groups within VET in Spain: A New Leaking Pipeline Phenomenon

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Title: A Quantitative Analysis of the Underrepresentation of Women on Green Occupational Programmes Groups within VET in Spain: A New Leaking Pipeline Phenomenon
Language: English
Authors: Mónica Moso-Diez (ORCID 0000-0002-0060-1549), Antonio Mondaca-Soto (ORCID 0000-0001-5876-8950), Juan P. Gamboa (ORCID 0000-0002-0775-1312), Itziar García-Blázquez (ORCID 0009-0006-8374-3935)
Source: International Journal of Training and Development. 2025 29(2):149-158.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Career and Technical Education, STEM Education, STEM Careers, Disproportionate Representation, Females, Environmental Education, Conservation (Environment), Gender Differences
Geographic Terms: Spain
DOI: 10.1111/ijtd.12350
ISSN: 1360-3736
1468-2419
Abstract: The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls leaving Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment--that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway--as well as retention--that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls to leave STEM fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment--that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway--as well as retention--that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The aim of this paper is to analyse the representation of women in green occupational groups, studying both their attraction to "green vocational education and training programmes" and their completion as well as their transition to the labour market. It is important to note that green vocational programmes are closely related to STEM vocational education and training (VET) programmes. In this sense, it is relevant to analyse whether the gender "leaking pipeline" phenomenon exists in green training programmes and occupational groups in the same way it does in STEM occupations. The quantitative breakdown by occupational group highlights a clear gender gap in female participation in GREEN VET programmes. Moreover, when women from green occupational groups enter the labour market, their employment conditions are systematically worse than those of men. It is worth noting the scarcity of studies on this issue, particularly quantitative ones, which indicates the limited scientific attention paid to analysing the gender gap in green vocational programmes and occupational groups.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1469905
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184927506;bpu01jun.25;2025May06.06:35;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184927506-1">A Quantitative Analysis of the Underrepresentation of Women on Green Occupational Programmes Groups Within VET in Spain: A New Leaking Pipeline Phenomenon </title> <p>The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls leaving Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment—that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway—as well as retention—that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls to leave STEM fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment—that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway—as well as retention—that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The aim of this paper is to analyse the representation of women in green occupational groups, studying both their attraction to "green vocational education and training programmes" and their completion as well as their transition to the labour market. It is important to note that green vocational programmes are closely related to STEM vocational education and training (VET) programmes. In this sense, it is relevant to analyse whether the gender "leaking pipeline" phenomenon exists in green training programmes and occupational groups in the same way it does in STEM occupations. The quantitative breakdown by occupational group highlights a clear gender gap in female participation in GREEN VET programmes. Moreover, when women from green occupational groups enter the labour market, their employment conditions are systematically worse than those of men. It is worth noting the scarcity of studies on this issue, particularly quantitative ones, which indicates the limited scientific attention paid to analysing the gender gap in green vocational programmes and occupational groups.</p> <p>Keywords: environmental sustainability; green programmes and occupational groups; vocational education and training; women</p> <hd id="AN0184927506-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Environmental sustainability is one of the cornerstones of sustainable development at both European and Spanish public policy levels, as is reflected in various short‐, medium‐ and long‐term policy strategies under both the European Green Deal (European Commission [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref1">13</reflink>]) and Spain's 2021–2030 integrated national energy and climate plan (Plan Nacional Integrado de Energía y Clima [PNIEC]; Ministerio para la Transición Económica y el Reto Demográfico [MITECO] [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref2">36</reflink>]). As part of this political and institutional commitment to achieving climate neutrality and greening the economy, the European Commission has assigned a key role to vocational education and training (VET), articulating this through the European Skills Agenda (European Commission [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref3">14</reflink>]) that states that only "high‐quality vocational education and training (VET) can equip young people and workers with the tools needed to thrive in a greener economy" (European Commission [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref4">15</reflink>], p. 5).</p> <p>One of the core elements of the green transition is, therefore, to ensure that workers have the appropriate training, skills and qualifications to green their professions, occupations and jobs in a context in which the economy, business and employment are all undergoing transformation. This strategy is aligned with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (UN [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref5">49</reflink>]), which state that the social dimension must be given equal consideration with the environment and the economy (European Council [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref6">17</reflink>]) to ensure that this transition does not leave anybody behind (e.g., women, ethnic minorities, persons at risk of exclusion and/or poverty, etc.). However, there are few instruments or indicators measuring how different groups are being integrated into the green transition. For example, in the case of women, under the European Gender Equality Strategy (2020–2025) currently under implementation in the Member States, the achievement of the main objectives is measured by indicators linked to ending gender‐based violence, eradicating gender stereotypes and closing labour market gender gaps in terms of participation in certain sectors, pay and pensions (COM [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref7">8</reflink>]). These objectives, however, are not directly and comprehensively linked to women's participation in the green transition (e.g., green education and training). In other words, the green and gender equality strategies coincide in terms of timing but are advancing in parallel rather than converging and intersecting (Allwood [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is for this reason that this article addresses women's participation in the green transition within the context of VET in Spain, examining in depth the VET pathways women follow and their subsequent integration into the labour market. The analysis of female participation in the dual digital and green transition has focused to a much greater extent on digitisation and technology (World Economic Forum [WEF] [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref9">52</reflink>])—examining the relevance of subjects linked to Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) (Buck et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]; Korbel [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref11">31</reflink>]; Makarem and Wang [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref12">33</reflink>]; Makarova, Aeschlimann, and Herzog [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref13">34</reflink>]; Sadler et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref14">44</reflink>]; Struthers and Strachan [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref15">48</reflink>])—than on the green transition (Pavlova [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref16">40</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref17">41</reflink>]; Persson Thunqvist, Gustavsson, and Halvarsson Lundqvist [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref18">42</reflink>]; Ray and Zarestky [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>]). In this regard, the studies and reports produced by multilateral institutions analysing women's participation and situation and the need to adapt their skills to the green transition (Cedefop and OECD [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref20">6</reflink>]; European Institute for Gender Equality [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref21">18</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>]; European Trade Union Committee for Education [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]; European Training Foundation [ETF] [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref24">21</reflink>]; Eurostat [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref25">22</reflink>]; International Labour Office [ILO] [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref26">27</reflink>]; UNESCO [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref27">50</reflink>]) are noteworthy. In general, research highlights the risk of women being excluded from this green transition for four main reasons. First, from the theoretical perspective of differential socialisation (Eccles, Jacobs, and Harold [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref28">12</reflink>]), the influence exerted by traditional gender roles based on cultural norms and social expectations that dissuade women from entering the STEM‐based professions that predominate the green occupational groups stands out particularly (Cedefop [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref29">5</reflink>]). Second, as indicated by the adage "you can't choose what you don't know", information and awareness play a major role when it comes to choosing a green occupation. In general, women have only limited awareness of the green job opportunities available to them (UNESCO‐UNEVOC [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref30">51</reflink>]). Third, long‐established educational pathways condition their participation. This is especially the case with GREEN VET programmes, which have a strong technology bias and tend to include STEM subjects, both areas in which women have historically been underrepresented (Buck et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref31">3</reflink>]; Christie et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref32">7</reflink>]; Moso‐Diez et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref33">38</reflink>]). This lack of foundational STEM education is coherent to lower female enrolment in GREEN VET programmes (Eurostat [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref34">22</reflink>]). Finally, the workplace environment is significant; since the green sectors tend to be masculinised, the cultures that develop in them do not always facilitate women's acceptance and integration. Similar to what happens in STEM educational programmes, this factor may dissuade women from pursuing careers in these fields (European Commission [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref35">14</reflink>]; Struthers and Strachan [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref36">48</reflink>]), which consequently leads to underrepresentation of women in the related labour market (Korbel [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref37">31</reflink>]; Makarem and Wang [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref38">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>The combination of factors that hinder female participation in GREEN VET programmes and occupations mirrors the situation in the STEM‐based groups. The low proportion of female STEM graduates is a constant in both secondary and tertiary education worldwide and is a function of the segregation of roles when considering STEM‐based academic and occupational pathways rather than female performance or aptitude in STEM subjects (Buck et al. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref39">3</reflink>]; Christie et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref40">7</reflink>]; Diekman, Weisgram, and Belanger [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref41">9</reflink>]; Sadler et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref42">44</reflink>]). This is exacerbated by the fact that STEM‐related professions are masculinised. These professions also typically generate greater economic value and are better paid (Struthers and Strachan [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref43">48</reflink>]). Research shows that while the percentage of female VET graduates from STEM programmes entering the labour market is steadily increasing, the same is not true of female retention in STEM occupations; the data show a significant decrease in number even just 1 year after graduation. Likewise, the career prospects for women who remain in these professions are poorer, with women holding just 12.4% of senior leadership positions (World Economic Forum [WEF] [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref44">52</reflink>]). This phenomenon is widely referred to as the "leaking pipeline" (Makarova, Aeschlimann, and Herzog [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref45">34</reflink>]), a metaphor that captures how the proportion of girls and young women pursuing vocations in science and technology steadily declines over time in both education and the workplace. Even when they hold STEM qualifications, a proportion of women switch from STEM to non‐STEM occupations, fleeing from male‐dominated environments to others with little prospect of career advancement (Makarova, Aeschlimann, and Herzog [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref46">34</reflink>]; World Economic Forum [WEF] [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref47">52</reflink>]). The challenge is therefore acute, as it is not only vital to attract more girls and young women to STEM programmes, but also to ensure that they remain in these occupations and develop fulfilling careers. A study of interest in this regard comparing data from Germany, Norway and Canada reveals that VET programmes are much more gender‐segregated than academic (e.g., university) ones (Imdorf et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref48">28</reflink>]). Other studies show that this situation is mirrored in the workplace (Doner and Schneider [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref49">11</reflink>]; Sevilla [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref50">45</reflink>]). As a result, women are underrepresented in STEM subjects and occupations (Korbel [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref51">31</reflink>]; Makarem and Wang [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref52">33</reflink>]).</p> <p>Turning to the concept of green jobs and the numerous taxonomies proposed (Janta, Kritikos, and Clack [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref53">30</reflink>]), there is an ongoing debate regarding their scope and composition since most definitions focus on the cognitive and competency‐based dimensions rather than on those of equality, equity and justice (Kwauk and Casey [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref54">32</reflink>]). From a political and institutional perspective, two main approaches to greening the labour market are being pursued at the international level: the first is the one proposed by the ILO, which addresses green jobs from the macro and sectoral standpoints; the other is the one proposed by the European Commission and Cedefop, which associates green skills with the micro‐ and competency‐based perspectives. The first approach (green jobs) (ILO [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref55">25</reflink>]) concerns jobs linked to the sectors at the heart of the green economy: climate change mitigation and adaptation, and biodiversity protection and regeneration. This sector‐based view of employment extends to economic activities linked to renewable energy, energy efficiency, the circular economy, natural resource management and so forth (Stevens et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref56">47</reflink>]). All these involve jobs capable of catalysing and transforming economies, firms and labour markets in pursuit of environmental sustainability and climate change mitigation (ILO [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref57">26</reflink>]) and analysis spans the macro (sector) and meso (job) levels. The second political‐institutional approach, based on the competency‐based perspective, advocates making green skills the cornerstones on which to build lifelong learning (Cedefop [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref58">4</reflink>]). This comprehensive approach is initiated at the microlevel and takes skills as the basic development unit before cumulatively and modularly adding competences within the occupational framework. This competency‐based approach has been placed at the heart of European policy through the European Skills Agenda, which calls "skills for the green economy", referring to "the knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes needed to live, work and act in economies and societies seeking to reduce the impact of human activity on the environment" (p. 1). Within this framework, the European Skills, Competences, and Occupations classification identifies and adopts the required technical and cross‐cutting competences (European Commission [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref59">16</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although these approaches are of interest and contribute to studies into the greening of the economy and the labour market, in Spain it is the green jobs approach that forms the backbone of the VET system. This is articulated through groups of qualifications linked to sectors, such as farming, the food industry, retail, construction, energy and water, hospitality and tourism, healthcare, and social, cultural, and community services, among others. Some vocational programmes—such as business administration and management, and Electricity and Electronics—are cross‐cutting and, from a sectoral perspective, are considered complementary to the other occupational programmes. It is for this reason that when analysing female participation in GREEN VET programmes we do so from the perspective of green jobs (ILO [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref60">26</reflink>]), which is reflected in the taxonomy used by Spain's VET Observatory (Moso‐Diez et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref61">37</reflink>]) and is extended by the complementary sectors proposed under the country's PNIEC and will be reflected in the methodology section.</p> <p>This paper therefore examines female participation in GREEN VET programmes and their transition into employment in the Spanish context. To this end, women's access to GREEN VET is first characterised to then enable an analysis of the training and qualification pathways and levels selected. Next, their integration into the labour market in the Spanish context is analysed in comparative terms based on the type of contract and quality of employment (e.g., salary and conditions).</p> <hd id="AN0184927506-3">Methodology</hd> <p>The methodology consists of conducting a quantitative analysis of data gathered from secondary sources (Educabase; Spanish Ministry of Education, Vocational Education and Training and Sports [MEFD]), analysing five academic years' data (2018/2019–2022/2023) taken from the latest figures available (Ministerio de Educación, Formación Profesional y Deportes [MEFD] [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref62">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>The initial reference taken is the GREEN VET programme taxonomy produced by Spain's VET Observatory ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref63">46</reflink>]), which is based on the methodology for defining green occupations proposed by Moso‐Diez et al. ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref64">37</reflink>]) and which has been revised and extended in line with the priorities set out in Spain's 2021–2030 PNIEC. The cornerstones of this taxonomy are two distinct classes of business activity that could be considered green (ILO [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref65">25</reflink>]): the classification of environmental protection activities (CEPA) and the classification of resource management activities (CReMA). These classifications contain the distinct activities described by Fernández Gómez and Larrea Basterra ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref66">23</reflink>])—75 activities grouped into 9 categories in the case of the CEPA and 10 activities in the case of the CReMA (Moso‐Diez et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref67">37</reflink>]). In addition, these two classifications were supplemented by the economic activities prioritised by the 2021–2030 PNIEC, which include the value chains associated with green manufacturing and sustainable mobility. The basic unit of analysis used to identify the green occupational groups is the vocational qualification and its relationship to the activities involving environmental goods and services, farming, sustainable construction and green manufacturing and mobility. These qualifications are defined as "a set of standards of competence relevant to employment that can be acquired through modular or other types of training and work experience (Royal Decree 1128/2003 of 5 September 2003 regulating the national catalogue of vocational qualifications" (BOE [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref68">2</reflink>]). Thus, out of a total of 26 VET training programmes, 10 are considered green (equivalent to 38.4%). The green programmes proposed are (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref69">1</reflink>) Farming, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref70">2</reflink>) Building and Civil Works, (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref71">3</reflink>) Electricity and Electronics, (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref72">4</reflink>) Energy and Water, (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref73">5</reflink>) Machine Manufacture, (<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref74">6</reflink>) Equipment Installation and Maintenance, (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref75">7</reflink>) Marine and Fisheries, (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref76">8</reflink>) Chemicals, (<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref77">9</reflink>) Safety and Environment and (<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref78">10</reflink>) Transport and Vehicle Maintenance (INCUAL [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref79">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Once the taxonomy of green programmes and related activities to green goods and services within the VET framework has been selected, female participation in two broad areas—education and employment—is examined.</p> <p>First, women's access to VET is quantitatively analysed by VET qualification level (Basic, Intermediate and Higher), considering both GREEN VET occupational groups and individual programmes. Likewise, female participation in Dual VET and on‐the‐job training—the nature of which varies considerably depending on the contact hours, learning methods and in‐company monitoring of the teaching–learning process—is studied. Second, the GREEN VET qualifications gained by women are then likewise analysed quantitatively. Next, a comparative analysis between men and women is performed to reveal the programmes' efficiency in terms of completion versus the courses' theoretical duration within each occupational group. It also shows the potential inflow of qualified candidates entering green occupations. Third, women's transition into the world of work is analysed quantitatively by examining female employment levels 4 years after graduating and comparing that figure—in the Spanish context—with the equivalent for men. An overview of the labour market in terms of female VET graduates working in both green and nongreen occupations is then presented to ascertain the differential value, comparing the situation with that of their male counterparts. Finally, the remuneration paid to women employed in the Spanish labour market is examined quantitatively, again comparing it with that of men.</p> <p>The study closes with the conclusions reached in terms of female representation in GREEN VET and the labour market, assessing these data both quantitatively and in terms of percentage participation and employment quality.</p> <hd id="AN0184927506-4">Results and Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184927506-5">Female Access to GREEN VET Programmes: Talent Attraction</hd> <p>The indicator used to measure access to GREEN VET programmes is enrolment, which is analysed over five academic years (2018/2019–2022/2023) to identify the proportion of female students enrolled in the three different levels of Initial VET. This indicator reveals these courses' attractiveness to women and their level of participation in them. The overview of GREEN VET graduates reveals three issues of interest.</p> <p>First, as Table 1 shows 20.9% of the people enrolled in VET signed up for green programmes (226,138 students out of a total of 1,080,963 enrolled in the 2022/2023 academic year), a figure that has declined by almost 3% over the last five academic years. Female students enrolled in GREEN VET or green occupational groups (of which there are 10) accounted for 5.2% of the total number of female VET students. This reveals a significant gender imbalance across the board since women represent 46.5% of VET students overall (across 26 programmes).</p> <p>1 Table Female enrolment in VET and GREEN‐based VET by level of education (2018/2019–2022/2023 academic years).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Indicator</th><th>2018/2019</th><th>2021/2022</th><th>2022/2023</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Total VET enrolment</td><td>837,199</td><td>1,027,367</td><td>1,080,963</td></tr><tr><td align="left">% of total women enrolled in VET (%)</td><td align="center">44.4</td><td>45.9</td><td>46.5</td></tr><tr><td>Total GREEN VET enrolment</td><td>198,435</td><td>223,525</td><td>226,329</td></tr><tr><td>(%)</td><td>23.7</td><td>21.8</td><td>20.9</td></tr><tr><td>Total female GREEN VET enrolment</td><td>19,608</td><td>24,673</td><td>26,138</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Women enrolled in GREEN VET as a % of total women enrolled in VET (%)</td><td align="center">5.3</td><td>5.2</td><td>5.2</td></tr><tr><td align="left">% of women enrolled in GREEN VET as a % of total GREEN VET (%)</td><td align="center">9.9</td><td>11</td><td>11.5</td></tr><tr><td>Total female enrolment in Higher GREEN VET% of total women enrolled in GREEN VET (%)</td><td>12,549</td><td>15,863</td><td>16,787</td></tr><tr><td align="center">64.0</td><td>64.3</td><td>64.2</td></tr><tr><td>Total female enrolment in Intermediate GREEN VET% of total women enrolled in GREEN VET (%)</td><td>5499</td><td>7142</td><td>7568</td></tr><tr><td align="center">28.0</td><td>28.9</td><td>29.0</td></tr><tr><td>Total female enrolment in Basic GREEN VET% of total women enrolled in GREEN VET (%)</td><td>1560</td><td>1668</td><td>1783</td></tr><tr><td align="center">8.0</td><td>6.8</td><td>6.8</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</p> <p>2 <emph>Source:</emph> Observatorio de la FP ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref80">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>Second, looking solely at green programmes, female enrolment stands at 11.5%, indicating the extent of masculinisation—despite the fact that female participation rose by 1.5% over the preceding five academic years—and well below the 30% indicated by the Duncan Segregation Index as the minimum percentage indicating "non‐masculinisation" (Imdorf et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref81">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Third, analysing the breakdown of female Green enrolment by the three Initial VET levels (Basic, Intermediate and Higher) reveals that practically two‐thirds (64.2%) were enrolled in Higher VET in the 2022/2023 academic year, with female participation being the greatest in the most sophisticated and highly specialised level of GREEN VET.</p> <p>Fourth, the proportion of female enrolees in the GREEN VET programme group also shows an imbalance, revealing three participation intensities: female majority; female minority, nonmasculinised; and female minority, masculinised. Majority participation refers to when more than half of the students enrolled in the courses are women, as is the case in the Chemicals group, where women account for 57.3% of the total (the only case in which this occurs). Female minority, nonmasculinised refers to when women account for less than half of the enrolees, but participation remains above the 30% masculinisation level (Imdorf et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref82">28</reflink>]), as is the case with Safety and Environment (36.5%) and Building and Civil Works (31.9%). Finally, female minority, masculinised is when women make up less than 30% of the students enrolled in a course, as occurs in Farming (24.1%), Energy and Water (10.1%), Maritime and Fisheries (8.6%), Machine Manufacture (5.9%), Transport and Vehicle Maintenance (3.9%) and Equipment Installation and Maintenance (3.4%). Most of the programmes are therefore masculinised, although there are some that are not. This suggests that alternative strategies should be used to attract women to this type of Green vocational training grouping.</p> <p>Fifth, as Table 2 shows there is a high concentration of female students (59.8%) in three VET programmes: Chemicals, Safety and Environment, and Farming, it indicates that subjects related to the natural sciences, such as chemistry, biology, biodiversity and so forth, are more attractive to women than those with greater emphasis on technology and engineering, which currently constitute the masculinised programmes that only 19.9% of the female students enrolled in GREEN VET programmes selected. It is particularly striking that only 1.8% of the women enrolled in green programmes chose the Energy and Water option, which is at the core of the greening of the Spanish economy.</p> <p>2 Table Enrolment in GREEN occupational programmes (2022/2023 academic year).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>Total GREEN VET students</th><th>Women as % of total students in each occupational group</th><th align="center">% of total women enrolled in GREEN VET</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th align="center"><italic>n</italic></th><th>% (horizontal)</th><th><italic>n</italic></th><th>% (vertical)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Farming</td><td>22,485</td><td>24.1</td><td>5428</td><td>20.8</td></tr><tr><td>Building and Civil Works</td><td>7148</td><td>31.9</td><td>2280</td><td>8.7</td></tr><tr><td>Electricity and Electronics</td><td>65,086</td><td>4.7</td><td>3042</td><td>11.6</td></tr><tr><td>Energy and Water</td><td>4571</td><td>10.1</td><td>462</td><td>1.8</td></tr><tr><td>Machine Manufacture</td><td>26,835</td><td>5.9</td><td>1571</td><td>6.0</td></tr><tr><td>Equipment Installation and Maintenance</td><td>24,787</td><td>3.4</td><td>850</td><td>3.3</td></tr><tr><td>Marine and Fisheries</td><td>3560</td><td>8.6</td><td>307</td><td>1.2</td></tr><tr><td>Chemicals</td><td>11,522</td><td>57.3</td><td>6597</td><td>25.2</td></tr><tr><td>Safety and Environment</td><td>9899</td><td>36.5</td><td>3616</td><td>13.8</td></tr><tr><td>Transport and Vehicle Maintenance</td><td>50,436</td><td>3.9</td><td>1985</td><td>7.6</td></tr><tr><td>Total GREEN VET</td><td>226,329</td><td>11.5</td><td>26,138</td><td>100.0</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>3 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>4 <emph>Source:</emph> Observatorio de la FP ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref83">39</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <p>Sixth, female participation in the two forms of alternance learning (combining school‐based learning and work‐based learning) included in Spain's initial VET system is analysed. In the period under study, two forms of alternance learning were available in Spain. The first option is on‐the‐job training (or nondual mode), which is configured as a 400‐h module and is provided in the second year of the training programme. Under this approach, the ultimate responsibility for learning lies with the VET school. The other option is Dual VET, which is closer to a work‐based learning approach, not only because the students spend longer in the host business, but also because the company plays a greater role both in the teaching–learning process and in the assessment of that process and its outcomes. This alternance learning pathway is currently under review and will change from the 2024/2025 academic year onwards. It is nonetheless of interest to assess the data up to the 2022/2023 academic year to determine whether female participation was greater in on‐the‐job training or Dual VET, especially since Dual VET offers relational and experiential advantages that have greater value in terms of the transition to employment.</p> <p>Table 3 shows that Dual VET's share of total VET enrolment is low and accounted for under 5% in the last academic year in the series (2022/2023), though it did exhibit a slight increase (1.8%) over the five academic years analysed. Interestingly, the data show much greater Dual VET take‐up in the green programmes, where 37.7% of students enrolled in this option. In the case of women, the proportion is less than half (13.4%), placing them in a minority when it comes to accessing this more intensive form of alternance learning. It is also evident that specialisation is a particularly attractive component of green Dual VET programmes. In fact, 3 out of every 4 female students on Dual VET courses were enrolled in Higher VET, 10 percentage points higher than their enrolment in this VET level overall.</p> <p>3 Table Enrolment in Dual VET and Dual GREEN VET by VET level (2018/2019–2022/2023 academic years).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>2018/2019</th><th>2021/2022</th><th>2022/2023</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Total Dual VET enrolment, n</td><td>26,340</td><td>45,613</td><td>53,343</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Dual VET enrolments as a % of total enrolments (%)</td><td align="center">3.1</td><td>4.4</td><td>4.9</td></tr><tr><td>Total Dual GREEN VET enrolment, n</td><td>10,078</td><td>17,236</td><td>20,101</td></tr><tr><td>(%)</td><td>38.3</td><td>37.8</td><td>37.7</td></tr><tr><td>Total female enrolment in Dual GREEN VET, n</td><td>1080</td><td>2275</td><td>2696</td></tr><tr><td>(%)</td><td>10.7</td><td>13.2</td><td>13.4</td></tr><tr><td>Female enrolment in Higher Dual GREEN VET, n% of total women enrolled in Dual GREEN VET (%)</td><td>868</td><td>1699</td><td>2019</td></tr><tr><td align="center">80.4</td><td>74.7</td><td>74.9</td></tr><tr><td>Female enrolment in Intermediate Dual GREEN VET, n% of total women enrolled in Dual GREEN VET (%)</td><td>194</td><td>536</td><td>644</td></tr><tr><td align="center">18.0</td><td>23.6</td><td>23.9</td></tr><tr><td>Female enrolment in Basic Dual GREEN VET, n% of total women enrolled in Dual GREEN VET (%)</td><td>18</td><td>40</td><td>33</td></tr><tr><td align="center">1.7</td><td>1.8</td><td>1.2</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>5 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>6 <emph>Source:</emph> Observatorio de la FP ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref84">39</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <p>In general terms, female participation in green vocational programmes is considerably lower than that of males, indicating marked underrepresentation. Most of the GREEN VET programmes are masculinised, creating a masculinised environment and dynamics that are not attractive to women. Apart from three occupational programmes, female participation in GREEN VET courses was below 30%, which, according to the Duncan Segregation Index (Imdorf et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref85">28</reflink>]), tilts the balance towards masculinisation of the flow of graduates entering the workplace. This masculinised group and classroom dynamic within Spain's Initial VET system reflects a masculinised educational environment that continues into a masculinised workplace. Green occupations' lack of attractiveness to women is influenced by their STEM component and is deeply rooted in gender stereotypes propagated both in families and in society at large by boys' and girls' differential socialisation from an early age (Eccles, Jacobs, and Harold [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref86">12</reflink>]). This process may result in women being less likely to pursue careers in the engineering and green fields because socialisation does not encourage them to enter these realms (Dökme, Açıksöz, and Koyunlu Ünlü [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref87">10</reflink>]; Freeman, Marginson, and Tytler [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref88">24</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184927506-6">Female Completion Rate on GREEN VET Programmes: Process Efficiency</hd> <p>When analysing the efficiency of the teaching–learning process, the completion rate is of interest because it indicates the proportion of students who graduate within the theoretical qualification term (two academic years), thus setting the number of graduates in an academic year against total enrolments in the previous academic year. The number of first‐year students is obtained by dividing the number of students in the academic year of interest by two to calculate the completion rates for a 3‐year academic period (2018/2019–2021/2022).</p> <p>As Table 4 shows the first finding of interest is that the average completion rates among students on GREEN VET programmes (56.7%) was below the overall average for VET (62.8%) in the 2021/2022 academic year, which in turn was very similar to that of 2018/2019. As regards the 2020/2021 academic year, there was a significant increase, which could be explained by the impact of COVID‐19 and the issues arising in the assessment processes. In line with this, in the last academic year for which data are available the completion rate was below the average, indicating that the efficiency of the training process has room for improvement. The figure for women overall, however, was slightly above the average, revealing that female training efficiency was greater than that of males as regards GREEN VET programme completion. This broadly matches with the scientific literature that shows that women's lack of attraction to these programmes, which have high proportions of STEM content, is more closely linked to cultural, awareness and gender bias issues than to their ability in these subjects. Underrepresentation of women is, therefore, a consequence of the low level of enrolment in these disciplines and not of women's performance or ability (Diekman, Weisgram, and Belanger [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref89">9</reflink>]; Sadler et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref90">44</reflink>]).</p> <p>4 Table Comparison of completion rates: Completion rate over three academic years (2018/2019–2021/2022).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>2018/2019</th><th>2020/2021</th><th>2021/2022</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Total VET completion rate (%)</td><td>62.1</td><td>70.9</td><td>62.8</td></tr><tr><td>Total GREEN completion rate (%)</td><td>56.9</td><td>66.1</td><td>56.7</td></tr><tr><td>GREEN VET completion rate (female total) (%)</td><td>62.0</td><td>69.0</td><td>57.2</td></tr><tr><td>GREEN VET completion rate (male total) (%)</td><td>56.4</td><td>65.6</td><td>56.6</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>7 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>8 <emph>Source:</emph> Observatorio de la FP ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref91">39</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0184927506-7">Employability of Female GREEN VET Graduates: Labour Transition Effectiveness</hd> <p>Quantitative analysis of women's employability once they graduate from GREEN VET programmes is performed on two indicators: the first is women's incorporation into the labour market as employees, while the second examines salaries from a gender perspective based on data available from official sources.</p> <p>First, the employability indicators presented are measured against the data available on Social Security affiliation by occupational group available from Spain's Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sport (Table 5). This indicator is of interest since over 95% of the people working in these occupational groups in Spain do so as employees. The analysis focuses on graduates, separated by gender, who graduated in the 2018/2019 academic year and were making Social Security contributions in both the first and fourth years subsequent to that date. The data were analysed according to the type of occupational group (GREEN and NON‐GREEN) and level of educational attainment (Intermediate or Higher). The data reveal three key facts.</p> <p>5 Table Percentage of employed Intermediate VET graduates making Social Security contributions by the first and fourth years after graduation, broken down into GREEN and NON‐GREEN occupational groups (2018/2019 cohort).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Intermediate VET</th><th>Total<ext-link href="a" /></th><th>Total men</th><th align="center">Total women</th></tr><tr><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>GREEN<ext-link href="b" /></td><td>43.1</td><td>73.8</td><td>43.4</td><td>74.1</td><td>37.9</td><td>68.9</td></tr><tr><td>NON‐GREEN</td><td>41.6</td><td>67.2</td><td>35.4</td><td>65.8</td><td>45.7</td><td>68.2</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>9 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>10 a The original EducaBase values are expressed in percentages. The "Total" row shows the average for all occupational groups and is therefore constructed from various denominators ("<emph>n</emph>" number of graduates in each occupational group). Calculating an average from percentages requires weightings based on the total number of graduates per occupational group. These weightings are set out in the formula "GREEN AND NON‐GREEN means".</item> <item>11 b Does not include Maritime and Fisheries or Safety and Environment.</item> <item>12 <emph>Source:</emph> Adapted from Educabase, Spanish Ministry of Education, Vocational Education and Training and Sports (MEFD [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref92">35</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <p>On the one side, at the macrolevel, it is evident that labour market insertion is greater among GREEN VET graduates than among NON‐GREEN VET ones, especially by the fourth year after graduation. The exception is women holding intermediate‐level GREEN VET qualifications, for whom labour insertion is 8% lower than it is for women with other qualifications. This situation improves by the fourth year after graduation, with employability rising by 31 percentage points to stand slightly above the figure for female NON‐GREEN VET graduates. In this regard, it can be affirmed that female graduates of green Intermediate VET programmes encounter a doubly wide gap in their first year in the labour market, as the data show that their Social Security affiliation rate is lower than that of both male GREEN VET graduates and female NON‐GREEN VET graduates.</p> <p>On the other side, in the case of Higher VET (Table 6), although female graduates with green qualifications have a higher rate of employment than female graduates of other VET programmes, the difference is not as great as it is among men. This indicates that the differential value for female GREEN VET graduates versus female graduates as a whole is low. They are likewise at a disadvantage compared to men: the percentage of employed women is 5.6 points lower in the first year and 6.2 points lower by the fourth year after graduating. There is, therefore, a green labour insertion gender gap among Higher VET graduates (Table 7).</p> <p>6 Table Percentage of employed Higher VET graduates making Social Security contributions by the first and fourth years after graduation, broken down into GREEN and NON‐GREEN occupational groups (2018/2019 cohort).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Higher VET</th><th>Total VET<ext-link href="a" /></th><th>Total men</th><th align="center">Total women</th></tr><tr><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th><th>First year (%)</th><th>Fourth year (%)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>GREEN<ext-link href="b" /></td><td>60.8</td><td>73.9</td><td>61.6</td><td>74.8</td><td>56.0</td><td>68.4</td></tr><tr><td>NON‐GREEN</td><td>53.2</td><td>68.8</td><td>54.1</td><td>70.3</td><td>52.6</td><td>67.7</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>13 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>14 a The same as indicated in Table 5.</item> <item>15 b Does not include Energy and Water.</item> <item>16 <emph>Source:</emph> Adapted from Educabase, Spanish Ministry of Education, Vocational Education and Training and Sports (MEFD [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref93">35</reflink>]).</item> <item>7 Table Distribution by tax base among full‐time employees making Social Security contributions in the green occupational groups four years after graduating, broken down by gender and VET level (2018/2019 cohort).</item> </ulist> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>GREEN VET</th><th /><th /><th /><th /></tr><tr><th>VET qualification level</th><th>Total</th><th>Men</th><th>Women</th><th>Difference (gender gap)</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Intermediate VET (€)</td><td>23,206</td><td>23,599</td><td>21,916</td><td>−1683</td></tr><tr><td>Higher VET (€)</td><td>25,772</td><td>26,268</td><td>24,462</td><td>−1806</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>17 Abbreviation: VET, vocational education and training.</item> <item>18 <emph>Source:</emph> Adapted from Educabase, Spanish Ministry of Education, Vocational Education and Training and Sports (MEFD [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref94">35</reflink>]).</item> </ulist> <p>Moreover, the data show that time is a key factor as regards labour market insertion for holders of green qualifications. This is particularly the case among female Intermediate VET graduates, where the difference in employment levels between the first and fourth year after graduating stands at practically 30 percentage points.</p> <p>Second, we present the salary indicator—based on the official basis of the full‐time employees making Social Security contributions and broken down by gender—for the 2018/2019 cohort 4 years after graduating. This reveals a gender‐based wage gap, showing that both female Intermediate VET graduates and female Higher VET graduates earn less on average (−€1683 and −€1806, respectively) than their male counterparts.</p> <p>Finally, the data on female GREEN VET graduates' transition into the labour market show both their underrepresentation versus men in general and their disadvantage in terms of employment levels and salaries. The analysis demonstrates that while the proportion of women attracted to GREEN VET programmes is increasing slightly, the career prospects in terms of employment and salary are lower, making it difficult for these green occupations to retain female employees. The "leaking pipeline" phenomenon (Makarova, Aeschlimann, and Herzog [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref95">34</reflink>]) that occurs in STEM‐based programmes within the VET system is therefore replicated in the case of green occupational groups. As a result, women are underrepresented in STEM subjects and occupations (Korbel [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref96">31</reflink>]; Makarem and Wang [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref97">33</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0184927506-8">Conclusion</hd> <p>The gender gap remains in place and continues to influence the attraction, inflow and employability of GREEN VET graduates in the Spanish labour market. Female underrepresentation is evident along the entire educational pathway and extends to the labour market. It begins with access to training and participation in green programmes and continues into the world of work. That underrepresentation reflects social, educational and workplace biases, given that women's academic achievement in terms of completion rates are higher than those of men.</p> <p>Most of the GREEN VET programmes are masculinised, creating a masculinised environment and dynamic that is not attractive to women. Apart from three occupational programmes, female participation in GREEN VET was below 30%, which, according to the Duncan Segregation Index (Imdorf et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref98">28</reflink>]), tilts the balance towards masculinisation of the flow of graduates entering the labour market. This masculinised group and classroom dynamic within Spain's Initial VET system reflects a masculinised educational environment that continues into a masculinised workplace.</p> <p>It is important to highlight that the extensive STEM component of green occupations and education programmes is reflected in VET system content, meaning that the gender gap in STEM is replicated in green programmes. While this is especially the case in the more technology‐ and engineering‐intensive GREEN VET, it is less in the GREEN VET focusing on the natural sciences, such as chemistry, where women constitute the majority. The influence of earlier STEM‐based educational pathways is therefore seen in access to GREEN VET programmes, meaning that efforts to reverse this situation need to be far‐reaching and extend to early intervention at the individual, family and social levels through academic–vocational guidance, to curriculum design and to family and social awareness, among other strategies. The gap in educational pathways is therefore doubly wide and spans both green and STEM themes.</p> <p>The level of specialisation further reinforces female underrepresentation in both GREEN VET programmes and green employment in Spain. Women's underrepresentation in green programmes is less marked in Higher VET (ISCED 5) than in Intermediate VET (ISCED 3) as regards enrolment and completion, subsequent employment and remuneration. The fact that women are worse positioned than men in the various aspects analysed demonstrates that the gender gap widens as the qualification level falls. Addressing that calls for specific action to strengthen female representation in positions requiring green Intermediate VET qualifications, given that this group suffers the greatest exclusion under the green transition.</p> <p>Women's incorporation into employment is characterised by their disadvantage versus men on all the parameters analysed and both at the time of graduation and in subsequent years. Moreover, in terms of initial employment, the differential value for women between green and nongreen qualifications is minimal, especially among women with Intermediate VET qualifications, a factor that may make taking this type of course less attractive to women. All the reasons stated above make evident the existence of the "leaking pipeline" phenomenon that extends from education to employment, where female underrepresentation is a constant and where the proportion of female participants steadily declines, presenting a structural challenge to Spain's green transition.</p> <p>Finally, it is important to note that further research and analysis are needed at the Spanish, European and international levels. It is also essential to highlight the limitations on access to data (and mainly to microdata) that make it not possible to fully trace women's pathways and their various transitions (principally in the realms of education and employment) in the context of the green transition. Likewise, the lack of standardisation between GREEN VET programmes and occupations poses a barrier to comparative analysis. Consequently, this research group will continue to work in this direction while remaining cognisant of the limitations it faces.</p> <ref id="AN0184927506-9"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref8" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Special Issue on Skills for Local Sustainability Transformations and Development of the International Journal Training and Development.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0184927506-10"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Allwood, G. 2022. " The EU's Transition to Climate Justice and Gender Equality." In How Just and How Equal. Policy Brief. Brussels : Foundation for European Progressive Studies. https://feps-europe.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2022/06/FINAL_DIGITAL_21.6.22_How_just_and_how_equal.pdf.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref68" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> BOE. 2003. 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  Data: A Quantitative Analysis of the Underrepresentation of Women on Green Occupational Programmes Groups within VET in Spain: A New Leaking Pipeline Phenomenon
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Mónica+Moso-Diez%22">Mónica Moso-Diez</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0060-1549">0000-0002-0060-1549</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Antonio+Mondaca-Soto%22">Antonio Mondaca-Soto</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5876-8950">0000-0001-5876-8950</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Juan+P%2E+Gamboa%22">Juan P. Gamboa</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0775-1312">0000-0002-0775-1312</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Itziar+García-Blázquez%22">Itziar García-Blázquez</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0009-0006-8374-3935">0009-0006-8374-3935</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22International+Journal+of+Training+and+Development%22"><i>International Journal of Training and Development</i></searchLink>. 2025 29(2):149-158.
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: 10
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+and+Technical+Education%22">Career and Technical Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22STEM+Education%22">STEM Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22STEM+Careers%22">STEM Careers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Disproportionate+Representation%22">Disproportionate Representation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Females%22">Females</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Environmental+Education%22">Environmental Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Conservation+%28Environment%29%22">Conservation (Environment)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink>
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  Label: Geographic Terms
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spain%22">Spain</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1111/ijtd.12350
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1360-3736<br />1468-2419
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls leaving Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment--that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway--as well as retention--that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The "leaky pipeline" metaphor describes the greater likelihood of women and girls to leave STEM fields at every point, relative to men and boys. Gender disparities occur both in recruitment--that is, who chooses to enter a STEM pathway--as well as retention--that is, who chooses to persist in a STEM major or occupation. In addition, women who persist in STEM careers are less likely than men to reach top levels of leadership in those careers. The aim of this paper is to analyse the representation of women in green occupational groups, studying both their attraction to "green vocational education and training programmes" and their completion as well as their transition to the labour market. It is important to note that green vocational programmes are closely related to STEM vocational education and training (VET) programmes. In this sense, it is relevant to analyse whether the gender "leaking pipeline" phenomenon exists in green training programmes and occupational groups in the same way it does in STEM occupations. The quantitative breakdown by occupational group highlights a clear gender gap in female participation in GREEN VET programmes. Moreover, when women from green occupational groups enter the labour market, their employment conditions are systematically worse than those of men. It is worth noting the scarcity of studies on this issue, particularly quantitative ones, which indicates the limited scientific attention paid to analysing the gender gap in green vocational programmes and occupational groups.
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  Data: 2025
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1469905
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        Value: 10.1111/ijtd.12350
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 149
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career and Technical Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: STEM Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: STEM Careers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Disproportionate Representation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Females
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      – SubjectFull: Environmental Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Conservation (Environment)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spain
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: A Quantitative Analysis of the Underrepresentation of Women on Green Occupational Programmes Groups within VET in Spain: A New Leaking Pipeline Phenomenon
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            NameFull: Mónica Moso-Diez
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            NameFull: Antonio Mondaca-Soto
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            NameFull: Juan P. Gamboa
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Itziar García-Blázquez
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 06
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1360-3736
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1468-2419
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 29
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: International Journal of Training and Development
              Type: main
ResultId 1