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Longitudinal Associations with Positivity, Quarantining and Pass/Fail Policy Use on Student GPAs during the First Three Semesters of the Pandemic

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Title: Longitudinal Associations with Positivity, Quarantining and Pass/Fail Policy Use on Student GPAs during the First Three Semesters of the Pandemic
Language: English
Authors: Samantha Nazione, Lauren R. Heller, Anna Vredeveld, Casey A. Dexter, Michael McElveen
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(4):1454-1462.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Tests/Questionnaires
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: College Students, Grade Point Average, COVID-19, Pandemics, School Closing, Pass Fail Grading, Health Behavior, Stress Variables, Student Satisfaction, Grade Inflation, Low Income Students, Grades (Scholastic)
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2280841
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: This research sought to understand the effects of testing positive, quarantining, and pass/fail policy use on college student GPAs across three semesters from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021. Participants: 644 students were followed across three semesters. Methods: Anonymized secondary data sets regarding student health behaviors, perceived stress, and satisfaction were combined with registrar data concerning demographic factors, COVID-19 infection, the need to quarantine, and converting grades to pass/fail (P/F). Results: The use of P/F was associated with inflated GPAs when offered during Spring and Fall 2020. Students opting to use P/F were more likely to be low-income and achieve a lower GPA in Spring 2021 when the P/F option was no longer offered. Testing positive and quarantining did not have a significant association with student GPA. Conclusions: The research challenges the value of providing students the ability to convert grades to P/F during the pandemic.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1472812
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184444259;acl01apr.25;2025Apr15.05:17;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184444259-1">Longitudinal associations with positivity, quarantining and pass/fail policy use on student GPAs during the first three semesters of the pandemic </title> <p>Objective: This research sought to understand the effects of testing positive, quarantining, and pass/fail policy use on college student GPAs across three semesters from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021. Participants: 644 students were followed across three semesters. Methods: Anonymized secondary data sets regarding student health behaviors, perceived stress, and satisfaction were combined with registrar data concerning demographic factors, COVID-19 infection, the need to quarantine, and converting grades to pass/fail (P/F). Results: The use of P/F was associated with inflated GPAs when offered during Spring and Fall 2020. Students opting to use P/F were more likely to be low-income and achieve a lower GPA in Spring 2021 when the P/F option was no longer offered. Testing positive and quarantining did not have a significant association with student GPA. Conclusions: The research challenges the value of providing students the ability to convert grades to P/F during the pandemic.</p> <p>Keywords: GPA; COVID-19; pass/fail</p> <p>The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted nearly every aspect of college life for students. While responses by institutions of higher education (IHE) varied,[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] students had to adapt to academic changes and challenges with added stressors exacerbating mental health concerns.[[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref3">4</reflink>]] In response, the majority of IHEs changed grading policies to include pass/fail options.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref4">6</reflink>] However, understanding the effects of flexible grading is still being explored.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref5">7</reflink>] More attention is warranted on how institutional measures, such as pass/fail (P/F) options, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic affected student populations differently. Factors such as student race, gender, and income have received particular attention in examining the impact of academic measures put in place during the COVID-19 pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref6">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref7">7</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref8">8</reflink>]</p> <p>Another response and primary mitigation strategy for IHEs that returned to in-person learning during the 2020 – 2021 academic year was the implementation of contact tracing programs.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref9">9</reflink>] While on campus, students who tested positive for COVID-19 were isolated, and those identified as close contacts were quarantined. The worsening of mental health concerns of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic has been well-documented.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref10">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref11">5</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref12">10</reflink>] However, less is known about the associations with testing positive for COVID-19 or having to quarantine on grades. This research seeks to fill these gaps in the literature by examining the associations with students testing positive, needing to quarantine, and use of P/F grade policies on GPAs during the first three semesters of the pandemic (Spring 2020, Fall 2020, and Spring 2021). Demographic factors including race, gender, age, income, chronic condition status, and athlete status will be controlled. Additionally, these demographic factors will be used alongside GPA to examine their associations with student stress and satisfaction during the pandemic.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-2">The impact of COVID-19 on education</hd> <p>Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first reported in China in late December 2019 before spreading across the globe.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref13">11</reflink>] The virus proved to be contagious and deadly. As COVID-19 quietly began to spread across the United States in the early months of 2020, there was growing consensus that, like other countries, the best immediate response for the nation was a mass shutdown. Starting on March 16, 2020, states began recommending closure for their public K-12 schools in an effort to slow the spread of COVID-19. Ultimately, 42 states ordered the closure of K-12 public schools in Spring 2020, while 6 recommended this closure, and 2 allowed this decision to vary by school district.[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref14">12</reflink>] A survey by the United States Census Bureau found 93% of students were participating in distance learning during this time.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref15">13</reflink>]</p> <p>IHEs also moved online. The University of Washington in Seattle was the first college to move online on March 6, 2020.[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref16">14</reflink>] This announcement followed what was, at the time, the first publicly known and announced outbreak of COVID-19 within the United States. Located in Kings County, Washington, this outbreak resulted in the first known death from COVID-19 in the country.[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref17">15</reflink>] Within a week, two-thirds of all four-year colleges across the nation would transition to remote learning. Hodges and colleagues[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref18">16</reflink>] noted that these remote classes were not equal to online classes. They argue online classes are well thought out and planned, terming the pandemic transition to result in "emergency remote teaching" that occurred around the globe.</p> <p>Past research has examined the emergency transition to remote teaching for IHE students. The national survey of student perceptions of remote teaching and learning analyzed responses from over a thousand American IHE students whose in-person classes were moved online as a result of the pandemic in Spring 2020.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref19">6</reflink>] Most students reported these courses consisting of a mixture of recorded lectures (65%) and live lectures (60%). The majority of students (87%) reported being very or somewhat satisfied with their courses prior to COVID-19, with this number dropping to 59% after. Smaller class sizes experienced higher rates of satisfaction. Reported barriers to student learning were keeping students engaged (57%), creating a class community (50%), and group work (65%). Additional studies have echoed these barriers.[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref20">17</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref21">18</reflink>] Researchers have also been interested in the impact of the pandemic on grades.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-3">Grades</hd> <p>Research regarding the impact of COVID-19 during the Spring 2020 semester on college student grades has been mixed. Iglesias-Pradas et al.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref22">19</reflink>] and Gonzalez et al.[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>] conducted research outside the U.S. and found COVID-19 to have a positive impact on student grades, finding improvements as compared to past semesters. Aguilera-Hermida,[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>] Alhefanawi et al.,[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref25">21</reflink>] and Said[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref26">22</reflink>] also conducted research outside of the U.S. and found no relationship to grades. Whether more learning occurred is a different construct to consider. Although Aguilera-Hermida[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref27">3</reflink>] found no difference in student grades during emergency remote teaching, students reported reduced gains in knowledge. Similarly, Supriya and colleagues'[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref28">23</reflink>] research of a large southwestern college in the United States found inflated grades, but negative outcomes for learning such as reduced student focus, motivation, and understanding. The current research sought to build on this past work through operationalizing the impact of the pandemic via three variables; the use of P/F options provided to students, testing positive for COVID-19, and required quarantines due to exposure to COVID-19.</p> <p>A key variable to consider when examining student grades during the pandemic is student use of P/F grading systems. Sixty percent of students participating in the national survey of student perceptions of remote teaching and learning were offered the opportunity to take their classes P/F, with six percent of students being required to take their classes P/F.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref29">6</reflink>] Times Higher Education Reporting indicated that over 150 IHEs switched to P/F grading by April 2020 during the first semester of the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref30">24</reflink>]</p> <p>Like online teaching, the concept of P/F is not unique to the pandemic. Using a P/F grading system, students are not evaluated on the now-dominant letter grade system, but instead dichotomized into whether their academic performance was adequate (pass) or inadequate (fail). This system was first utilized by The University of Michigan in 1835,[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref31">25</reflink>] and peaked in popularity in the 1960s and 70's.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref32">26</reflink>] Application of this system varies widely in terms of the threshold students must meet to pass, as well as what classes and students are eligible for participation in the P/F system.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref33">26</reflink>] A general advantage of this system is reducing student stress by removing the pressure of the letter grading system.[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref34">27</reflink>] Colleges switching to a P/F system during the start of the COVID-19 pandemic largely did so because of this associated benefit. Colleges made the conscious decision to put student wellbeing before grades at a time of great uncertainty.[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref35">28</reflink>] Still, past research has documented problems with the P/F system, such as reduced overall achievement and effort by students, as well as hindering the ability of graduate schools to evaluate applicants, as P/F systems often do not recognize excellence.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref36">26</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref37">29</reflink>] Use of P/F could also hinder or reduce acceptance of transfer credits.[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref38">30</reflink>]</p> <p>Rodríguez-Planas[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref39">7</reflink>] took student use of P/F into account when examining the effects of the pandemic on low-versus high-income student grades on a sample of nearly 3,000 students from Queens College using a differences-in-differences model. GPA, credits earned, use of P/F, and demographics were examined from Spring 2017 to Spring 2020. Findings demonstrated GPA and credit increases across all students, but even greater increases for low-income students as compared to high-income students. This increase vanished when GPA was calculated prior to allowance of the P/F option, as low-income students were 35% more likely to use the P/F option. While the author concluded in this initial study that this data indicated P/F was well used to protect the most vulnerable during the pandemic, a follow up study looking at Spring 2021 and Fall 2022 data found that students using P/F earned significantly lower GPAs (5.3% in Spring 2021 and 4.7% in Fall 2022) in comparison to their peers who did not use P/F.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref40">8</reflink>] Furthermore, the research estimated this to lead to an overall 16% reduction in likelihood to graduate.</p> <p>Longitudinal research like Rodríguez-Planas'[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref41">8</reflink>] is currently scarce. It is important that the literature include research from multiple colleges on this topic given the contexts in which schools chose to reopen in Fall 2020. For example, Rodresuez-Plana's[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref42">7</reflink>] research used data from students at a large eastern primarily nonresidential college that opened predominantly online in Fall 2020 and Spring 2021. The current research focuses on a small southern highly residential school that opened predominantly with in-person classes and nearly 90% of students living on campus during those same semesters. This leads to the first research questions.</p> <p>RQ 1: How do student GPAs trend over time during the first three semesters of the pandemic?</p> <p>RQ2: How does the decision to convert grades to P/F relate to student GPA during the first three semesters of the pandemic?</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-4">Testing positive and quarantines</hd> <p>The impact of the pandemic can also be measured through examination of students testing positive for COVID-19, or needing to quarantine due to exposure to COVID-19. Past research has yet to examine outcomes related to the pandemic via these measurements. The pandemic was first and foremost a global health crisis that would ultimately kill millions.[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref43">31</reflink>] Schools seeking to reopen during the pandemic needed to balance health and education goals, with health taking priority.</p> <p>Americans were divided as to whether being in-person was a health-conscious decision for colleges during a pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref44">32</reflink>] Data collected from 3,000 colleges found 44% were beginning Fall 2020 primarily or fully online.[<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref45">33</reflink>] From August 2 to September 5, 2020, COVID-19 cases increased 55% for 18–22 year-olds.[<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref46">34</reflink>] Some colleges that decided to start the semester in-person did experience campus outbreaks and had to return to online learning.[<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref47">35</reflink>] As feared, these outbreaks did affect college communities. Lu et al.[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref48">36</reflink>] studied 30 colleges during the 2020–2021 academic year, finding that 17 outbreaks bled into the outside community, indeed functioning as super spreaders. Leidner et al.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref49">37</reflink>] examined counties with large in-person colleges (>20,000 students), versus counties with large remote colleges, versus counties with no large colleges 21 days before and after classes began. While cases in counties with large remote colleges decreased 17.9% over this time period, cases in counties with large in-person colleges increased 56.2%. Cases in counties without large colleges decreased by 5.9%. Anderson et al.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref50">38</reflink>] found similar results. Work by the <emph>New York Times</emph> documented deaths following these rises in cases within college towns.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref51">39</reflink>]</p> <p>College students at primarily in-person colleges during the 2020–2021 academic year who tested positive for COVID-19 not only had to deal with any physical effects of the virus, but also the mental and social side effects of isolation. The practice of isolation led to changes in the format of the student's classes, as well as their social activities. In-person colleges were urged to practice contract tracing through identifying those in recent and close contact with individuals who had been confirmed to have COVID-19, and placing them in quarantine. Karosas and Ye[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref52">9</reflink>] highlight some challenges associated with contact tracing, such as building trust, fear of consequences from disclosing close contacts, and students not following guidelines. Having to isolate or quarantine came with added stressors, loss of social networks, and negative mental health consequences.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref53">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref54">5</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref55">40</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref56">41</reflink>] While the outcomes of quarantining and testing positive have yet to be examined regarding their association with college student grades, this relationship is logical to investigate. Research prior to the pandemic has examined relationships between mental illness, physical illness, and GPA, finding mixed results.[[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref57">42</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref58">44</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref59">46</reflink>]] Of particular relevance is a study by Cotton, Dollard, and Jonge[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref60">48</reflink>] which extrapolated the happy-productive worker thesis to college students, finding GPA to be positively correlated with general wellbeing.</p> <p>This led to the following research question:</p> <p>RQ 3: How does student number of quarantines and testing positive relate to student GPA during the first three semesters of the pandemic?</p> <p>While much research demonstrates the impact of colleges reopening on student case increases, younger individuals were far less likely to suffer severe health consequences or death from COVID-19 in comparison to older individuals. COVID-19 deaths for those aged 18–29 have accounted for less than 1% of all COVID-19 related deaths in the United States.[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref61">49</reflink>] Conversely, regarding mental health, college students are an especially stressed population.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref62">48</reflink>] COVID-19 greatly exacerbated this. Those aged 18–29 reported the highest levels of psychological distress as a result of COVID-19 in comparison to any other adult age group in a national sample.[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref63">50</reflink>] Measures of mental health taken before and after the start of the pandemic demonstrate increases in depression and anxiety for college students.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref64">18</reflink>] Son et al.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref65">5</reflink>] also found 71% of college students reported an increase in stress and anxiety due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Factors contributing to this crumbling of mental health in college students include being displaced from their pre-pandemic living situation (faced by 36% of IHE students), concern for one's health, concern for one's academics, difficulties with remote learning, and reduced social interactions.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref66">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref67">5</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref68">10</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref69">18</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref70">51</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref71">52</reflink>] Worry also stemmed from students who depend on their college for access to reliable internet, housing, food, basic health care, and other essential needs. An investigation from The Hope Center for College, Community, and Justice reported that 29% of students were affected by food insecurity and 48% affected by some form of housing insecurity at four-year institutions during the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref72">52</reflink>]</p> <p>Quarantining has also been tied to poor mental health outcomes, including stress,[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref73">41</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref74">53</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref75">55</reflink>]] while the effect of testing positive on mental health has been mixed.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref76">18</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref77">56</reflink>] Along with being associated with poor mental health, the practice of quarantining has been associated with the negative emotion of anger.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref78">55</reflink>] Consistent with Cotton et al.'s[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref79">48</reflink>] "happy-productive student" theory, recent research by Cofini et al.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref80">57</reflink>] demonstrates stress to be a predictor of satisfaction with learning amongst university students and that this association accounted for a significant amount of variance over and above numerous demographic variables.</p> <p>This led to the following research question:</p> <p>RQ 4: How does student number of quarantines, testing positive, and student GPA relate to perceived COVID-19 stressors and satisfaction?</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-5">Method</hd> <p>Ethical approval was obtained for this secondary anonymous data study (IRB 2021-22-07Ex). A total of 644 participants were included in the final data set (33.41% of school's undergraduate population). The majority were white (80.3%), non-athletes (82.6%), and female (68.6%). Average participant age at the beginning of the study time period (December 2019) was 19.77 (<emph>SD</emph> = 1.01). Nearly a quarter were low-income (24.8%). Students also reported any chronic illnesses, with the average student reporting 0.25 chronic illnesses (<emph>SD</emph> = 0.51). Over the course of the academic year, 108 students tested positive for COVID-19 (16.8%). Thirty-seven students tested positive in the fall (5.7%), 43 over the winter break between semesters (6.7%), and 29 during the spring semester (4.5%). Regarding quarantines, 216 (33.5%) students had this experience over the course of the academic year for a maximum of 3 quarantines, and an average of 0.40 quarantines (<emph>SD</emph> = 0.61). One hundred forty-seven students had to quarantine at least once during Fall 2020 (22.8%), 40 had to quarantine over winter break (6.3%), and 59 students had to quarantine during Spring 2021 (9.1%). See Table 1 for a comparison of the study sample to the school population.</p> <p>Table 1. Comparison of study sample to school population.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Study Sample</td><td>School population</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Number of students</td><td char=".">644</td><td char=".">1927</td></tr><tr><td>Percent female</td><td char=".">68.6</td><td char=".">62.7</td></tr><tr><td>Percent white</td><td char=".">80.3</td><td char=".">75.4</td></tr><tr><td>Percent athletes</td><td char=".">17.4</td><td char=".">23.0</td></tr><tr><td>Percent low-income</td><td char=".">24.8</td><td char=".">22.0</td></tr><tr><td>Percent needing to quarantine at least once between August 2020 to May 2021</td><td char=".">33.5</td><td char=".">36.8</td></tr><tr><td>Percent testing positive at least once between August 2020 to May 2021</td><td char=".">16.8</td><td char=".">22.6</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>This research took the form of secondary data analysis, with three different data sources being merged using anonymous identifiers to create the final data set. Only those students that were enrolled at the college from Fall 2019 to Spring 2021, completed the health behavior survey in Fall 2020, and the diversity survey in Spring 2021 were included in the final data set. Variables analyzed included student demographics, GPAs (on a 4.0 scale), use of P/F, testing positive for COVID-19, the number of times a student was required to quarantine due to COVID-19, and reported satisfaction and stress levels.</p> <p>Demographics included student income, gender, age, race, athlete status, and chronic conditions. All variables, with the exception of chronic conditions, were taken from institutional research data. Student income was measured using whether or not that student was Pell Grant eligible when they started their college journey. The Pell Grant has been used by past research similar to ours as a proxy of college student income.[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref81">8</reflink>] Chronic condition status was taken from a health behavior survey constructed with the Centers for Disease Control and the Georgia Department of Public Health that students completed in Fall 2020. Students were asked to answer yes or no to having eleven different chronic conditions, as well as an "other" chronic condition. Having a chronic condition was quickly identified early on in the pandemic as increasing an individual's risk for experiencing a severe case of COVID-19.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref82">56</reflink>] Whether or not a student had a chronic condition was dichotomized for use in this data set (yes/no). Student race and gender are especially important demographics to consider, as nonwhite college students have been documented to suffer more severe consequences in terms of mental health from the pandemic,[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref83">4</reflink>] and women have reported a greater negative impact on their learning during the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref84">23</reflink>]</p> <p>Student grades, as well as their use of P/F, were taken from institutional research. Cumulative GPA prior to Spring 2020 was compared to semester GPAs for Spring 2020, Fall 2020, and Spring 2021. P/F was measured using the number of classes a student took P/F for Spring 2020 and Fall 2020. The college's P/F policy worked in the following ways over the course of the three semesters under study. Regarding Spring 2020, students were permitted to convert any class grades to P/F prior to April 17, 2020 through counseling with their academic advisor. Requests from students on academic probation had to go through the Dean of Academic Services. A letter grade of D or above translated into a report of passing and earned credit hours toward degree requirements, while not impacting student GPAs. While a grade below D translated into a report of failing and did not earn credit hours toward a degree, a student's GPA was also not impacted by this grade. In Fall 2020, students were given the additional chance to retroactively change one class from Spring 2020 to P/F, or more if they consulted with the Director of the Academic Success Center and created an academic success plan. For Fall 2020, students were permitted to change one class grade to P/F by March 5, 2021 through counseling with their academic advisor. Students could change more than one grade via consultation with the director of the college's Academic Success Center and the creation of an academic success plan. Requests from students on academic probation had to go through the Dean of Academic Services. Grade conversions were limited regarding Fall 2020 classes to render any course that preceded one requiring grade-based prerequisites to be ineligible. Regarding Spring 2021, no P/F conversion options were given.</p> <p>Students testing positive and the number of times a student was required to quarantine was reported using institutional research data. Measurement of either testing positive or not, as well the number of times a student was required to quarantine, was taken for both Fall 2020 and Spring 2021 semesters.</p> <p>Satisfaction and stress were measured using questions from the Diverse Learning Environments Survey administered by the Higher Education Research Institute[<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref85">58</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref86">59</reflink>] taken in Spring 2021. Satisfaction with the college during COVID-19 was measured using seven questions on a 5-point scale (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied). Questions included rating the "access to student health services" and "effectiveness of remote instruction" (alpha =.85; <emph>M</emph> = 3.45, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.75). Stress during COVID-19 was measured using eight questions on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = extensive). Questions included rating the stress of items such as, "physical health," and "ability to find employment after graduation" (alpha =.85; <emph>M</emph> = 3.96, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.31). See Appendix A for a full list of questions for both scales.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-6">Results</hd> <p>The first research question sought to understand GPA trends throughout the pandemic. Paired-sample <emph>t</emph>-tests (see Table 2) revealed mixed findings regarding student GPA trends during the pandemic. Average student GPA at the end of Spring 2020 was significantly higher as compared to pre-pandemic GPA (i.e., GPA prior to Spring 2020) [<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib643" id="ref87">643</reflink>) = −5.13, <emph>p</emph> <. 001]. However, the average student GPA at the end of Fall 2020 was not significantly different from the student GPA at the end of Spring 2020 [<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib643" id="ref88">643</reflink>) = −1.09, <emph>p</emph> = 0.278]. The average student GPA at the end of Spring 2021 was significantly lower than that of Fall 2020 [<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib643" id="ref89">643</reflink>) = 5.95, <emph>p</emph> <. 001]. The effect size changes (Cohen's d) were small for all pairwise comparisons, ranging from 0.05 to 0.21 (Table 2). It should be noted this data was negatively skewed. This is not problematic for running a <emph>t</emph>-test given the large sample size.[<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref90">60</reflink>] Normalizing this data using guidelines of Tabachnick and Fiddell,[<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref91">61</reflink>] did not change results.</p> <p>Table 2. Grade trends and differences from Fall 2019 to Spring 2021.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Pair</td><td>GPA</td><td><italic>M</italic></td><td><italic>SD</italic></td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>d</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Pair 1</td><td>Prior to Spring 2020</td><td char=".">3.37</td><td char=".">0.48</td><td char=".">−5.13</td><td char="."><.001</td><td char=".">0.19</td></tr><tr><td>Spring 2020</td><td char=".">3.49</td><td char=".">0.65</td></tr><tr><td>Pair 2</td><td>Spring 2020</td><td char=".">3.49</td><td char=".">0.65</td><td char=".">−1.09</td><td char=".">0.278</td><td char=".">0.05</td></tr><tr><td>Fall 2020</td><td char=".">3.52</td><td char=".">0.50</td></tr><tr><td>Pair 3</td><td>Fall 2020</td><td char=".">3.52</td><td char=".">0.50</td><td char=".">5.95</td><td char="."><.001</td><td char=".">0.21</td></tr><tr><td>Spring 2021</td><td char=".">3.40</td><td char=".">0.65</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Research questions two and three sought to understand how pre-pandemic GPA and the decision to convert grades to P/F is related to student GPA (RQ2) and how student number of quarantines and testing positive relates to student GPA (RQ3). Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression with robust standard errors[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref92">62</reflink>] was used to examine what factors predict student GPA during the pandemic. As can be seen in Table 3, pre-pandemic GPA and converting grades to P/F were both significant predictors of Spring 2020 GPA, after controlling for demographics (i.e., gender, age, race, chronic conditions, athlete status, and low-income). Specifically, although pre-pandemic GPA was a significant predictor of Spring 2020 GPA [<emph>β</emph> = 0.64, <emph>p</emph> <. 001], converting grades to P/F was also associated with lower Spring 2020 GPA (<emph>β</emph> = −0.19, <emph>p</emph> = 0.003). None of the demographic factors were significant predictors of Spring 2020 GPA. Similarly, pre-pandemic GPA was positively associated with Fall 2020 GPA (<emph>β</emph> = 0.58, <emph>p</emph> <. 001), while converting grades to P/F was negatively associated with Fall 2020 GPA (<emph>β</emph> = −0.17, <emph>p</emph> = 0.039); after controlling for demographics, quarantining, and testing positive. Age and athlete status were both positively related to Fall 2020 GPA (<emph>β</emph> = 0.04, <emph>p</emph> = 0.009 and <emph>β</emph> = 0.12, <emph>p</emph> = 0.001, respectively), while low-income was negatively associated with Fall 2020 GPA (<emph>β</emph> = −0.10, <emph>p</emph> = 0.01). Finally, only pre-pandemic GPA (<emph>β</emph> = 0.82, <emph>p</emph> <. 001), age (<emph>β</emph> = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> <. 001), and low-income (<emph>β</emph> = −0.012 <emph>p</emph> = 0.017) were significant predictors of Spring 2021 GPA, but it is worth noting that no P/F option was offered to students during this semester. Testing positive and quarantining did not contribute significantly to the regression model (RQ3). Post-hoc analysis regarding the impact of being low-income revealed that low-income students were more likely to convert grades to P/F during both Spring 2020 [<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib642" id="ref93">642</reflink>) = 1.90, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06] and Fall 2020 [<emph>t</emph>(<reflink idref="bib642" id="ref94">642</reflink>) = 3.12, <emph>p</emph> <. 001]. Additionally, an interaction term between P/F count for Fall 2020 and Spring 2020 with low-income was used in respective regressions as a robustness check. The addition resulted in no substantive changes to the results.</p> <p>Table 3. OLS standardized regression coefficients, standard error, <emph>t</emph> statistics, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> for the predicted effects of demographics, GPA prior to Spring 2020, P/F converted grades, testing positive and quarantining on term GPAs.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Spring 2020 Term GPA</td><td>Fall 2020 Term GPA</td><td>Spring 2021 Term GPA</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Gender, 0 = female</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.34</td><td char=".">.737</td><td char=".">.33</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">−1.67</td><td char=".">.095</td><td char=".">.41</td><td char="."><0.01</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">0.07</td><td char=".">.942</td><td char=".">.38</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.84</td><td char=".">.401</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">0.01</td><td char=".">2.71</td><td char=".">.009</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">4.26</td><td char="."><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Race, 0 = nonwhite</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">−0.35</td><td char=".">.726</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">−1.20</td><td char=".">.231</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">−0.57</td><td char=".">.527</td></tr><tr><td>Chronic condition</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">−0.36</td><td char=".">.716</td><td char="."><0.01</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.02</td><td char=".">0.980</td><td char=".">−0.07</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">−1.44</td><td char=".">.151</td></tr><tr><td>Athlete</td><td char="."><.0.01</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">095</td><td char=".">0.12</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">3.34</td><td char=".">.001</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">1.36</td><td char=".">.175</td></tr><tr><td>Low-income</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">−0.43</td><td char=".">.665</td><td char=".">−0.10 </td><td char=".">.04 </td><td char=".">−2.58 </td><td char=".">.010 </td><td char=".">−0.012 </td><td char=".">0.05 </td><td char=".">−2.38 </td><td char=".">.017 </td></tr><tr><td>GPA prior to Spring 2020</td><td char=".">0.64</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">11.37</td><td char="."><.001</td><td char=".">0.58</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">15.33</td><td char="."><.001</td><td char=".">0.82</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">14.41</td><td char="."><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Spring 2020 P/F count</td><td char=".">−0.19</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">−2.98</td><td char=".">.003</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Fall 2020 P/F count</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.17</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">−2.07</td><td char=".">.039</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Fall positive</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.08</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">−1.22</td><td char=".">.224</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Spring positive</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.24</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">−1.84</td><td char=".">.067</td></tr><tr><td>Fall quarantine</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">−0.16</td><td char=".">.872</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Spring quarantine</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">−0.46</td><td char=".">.648</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The fourth research question sought to analyze how the number of times a student was quarantined, tested positive, and student GPA related to perceived COVID-19 stressors and satisfaction. OLS regression with robust standard errors[<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref95">62</reflink>] was used to examine how the number of times a student quarantined and whether the student tested positive relate to perceived COVID-19 stressors and satisfaction. After controlling for demographic variables, testing positive and the number of times quarantined were not significantly associated with stress or satisfaction (see Table 4). However, stress was a significant negative predictor of satisfaction (<emph>β</emph> = −0.15, <emph>p</emph> <. 001), and satisfaction was a significant negative predictor of stress (<emph>β</emph> = −0.46, <emph>p</emph> <. 001). Being male was significantly negatively related to stress (<emph>β</emph> = −0.18, <emph>p</emph> = 0.017). None of the other demographic variables were significant predictors of stress nor satisfaction.</p> <p>Table 4. OLS standardized regression coefficients, standard error, <emph>t</emph> statistics, <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> for the predicted effects of demographics, testing positive, and quarantining on stress and satisfaction.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td>Stress</td><td>Satisfaction</td></tr><tr><td /><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>t</italic></td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>R</italic><sup>2</sup></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Gender, 0 = female</td><td char=".">−0.18</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">−1.38</td><td char=".">.017</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">0.34</td><td char=".">.735</td><td char=".">.08</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">0.06</td><td char=".">0.71</td><td char=".">.478</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">0.04</td><td char=".">−0.98</td><td char=".">.328</td></tr><tr><td>Race, 0 = nonwhite</td><td char=".">−0.26</td><td char=".">0.16</td><td char=".">−1.61</td><td char=".">.107</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">0.09</td><td char=".">−0.14</td><td char=".">.892</td></tr><tr><td>Chronic condition</td><td char=".">0.18</td><td char=".">0.12</td><td char=".">1.47</td><td char=".">.141</td><td char="."><0.01</td><td char=".">0.07</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">.956</td></tr><tr><td>Athlete</td><td char=".">0.23</td><td char=".">0.13</td><td char=".">1.74</td><td char=".">.083</td><td char=".">0.14</td><td char=".">0.09</td><td char=".">1.58</td><td char=".">.115</td></tr><tr><td>Low-income</td><td char=".">.01 </td><td char=".">0.09 </td><td char=".">0.06 </td><td char=".">.950 </td><td char=".">0.01 </td><td char=".">0.09 </td><td char=".">.06 </td><td char=".">.950 </td></tr><tr><td>Spring 2021 GPA</td><td char=".">0.39 </td><td char=".">0.95 </td><td char=".">1.62 </td><td char=".">.107 </td><td char=".">0.02 </td><td char=".">0.05 </td><td char=".">0.35 </td><td char=".">.723 </td></tr><tr><td>Positive</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">0.15</td><td char=".">0.19</td><td char=".">.852</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">0.08</td><td char=".">−0.38</td><td char=".">.703</td></tr><tr><td>Quarantine</td><td char=".">0.15</td><td char=".">0.09</td><td char=".">1.62</td><td char=".">.107</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">0.05</td><td char=".">−1.09</td><td char=".">.276</td></tr><tr><td>Stress</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td char=".">−0.15</td><td char=".">0.03</td><td char=".">−4.59</td><td char="."><.001</td></tr><tr><td>Satisfaction</td><td>−0.46</td><td>0.10</td><td>−4.67</td><td><.001</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0184444259-7">Discussion</hd> <p>This research adds to past research documenting the outcomes of the pandemic on IHE student grades. [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref96">3</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref97">7</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref98">9</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref99">20</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref100">22</reflink>]] The current research specifically examined trends and the outcomes of student use of P/F policies, times quarantined, testing positive for COVID-19, and demographic factors on college student GPAs during the first three semesters of the pandemic at a small southern liberal arts college. In Spring 2020, student GPAs significantly rose compared to overall GPAs before the pandemic. This finding echoes results from several past research studies regarding grade inflation during the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref101">19</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref102">20</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref103">23</reflink>] In Fall 2020, GPAs held steady, and in Spring 2021, student GPAs significantly dropped compared to Fall 2020 GPAs. The results match the implementation of the P/F policy (Spring 2020), continuation of the P/F policy (Fall 2020), and removal of the P/F policy (Spring 2021), providing evidence for the possibility that increases in student GPAs during the pandemic could be due to the availability of P/F options.</p> <p>In addition to the reality of grade inflation, while P/F policies were implemented, it may be that this policy decision had the potential for an adverse long-term outcome as well. While the decision to allow for P/F grading for the pandemic was clearly rooted in compassion, it may not have generated equity in the way it was designed. Allowing students facing particularly adverse circumstances during the pandemic to apply for a P/F grade was well-intentioned and may have had some positive short-term outcomes (e.g., financial aid implications like maintaining scholarships, acknowledging the near-impossible task of shifting teaching and learning to remote modalities in a week's notice, etc.). However, for some students, especially those facing adverse circumstances, this pandemic-specific grading exception may not have ameliorated the underlying sources of their academic struggles. Reduced academic achievement is a documented outcome associated with P/F policies prior to the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref104">26</reflink>] Thus, the use of the P/F policy could have generated weaker students, even after those using it extensively were required to create an academic success plan. These policies, used by 60% of schools during the pandemic,[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref105">6</reflink>] should be further researched in an effort to understand the specific mechanisms within these policies that may reduce a college student's chance of academic success.</p> <p>Our results support this assertion, finding low-income students to be more likely to convert grades to P/F in both Spring and Fall 2020 semesters, and yet low-income status was also predictive of lower Spring 2021 GPAs. The results indicate that the P/F option was more likely to be taken advantage of by students academically struggling in general when compared to their peers (even with the P/F option they had lower GPAs). These findings are consistent with recent research demonstrating during the Spring 2020 semester that lower-income students were 35% more likely to take advantage of the P/F option than their counterparts.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref106">7</reflink>] While the present study cannot speak to what student grades would have looked like without a P/F option, Rodríguez-Planas[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref107">7</reflink>] found that without these flexible grading policies, lower-income students would have seen their GPA decrease by an estimated 5%. These similar results across studies are particularly interesting given Rodríguez-Planas' work used data from a large northeastern school that was predominantly online for the 2020–2021 academic year, whereas this study uses data from a small southern college that was predominantly in-person for the same time.</p> <p>Whether or not a student tested positive in a given semester and the number of times they quarantined was also used to predict grades in these regressions, and the addition of these variables to the regression model did not contribute to significant additional variance accounted for. Given that isolation and quarantining is associated with added stressors, loss of social networks, and negative mental health consequences,[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref108">4</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref109">5</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref110">40</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref111">41</reflink>] it was anticipated that this may be reflected in negative outcomes for student GPAs. However, this was not the case in the present study. This research also investigated the influence of demographic variables, the number of times a student quarantined, tested positive, and the decision to convert grades to P/F on stress and satisfaction. Females reported more stress than males, which has been documented in prior studies.[<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref112">63</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref113">64</reflink>] Conversely, testing positive and the number of times quarantined did not predict stress or satisfaction during Spring 2021. This may explain why testing positive or being quarantined did not influence GPA, as it did not predict stress or satisfaction. Stress and satisfaction were found to be predictive of one another, which aligns with both Cotton et al.'s[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref114">48</reflink>] "happy productive student" theory and recent findings by Cofini et al.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref115">57</reflink>] demonstrating college student stress to be a significant predictor of learning satisfaction. This relationship between stress and satisfaction has been found before, including with general life satisfaction.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref116">52</reflink>]</p> <p>This research reiterates the importance of supporting students' mental health struggles during the pandemic. Future work should seek to replicate these findings with a diverse array of college students at a variety of institutions across the United States. It would have been valuable to measure stress and satisfaction using the same measures during Spring 2020 and Fall 2020 to gain insight into how the P/F policy interacted with the relationship between stress and satisfaction for college students during different stages of the pandemic. Interestingly, alternative grading methods predicated on a P/F approach, such as specifications grading, have the potential to reduce grade-related stress while providing more equity in teaching and learning.[<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref117">65</reflink>] Future research should explore the effect of quarantine/isolation on student mental health/stress and how institutional responses either mitigated or exacerbated its effects.</p> <p>While the current study has promising findings, it is not without its limitations. Specifically, the demographic characteristics of the students sampled are not nationally representative of all undergraduate students. Findings should only be generalized to other similar institutional contexts (i.e., similar P/F policy at a small liberal arts college, a primarily undergraduate institution with a majority white and female student population that received predominantly in-person instruction during the pandemic). This work is also not causal in nature. Further research must examine both the short-term and long-term effects of temporary grade policies such as P/F beyond the context of this institution alone, and in a causal manner.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-8">Conclusion</hd> <p>COVID-19 left few things untouched, and science has raced to document those changes. This study sought to understand the mental and academic impacts of COVID-19 from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021. Unfortunately, colleges across the globe need to prepare for the next pandemic by understanding the effects of COVID-19 on college students. Trends provided evidence to support that GPAs may have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic because of students being given the option to convert grades to P/F, as opposed to an increase in student learning. Low-income students were more likely to convert grades to P/F, and yet still, low-income status had a negative predictive relationship with overall GPA. Reported stress during the Spring 2021 semester was also related to satisfaction with the college. Future work should determine if these relationships are generalizable and causal. Taken together, we conclude by noting that while the present study is highly context-specific (both in terms of its generalizability to institutional profiles as well as the unique COVID-19 pandemic and its effects on higher education), the findings have applicability to a broader context. Specifically, given the idiosyncratic backgrounds of our students, particularly those who are economically disadvantaged, we must give great care to both the short- and long-term effects of flexible grading policies when considering policy changes in the future. Additionally, with females reporting greater levels of stress, coupled with the relationship between college student stress and satisfaction, educators and practitioners alike can anticipate this as they mobilize resources and develop response plans in a forward-looking manner.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-9">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the united states and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Berry College.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-10">Funding</hd> <p>No funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript.</p> <hd id="AN0184444259-11">Appendix A</hd> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><tbody valign="top"><tr><td><italic>Stressors</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Rate on a scale of 1–7 the extent to which each of the following has been a source of stress for you since COVID-19 began: </td></tr><tr><td> Physical health </td></tr><tr><td> Health of loved ones </td></tr><tr><td> Access to health services </td></tr><tr><td> My current living arrangements </td></tr><tr><td> Appropriate space to attend classes remotely </td></tr><tr><td> Ability to complete graduation requirements as planned </td></tr><tr><td> Ability to find employment after graduation</td></tr><tr><td><italic>Satisfaction with College during COVID-19</italic></td></tr><tr><td>Rate on a scale of 1–7 the extent to which you are satisfied with the following:</td></tr><tr><td> Availability of supplemental emergency funds </td></tr><tr><td> Access to student health services </td></tr><tr><td> Mental health support for students </td></tr><tr><td> Effectiveness of remote instruction </td></tr><tr><td> Instructor flexibility in responding to student concerns </td></tr><tr><td> Access to support services</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ref id="AN0184444259-12"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Klein B, Generous N, Chinazzi M, et al. 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  Data: Longitudinal Associations with Positivity, Quarantining and Pass/Fail Policy Use on Student GPAs during the First Three Semesters of the Pandemic
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Samantha+Nazione%22">Samantha Nazione</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lauren+R%2E+Heller%22">Lauren R. Heller</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Anna+Vredeveld%22">Anna Vredeveld</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Casey+A%2E+Dexter%22">Casey A. Dexter</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Michael+McElveen%22">Michael McElveen</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2025 73(4):1454-1462.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 9
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Tests/Questionnaires
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+Point+Average%22">Grade Point Average</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22School+Closing%22">School Closing</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pass+Fail+Grading%22">Pass Fail Grading</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Health+Behavior%22">Health Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Satisfaction%22">Student Satisfaction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+Inflation%22">Grade Inflation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Low+Income+Students%22">Low Income Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grades+%28Scholastic%29%22">Grades (Scholastic)</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2280841
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: This research sought to understand the effects of testing positive, quarantining, and pass/fail policy use on college student GPAs across three semesters from Spring 2020 to Spring 2021. Participants: 644 students were followed across three semesters. Methods: Anonymized secondary data sets regarding student health behaviors, perceived stress, and satisfaction were combined with registrar data concerning demographic factors, COVID-19 infection, the need to quarantine, and converting grades to pass/fail (P/F). Results: The use of P/F was associated with inflated GPAs when offered during Spring and Fall 2020. Students opting to use P/F were more likely to be low-income and achieve a lower GPA in Spring 2021 when the P/F option was no longer offered. Testing positive and quarantining did not have a significant association with student GPA. Conclusions: The research challenges the value of providing students the ability to convert grades to P/F during the pandemic.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1472812
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1472812
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2023.2280841
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 9
        StartPage: 1454
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade Point Average
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: School Closing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pass Fail Grading
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Health Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Satisfaction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade Inflation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Low Income Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grades (Scholastic)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Longitudinal Associations with Positivity, Quarantining and Pass/Fail Policy Use on Student GPAs during the First Three Semesters of the Pandemic
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Samantha Nazione
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              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
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              Value: 1940-3208
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 73
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