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Mental Health among Hispanic College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Concurrent and Predictive Effects of Negative and Positive COVID-19 Changes

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Title: Mental Health among Hispanic College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Concurrent and Predictive Effects of Negative and Positive COVID-19 Changes
Language: English
Authors: Elma I. Lorenzo-Blanco, Minyu Zhang, Seth J. Schwartz
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(4):1697-1710.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (DHHS/NIH)
Contract Number: P2CHD042849
K01AA02805701A1
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Tests/Questionnaires
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Mental Health, Hispanic American Students, College Students, COVID-19, Pandemics, Anxiety, Depression (Psychology), Stress Variables, Psychological Patterns, Self Esteem, Change, Adjustment (to Environment), Predictor Variables
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2378300
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: We generated items to assess COVID-19 changes among Hispanic college students and examined the concurrent and predictive effects of these changes vis-à-vis mental health. Participants: The sample consisted of 559 Hispanic first-year (69% women; age range 18-22; 88.1% U.S.-born; 84% Mexican/Mexican American) attending a public university in Texas. Methods: Students participated in a three-wave longitudinal online survey assessing stressors, COVID-19 changes, anxious and depressive symptoms, hope, and self-esteem. Results: Students experienced negative changes across six life domains as a result of the pandemic-related lockdowns--"education"; "health"; "relationships"; "finances"; "social issues"; "death/loss." They also reported positive changes during the lockdowns. Negative changes were positively correlated with higher, and positive changes with lower, acculturative and perceived stress. Negative COVID-19 changes predicted lower mental health. Conclusions: Hispanic students experienced both negative and positive COVID-19 changes, which were related to their mental health. Results can guide research and decision-making during future pandemics.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1472882
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0184444287;acl01apr.25;2025Apr15.05:17;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0184444287-1">Mental health among Hispanic college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Concurrent and predictive effects of negative and positive COVID-19 changes </title> <p>Objective: We generated items to assess COVID-19 changes among Hispanic college students and examined the concurrent and predictive effects of these changes vis-à-vis mental health. Participants: The sample consisted of 559 Hispanic first-year (69% women; age range 18–22; 88.1% U.S.-born; 84% Mexican/Mexican American) attending a public university in Texas. Methods: Students participated in a three-wave longitudinal online survey assessing stressors, COVID-19 changes, anxious and depressive symptoms, hope, and self-esteem. Results: Students experienced negative changes across six life domains as a result of the pandemic-related lockdowns: education; health; relationships; finances; social issues; death/loss. They also reported positive changes during the lockdowns. Negative changes were positively correlated with higher, and positive changes with lower, acculturative and perceived stress. Negative COVID-19 changes predicted lower mental health. Conclusions: Hispanic students experienced both negative and positive COVID-19 changes, which were related to their mental health. Results can guide research and decision-making during future pandemics.</p> <p>Keywords: Hispanic college students; COVID-19; positive; negative; mental health; measurement development</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-2">Introduction</hd> <p>The COVID-19 pandemic and related lockdowns have caused major disruptions in the lives of college students.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] When campuses shifted to remote instruction in March 2020, many students lost their sense of social connection,[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] and symptoms of loneliness, depression, and anxiety often followed.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref3">3</reflink>] Students took classes virtually for nearly 18 months and by the time in-person classes resumed in Fall 2021, an entire cohort of students had started their university studies virtually.</p> <p>The impacts of the pandemic-related shutdowns may have been especially acute among Hispanic college students. For example, Ibarra-Mejia et al.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>] found that, at a Hispanic-serving institution in Texas, college students reported high levels of stress, depression and anxiety (above the midpoint on the respective response scales) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Because Hispanic college students are more likely to be first-generation college students than are students from other ethnic groups.[<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref5">5</reflink>] their families may have been less likely to be able to offer support for their studies and adjustment during the pandemic. Prior work on the impact of pandemic-related shutdowns on college students' adjustment has indicated that first-generation students were less likely than other students to have access to a dedicated space to log into their classes, reliable wireless connections, and a quiet place to study.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref6">1</reflink>] Regan et al.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref7">1</reflink>] also found that, in their sample of students from public universities in Texas, Florida, California, New York, and Virginia, first-generation college students (among whom Hispanic college students were overrepresented) reported significantly greater symptoms of loneliness, depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation during the 2020–2021 academic year. As a result, it is essential to understand what about the pandemic may have contributed to elevated levels of distress among Hispanic college students. Further, because much of the work on the pandemic and its effects on college students is cross-sectional, there is a need for longitudinal work on this phenomenon and the Hispanic college student population – especially among students who started their university studies virtually during the pandemic-related shutdowns.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-3">Mental health among college students during COVID-19</hd> <p>In general, the term "mental health" refers to both (a) dimensions of well-being and (b) dimensions of psychological distress.[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref8">6</reflink>] Importantly, because well-being and distress are not necessarily opposites, college students may experience a diverse combination of high and low levels of distress and/or well-being. For examples, some students may show high levels of distress and low well-being while other students may show high levels of distress and high levels of well-being, whereas again others may evidence different combinations (e.g., low levels of distress and low levels of well-being). Because there can be variation in college students' mental health based on the two dimensions of well-being and distress,[<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref9">6</reflink>] it is helpful to assess both distress and well-being (rather than using indices of distress as an indicator of poor well-being) to understand the students' mental health.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref10">7</reflink>] In other words, examining how pandemic-related shutdowns were associated not only with symptoms of depression and anxiety, but also with well-being indicators such as self-esteem and hope can provide a more nuanced understanding of the pandemic's impact on Hispanic students' mental health. Given that elevated symptoms of depression and anxiety have been associated with dropping out of college,[<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref11">8</reflink>] generating knowledge about pandemic-related effects on student mental health and well-being can help inform strategies to prevent dropout and increase retention among students, especially among the cohort who entered college during the 2020–2021 academic year and did not set foot on campus until their sophomore year. Although few studies have examined the role of student well-being on academic outcomes and retention,[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref12">9</reflink>] it is also important to include well-being as an outcome or correlate of pandemic-related stress because it has been associated with numerous life course outcomes.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>] Two well-being indicators relevant for student mental health and academic outcomes are hope and self-esteem. For example, in research with Hispanic youth, hope has been found to protect Hispanic young people against symptoms of depression and anxiety.[<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref14">11</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref15">12</reflink>] And, self-esteem predicts positive mental health and life outcomes such as academic success.[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref16">10</reflink>]</p> <p>Further, knowing that well-being decreased, and distress increased, during the pandemic-related shutdowns does not provide information regarding precisely <emph>which</emph> pandemic-related stressors were most strongly linked with indices of compromised adjustment. For example, the shutdowns were associated with a number of stressors including family health emergencies, financial hardships, disconnection from educational and social networks, and general mistrust of government and public health authorities.[<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref17">13</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref18">14</reflink>] Regan et al.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref19">1</reflink>] found that nearly 60% of the participants in their sample reported losing contact with close friends, and nearly 40% reported ending a romantic relationship, during the pandemic-related shutdowns. Although we do not know whether these experiences and stressors disproportionately affected Hispanic college students, understanding how these stressors link with mental health indices among this population can deepen our understanding of the role of relationship stressors during the pandemic on Hispanic students' mental health. Hispanic college student enrollment has increased, yet, there are significant disparities in degree completion.[<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref20">9</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref21">15</reflink>] Moreover, Hispanic college students experience challenges such as isolation (i.e., low social or emotional connection with peers, professors, and the university),[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref22">1</reflink>] racial/ethnic discrimination (i.e., unfair or differential treatment based on race/ethnicity),[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref23">16</reflink>] lack of role models (i.e., having few or limited access to Hispanic professors),[<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref24">17</reflink>] and low educational expectations (i.e., educators having lower educational expectations of Hispanics compared to their white counterparts.[<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref25">18</reflink>] These stressors put Hispanic college students at academic risk and increase their risk for mental health problems.[<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref26">16</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref27">19</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref28">20</reflink>]</p> <p>National data indicate that the representation of Hispanic college students on university campuses has increased more than 20% since 2000.[<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref29">21</reflink>] The majority of these students are the first in their families to attend college, and many of them reside in large states with extensive state university systems (e.g., California, Texas, Florida, New York). In many cases, the "flagship" universities in these systems serve largely White student populations, and Hispanic college students often find that the campus culture to be at odds with the cultural context in which they were raised.[<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref30">22</reflink>] Within this larger context, pandemic-related stressors may serve to exacerbate the marginalization and strain that many of these students already experience. The present study was therefore designed to examine COVID-19 related stressors and their links with mental health among Hispanic college students.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-4">The need for measures of pandemic-related stress</hd> <p>Although a great deal of research has examined pandemic-related worries and stressors as predictors of mental health among college student samples,[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref31">23</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref32">24</reflink>] in many cases the stressor measures assessed general pandemic-related anxiety, obsession, and reassurance seeking.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref33">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref34">25</reflink>] For example, in one study with Hispanic college students,[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref35">24</reflink>] pandemic psychological distress was assessed with: 1) the coronavirus anxiety scale to measure students' anxiety toward the coronavirus,[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref36">26</reflink>] 2) the fear of COVID-19 scale to measure students' fear associated with the coronavirus,[<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref37">27</reflink>] and 3) the COVID-19 racial bias scale[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref38">28</reflink>] to measure how COVID-19 was affecting societal attitudes toward individuals' racial/ethnic group. In another study with an ethnically diverse sample of college students,[<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref39">28</reflink>] pandemic related worries were assessed with the coronavirus anxiety scale, the obsession with COVID-19 scale, and the COVID-19 reassurance-seeking behavior scale. The coronavirus anxiety scale assessed anxiety symptoms related to the pandemic such as feeling dizzy, lightheaded, or faint when being exposed to COVID-19 issues. The obsession with COVID-19 scales assessed students' frequency of recurrent and disturbing thoughts concerned with the pandemic such as students thinking that they have caught the coronavirus. The COVID-19 reassurance-seeking behavior scale assessed students' behaviors to feel reassured such as reading information about the pandemic to see if they had symptoms. These studies did not assess actual changes and disruptions students might have experienced because of the pandemic.</p> <p>Most studies with college students acknowledge the need to examine how the pandemic has disrupted and changed the daily experiences of college students, yet, very few studies and measures have focused on identifying specific changes and stressor domains such as finances, health, relationships, social isolation, and mistrust that college students experienced.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref40">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref41">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref42">25</reflink>]]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref43">29</reflink>] Indeed, we were unable to locate any existing multi-item measures assessing such specific domains of pandemic-related changes. Given the disparate effects of pandemic-related shutdowns on Hispanic college students, including such measures in studies with Hispanic college populations can help illuminate their experiences and how they have been impacted by the pandemic. Investigating how pandemic-related changes and mitigation efforts may have impacted the mental health of Hispanic college students, who represent a large and growing segment of the U.S. college population,[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref44">24</reflink>] can inform future decisions to protect their mental health during future pandemics. For example, should students in this study report difficulty connecting with peers or their professors due to COVID-19 social distancing measures, colleges could implement efforts to help students to connect with peers and professors (e.g., in-person learning pods or in-person instruction with safe social distancing) despite the pandemic. Understanding how Hispanic students were impacted by the pandemic so that colleges can implement measures to protect their mental health represents a primary objective of this study. For example, should students in this study report difficulty connecting with peers or their professors due to COVID-19 social distancing measures, colleges could implement efforts to help students to connect with peers and professors (e.g., in-person learning pods or in-person instruction with safe social distancing) despite the pandemic. Understanding how Hispanic students were impacted by the pandemic so that colleges can implement measures to protect their mental health represents a primary objective of this study.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-5">The present study</hd> <p>The present study was designed to accomplish three objectives. The first objective was to create and validate a measure of a range of pandemic-related stressors for Hispanic college students. We generated items based on the first author's interactions with Hispanic-focused organizations and Hispanic college students. We used factor analytic procedures to create subscales for the pandemic-related stressors that emerged from the factor analysis.</p> <p>Our second objective was to examine the convergent and divergent validity of these pandemic-related stressors subscale scores vis-à-vis general and acculturative stress, as well as age and nativity. Given that the economic and social impact of the pandemic tended to be greater for Hispanic individuals than for their White counterparts,[<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref45">30</reflink>] we anticipated that the pandemic stress subscale scores would be correlated with indices of general and acculturative stress, suggesting convergent validity. Within the traditional college student age range (16–22), there is little evidence that age is related to pandemic-related stress. Although there is a great deal of evidence that immigrant communities in the United States bore greater health-related burdens from the pandemic,[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref46">31</reflink>] little research has examined whether foreign-born Hispanic young adults were more strongly affected by the pandemic than their U.S. born Hispanic counterparts. As a result, we used age and nativity as indices of divergent validity.</p> <p>Our third objective was to examine these pandemic-related subscale scores as predictors of Hispanic college students' mental health over a 1-year period. We recruited a cohort of students who began their studies at a major public university in Texas during the fall of 2020, when all classes were held online. We allowed pandemic-related stressors scores from this first college semester to predict mental health cross-sectionally (when classes were offered virtually), as well as during the spring of 2021 (when many classes were offered in hybrid form) and during the fall of 2021 (when students were back on campus).</p> <p>In terms of hypotheses, we first expected that the pandemic stress items we generated would cluster onto latent subscale factors representing educational, health-related, relational, societal-level, financial, and death/loss stressors. Second, we hypothesized that pandemic stress subscale scores would be positively related to general and acculturative stress, but unrelated to age and nativity. Third, we anticipated that each of the pandemic-related stressors would relate negatively to self-esteem and hope, and positively to symptoms of depression and anxiety, both cross-sectionally and over time. We also solicited open-ended responses from students and used these responses to further understand students' pandemic-related college experiences. We then generated additional items based on these responses, administered these at Wave 2, and used the subscales resulting from these items (along with Wave 1 pandemic-related stressors) to predict Wave 2 and 3 mental health outcomes. Notably, most items generated based on open-ended responses from Wave 1 related to positive pandemic-related changes. As such, we generated a list of items that assessed positive pandemic-related changes.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-6">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184444287-7">Participants</hd> <p>Data for this study comes from a three-wave longitudinal study focusing on cultural risk and protective factors among Hispanic first-year students enrolled in a public university in central Texas, which had the following ethnic/racial breakdown during baseline data collection: 36.7% White; 24.2% Hispanic; 20.6% Asian; 4.33% Black or African American; 3.56% two or more races/ethnicities;.096% American Indian or Alaskan Native; and.054% Native Hawaian.</p> <p>Baseline data was collected in Fall 2020 from 559 incoming Hispanic first-year students. We reassessed 345 of these students in Spring 2021 and 317 students in Fall 2021. As shown in Table 1, at baseline, about 69% of the students were women, and students ranged in age from 18 – 22 years (<emph>M</emph> = 18.20, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.48). The majority of students (88.1%) were U.S.-born and originally from Texas (96.5%). Students predominantly identified as Mexican or Mexican American (83.8%), and about 63% of students attended high schools where the student population was mostly Hispanic. About 63% of students reported having received free or reduced lunch at their high school. About 40% of students reported speaking mostly or only Spanish at home; 40% reported speaking mostly or only English at home; and about 18% (<emph>N</emph> = 103) spoke English and Spanish equally at home. Approximately two thirds (61.7%) of students perceived that their family's income was "<emph>a little</emph> to <emph>somewhat less"</emph> than the income of other families in their school. About 47% of students reported being a first-generation college student, 54% reported having an immigrant mother, and 51% reported having an immigrant father.</p> <p>Table 1. Demographic characteristics and summary statistics for the overall sample.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Variables</td><td>N (%) or M (SD)</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Covid-19 Impact</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Educational W1</td><td char=".">2.5 (0.95)</td></tr><tr><td> Educational W2</td><td char=".">2.7 (0.89)</td></tr><tr><td> Educational W3</td><td char=".">2.74 (1.00)</td></tr><tr><td> Health W1</td><td char=".">2.11 (1.14)</td></tr><tr><td> Health W2</td><td char=".">2.31 (1.12)</td></tr><tr><td> Relational W1</td><td char=".">1.01 (1.02)</td></tr><tr><td> Relational W2</td><td char=".">1.29 (1.09)</td></tr><tr><td> Societal/General W1</td><td char=".">2.07 (1.04)</td></tr><tr><td> Societal/General W2</td><td char=".">2.1 (1.04)</td></tr><tr><td> Financial W1</td><td char=".">0.78 (0.84)</td></tr><tr><td> Financial W2</td><td char=".">0.9 (0.94)</td></tr><tr><td> Death/Loss W1</td><td char=".">0.6 (1.11)</td></tr><tr><td> Death/Loss W2</td><td char=".">0.76 (1.15)</td></tr><tr><td> Positive W2</td><td char=".">1.63 (0.72)</td></tr><tr><td>Acculturative Stress W1</td><td char=".">1.24 (1.04)</td></tr><tr><td>Acculturative Stress W2</td><td char=".">1.24 (1.07)</td></tr><tr><td>Acculturative Stress W3</td><td char=".">1.31 (1.14)</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived Stress W1</td><td char=".">1.89 (0.81)</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived Stress W2</td><td char=".">1.87 (0.84)</td></tr><tr><td>Perceived Stress W3</td><td char=".">1.89 (0.87)</td></tr><tr><td>Collectivism W1</td><td char=".">6.43 (0.98)</td></tr><tr><td>Collectivism W2</td><td char=".">6.15 (0.98)</td></tr><tr><td>Collectivism W3</td><td char=".">6.19 (0.94)</td></tr><tr><td>Nativity</td><td /></tr><tr><td> US-born</td><td char=".">495 (88.1%)</td></tr><tr><td> Non-US born</td><td char=".">62 (11.0%)</td></tr><tr><td>Hispanic Subgroup(s)</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Mexican or Mexican American</td><td char=".">471 (83.8%)</td></tr><tr><td> Central American</td><td char=".">28 (5.0%)</td></tr><tr><td> Puerto Rican</td><td char=".">17 (3.0%)</td></tr><tr><td> South American</td><td char=".">39 (6.9%)</td></tr><tr><td> Cuban or Cuban American</td><td char=".">11 (2.0%)</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">18.23 (.48)</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Female</td><td char=".">396 (69.4%)</td></tr><tr><td> Male</td><td char=".">166 (29.1%)</td></tr><tr><td> Non-binary</td><td char=".">3 (0.5%)</td></tr><tr><td>Student Employment</td><td /></tr><tr><td> Does Not Work</td><td char=".">402 (70.4%)</td></tr><tr><td> Part-time Work</td><td char=".">143 (25.0%)</td></tr><tr><td> Full-time Work</td><td char=".">8 (1.4%)</td></tr><tr><td>Parent Education</td><td /></tr><tr><td> 8th Grade or Less</td><td char=".">41 (7.3%)</td></tr><tr><td> Some High School</td><td char=".">51 (9.1%)</td></tr><tr><td> High School Graduate</td><td char=".">104 (18.5%)</td></tr><tr><td> Some College</td><td char=".">94 (16.7%)</td></tr><tr><td> College Graduate</td><td char=".">148 (26.3%)</td></tr><tr><td> Advanced Degree</td><td char=".">110 (19.6%)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0184444287-8">Procedure</hd> <p>Students were recruited <emph>via</emph> email announcements to first-year students; social media; Hispanic college organizations; and a Latinx First-year listserv). Eligible students had to self-identify as Latino/Hispanic and be registered for their 1st semester during Fall 2020. Students either received an email containing a Qualtrics survey link (e.g., emails sent to the Hispanic first-year student listserv) or were directed to contact the research team for the Qualtrics survey link (i.e., students recruited through Hispanic college organizations, social media, or announcement in first-year classes). Informed consent/assent was obtained before students filled out the Qualtrics survey and was the same for all students regardless of their age. The survey took approximately 75 min to complete and included a brief demographic section. In Waves 1 and 2 students received a $30 electronic gift card to a store of their choosing or course extra credit. Compensation was increased to $35 at Wave 3. The study was approved by the university's Institutional Review Board.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-9">Measures</hd> <p>All measures (with the exception of the COVID-19 changes) have previously been used in prior studies with Hispanic college students.[[<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref47">32</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref48">34</reflink>]] All measures were averaged, and mean values were used in the analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-10">COVID-19 changes</hd> <p>In Wave 1, we included 58 items (see Appendix A) assessing the degree to which students had experienced negative changes in their lives due to the COVID-19 pandemic (sample statements: "Dropped out of college or deferred enrollment out of uncertainty for the future."; "Weakened relationships with friends and/or family"; "Worry about your or your loved ones dying or falling ill"). The 58 items were specifically developed for this study. Survey items were inspired by survey questions from Hispanic focused COVID-19 questionnaires that were sent <emph>via</emph> email to the first author through professional organizations. The first author, one graduate student, one post-doctoral student, and ten Hispanic undergraduate students reviewed all the items from available questionnaires for developmental appropriateness for use with Hispanic first-year students. Each of the ten undergraduate students also independently developed a list all the changes they had experienced because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The review of existing Hispanic focused questionnaires, along with the list of COVID-19 related changes the ten undergraduate students reported, yielded the 58 COVID-19 items included in Wave 1 of the present study. Students were asked: "Since the coronavirus disease pandemic, what has changed for you?" Students rated the 58 items assessing negative changes at Waves 1 and 2 with the following response scale: 0 = <emph>not applicable/no change</emph>, 1 = <emph>a small amount</emph>, 2 = <emph>moderately</emph>, 3 = <emph>quite a bit</emph>, 4 = <emph>a large amount</emph>. At Wave 1, we also included a 59th open-ended question that asked: "Is there anything else you would like to share with us about how the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted your life?" After completion of Wave 1 data collection, we conducted factor analyses (described below in detail) to identify the factor structure of the 58 negative COVID-19 items. As a result of the factor analyses, we dropped 14 items and retained 44 items tapping into negative COVID-19 changes. We included the remaining 44 items in Wave 2 to assess negative COVID-19 changes. After Wave 1 data collection, we also reviewed answers to the open-ended question we included in Wave 1. Our reviewer of the open-ended question led us to develop and add 17 items assessing positive COVID-19 changes students had experienced. For example, students commented on enjoying more time with family; enjoying a less hectic life; and having started new hobbies/interests due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, at Wave 2, we included 44 items assessing negative and 17 items assessing positive COVID-19 changes, using the following response scale: 0 = <emph>not applicable/no change</emph>, 1 = <emph>a small amount</emph>, 2 = <emph>moderately</emph>, 3 = <emph>quite a bit</emph>, 4 = <emph>a large amount</emph>.</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Symptoms of Anxiety</emph> </bold> were measured at W1, W2, and W3 using the 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7).[<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref49">36</reflink>] Students rated the degree to which a problem bothered them in the past 2 wk on a scale that ranged from 0 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 3 (<emph>nearly every day).</emph> A sample item was: "Worrying too much about different things." In a sample of Latinx Americans, the GAD-7 yielded a Cronbach's alpha of.91.[<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref50">37</reflink>] Cronbach alphas in the current study were:.926 (W1 and W2);.927 (W3).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Symptoms of Depression</emph> </bold> were assessed at W1, W2, and W3 with the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10; sample item: "My sleep was restless"),[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref51">38</reflink>] a shortened version of the original 20-item scale.[<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref52">39</reflink>] The CES-D 10 has also shown good predictive accuracy when compared to the original 20-item scale.[<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref53">38</reflink>] Students indicated how often they had over the past week experienced a certain depressive symptom on a scale ranging from 0 (<emph>rarely or none of the time; less than 1 day</emph>) to 3 (<emph>most or all of the time; 5–7 days</emph>). Cronbach alphas in the present study were.84 (W1),.86 (W2), and.86 (W3).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Hope</emph> </bold> (i.e., goal-related determination and reappraisal of goal-related obstacles) was assessed at W1-W3 using the eight-item Adult Trait Hope scale (AHS; e.g., "Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem"),[<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref54">40</reflink>] on a scale ranging from 1 (<emph>definitely false</emph>) to 8 (<emph>definitely true</emph>). In the present study, Cronbach alphas were:.914 (W1),.913 (W2);.932 (W3).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Self-Esteem</emph> </bold> was measured at W1 – W3 with the 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE).[<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref55">41</reflink>] The scale assessed the degree to which participants endorsed a global self-esteem with higher scores indicating higher global self-esteem. A sample item included: "I feel that I have a number of good qualities." Each item was rated on a scale ranging 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 8 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). In the present study, Cronbach alphas:.92 (W1),.91 (W2);.91 (W3).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Perceived Stress</emph> </bold> was measured at W1-W3 with four items from the Perceived Stress Scale[<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref56">42</reflink>] which assesses how unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloading students find their lives (e.g., "In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them?"). Students rated the frequency of these experiences on a scale ranging from 0 (<emph>never</emph>) to 4 (<emph>very often</emph>) (Cronbach's alphas: W1 =.72, W2 =.75, and W3 =.72).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Acculturative Stress</emph> </bold> was measured at W1-W3 with the Multidimensional Acculturative Stress Inventory (24 items),[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref57">43</reflink>] which assess stress originating from U.S. (e.g., "It bothers me that I speak English with an accent") and Latino sources (e.g., "I feel pressure to speak Spanish"). Students indicated on a scale, ranging from 0 (<emph>not at all stressful</emph>) to 4 (<emph>extremely stressful</emph>), the degree to which items applied to them (Cronbach alphas: W1 =.90, W2 =.91, W3 =.92).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Collectivism</emph> </bold> was assessed at W1-W3 with 16 items from the Collectivism Scale,[<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref58">44</reflink>] which taps into students' orientation toward collectivistic values (e.g., "If a friend or classmate gets a prize, I would be proud"). Students rated items on a Likert Scale ranging from 1 (<emph>Strongly Disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>Strongly Agree</emph>). Cronbach alphas were: W1 =.79, W2 =.80, W3 =.78).</p> <p> <bold> <emph>Nativity</emph> </bold> (<emph>1 = U.S. Born; 0 = Foreign-born</emph>), <bold><emph>age</emph></bold>, <bold><emph>gender</emph></bold> (<emph>1 = female; 0 = male)</emph>, <bold>student employment</bold> (<emph>0 = does not work, 1= works part time, 2 = works full-time</emph>), <bold><emph>mother and father education</emph></bold> (<emph>1 = 8th grade or less, 2 = some high school, 3 = high school graduate, 4 = some college, 5 = college graduate, 6 = advanced degree</emph>) were self-reported. We combined mother and father education into one parent education variable due to their high correlation (<emph>r</emph> =.61).</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-11">Analytic approach</hd> <p>Analyses were conducted in 4 steps. First, we conducted a series of factor analyses to examine the factor structure of the COVID-19 impact items. Specifically, we used students' responses to the 58 items administered at Wave 1 (W1) and conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a geomin rotation.[<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref59">45</reflink>] We conducted EFA five times. At each iteration, we identified unclassified items, due to either low factor loading (<.40) or cross loading (>.30) on at least two factors, and removed unclassified items from the next iteration.[<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref60">46</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref61">47</reflink>] For example, after the first iteration, we dropped six items due low loadings or cross-loadings. As such, we included 52 items in the second EFA iteration. We repeated this process until each item loaded adequately on a single factor (>.40) and did not cross-load (>.30) on two or more factors. To determine the number of factors, we collectively considered model fit statistics (e.g., RMSEA), examination of scree plots, and theoretical meaningfulness of emerging factors. Using the EFA factor loadings and theoretical meanings of emerging factors, we then identified items comprising each factor.</p> <p>Second, using students' responses to the 44 negative COVID-19 change items retained from the Wave 1 factor analyses, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine whether the factor structure from Wave 1 fit student responses in Wave 2. Thus, we included 44 negative COVID-19 items in Wave 2. We also included the 17 positive COVID-19 change items included in Wave 2. In other words, in Wave 2, we retained 44 negative COVID-19 items from the factor analyses conducted using data from Wave 1 and we added 17 positive COVID-19 items. All EFAs and CFAs were conducted using Mplus 8.3;[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref62">48</reflink>] and model fit were assessed using the chi-square index (χ<sups>2</sups>), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the comparative fit index (CFI).[<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref63">49</reflink>] Adequate model fit was defined as RMSEA <.08 and CFI >.90.</p> <p>Third, we tested for construct validity by examining convergent and divergent validity of the COVID-19 factors determined in steps 1 and 2. To do so, we tested bivariate correlations in Mplus version 8.3,[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref64">48</reflink>] between the COVID-19 factor variables that we expected to correlate with perceived and acculturative stress (i.e., convergent) or not correlated with students' age and nativity status (i.e., divergent). As noted above, perceived stress and acculturative stress were used to establish convergent validity. We expected the negative COVID-19 factors to correlate positively with both perceived and acculturative stress. We expected the positive COVID-19 factor to correlate negatively with both perceived and acculturative stress. We used age and collectivism to test for divergent validity. We expected students' age and collectivism to be uncorrelated with any of the COVID-19 factors, assuming that all students (regardless of their age or collectivism values) were similarly impacted by COVID-19 related changes. We did not use other demographic factors such as students' gender or socio-economic status (SES) to test for divergent validity because in prior research COVID-19 was differentially experienced by women and girls (compared to their male counterparts) and individuals with higher SES (compared to individuals with lower SES).[<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref65">50</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref66">51</reflink>]</p> <p>Fourth, we tested for criterion validity by testing for concurrent and predictive validity of the COVID-19 factors determined in steps 1 and 2 by examining their cross-sectional and longitudinal associations with psychological well-being outcomes (i.e., symptoms of depression and anxiety, hope and self-esteem) using a path analysis approach in Mplus version 8.3.[<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref67">48</reflink>] To examine concurrent validity, we examined the associations of W1 COVID factors and W1 psychological well-being outcomes, controlling for age, gender, nativity, student employment, and parental education. To examine predictive validity, we examined the associations of COVID factors at W1 with psychological well-being outcomes at W2 and W3. We expected the negative COVID factors (W1) to be positively associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety (W1-W3); and to be negatively associated with hope and self-esteem (W1-W3). We also expected the positive COVID factor (W2-W3) to be negatively associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety (W2-W3) and to be positively associated with hope and self-esteem (W2-W3).</p> <p>In terms of attrition, of the 559 students who participated in Wave 1, 60.5% (<emph>N</emph> = 345) were retained in Wave 2 and 55.81% (<emph>N</emph> = 317) at Wave 3 (W3). Attrition analyses were conducted to compare participants who took part in all three waves of data collection versus those who dropped out at Waves 2 and 3. Specifically, we examined variables including participants' age, gender, nativity, race/ethnicity, language used at home, school demographic, family income as compared to others at school, ever received free/reduced lunch during high school, parental highest education level, perceived stress, and acculturative stress. We found no difference between groups. However, students who dropped out at Waves 2 and 3 (<emph>M</emph> =.7, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.18) compared to students who stayed (<emph>M</emph> =.48, <emph>SD</emph> = 1.00) reported significantly (<emph>p</emph> =.02) greater changes in the Death/Loss COVID-factor described below. Also, students who dropped out (<emph>M</emph> = 2.88, <emph>SD</emph> =.84) compared to students who stayed (<emph>M</emph> = 2.65, <emph>SD</emph> =.89) reported significantly (<emph>p</emph> =.05) greater changes in the Educational COVID-19 factor described below.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-12">Results</hd> <p>In reporting the results of the present study, we report both statistically and marginally significant results.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-13">Steps 1 and 2: Factor analyses of the Covid-19 impact items</hd> <p>We finalized the COVID-19 impact scale at 44 items and retained these 44 items at Wave 2. Scree plots from the EFA results suggested that five to seven factors were acceptable (see supplemental materials). Considering the theoretical meaning, we identified six conceptually meaningful factors (see Table 2: 1) <emph>educational changes</emph> (7 items); 2) <emph>health-related changes</emph> (11 items); 3) <emph>relational changes</emph> (4 items); 4) <emph>financial changes</emph> (9 items); 5) <emph>societal/general changes</emph> (11 items); 6) <emph>death/loss-related</emph> changes (2 items). At W2, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis with the 44 items identified through the Wave 1 EFAs plus the 17 positive COVID-19 impact items included in the W2 survey only. Because the 17 positive COVID −19 impact items were considered to theoretically load onto a single factor, we tested a factor structure that consisted of seven factors (the six negative COVID-19 impact factors determined through EFAs using wave 1 data plus one positive COVID-19 impact factor; see Table 2): 1) educational changes (7 items; Cronbach alphas: W1 =.85, W2 =.84, W3 =.88); 2) self-mental/physical health-related changes (11 items; Cronbach alphas: W1 & W2 =.93); 3) relational changes (4 items; Cronbach alphas: W1 & W2 =.81); 4) financial changes (9 items; Cronbach alphas: W1 =.81 & W2 =.88); 5) societal/general changes (11 items; Cronbach alphas: W1 =.88; W2 =.90); 6) death/loss-related changes (2 items; W1 =.76; W2 =.74); and 7) positive changes (17 items; W2 =.91). The CFA model had good model fit: χ<sups>2</sups> (DF = 1711) = 2841.026, <emph>p</emph> <.001; RMSEA =.044, 90% CI [.041,.047], CFI =.901. Factor loadings are presented in Table 2. Loadings for all factors were greater than.40 and significant at <emph>p</emph> <.001. Tables 3 and 4 show the autocorrelations among COVID-19 factors, perceived and acculturative stress, collectivism, depressive and anxiety symptoms, hope and self-esteem.</p> <p>Table 2. Results of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) for COVID-19 impact scale (<emph>N</emph> = 345).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Factors/Items</td><td><italic>Beta</italic></td><td><italic>S.E.</italic></td><td><italic>Beta/S.E.</italic></td><td><italic>p-value</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td><bold><italic>Educational</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">3.</td><td>Worsened academic performance in college/high school courses.</td><td char=".">0.720</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">22.560</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">4.</td><td>Difficulty learning class content with remote learning.</td><td char=".">0.728</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">23.064</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">7.</td><td>Had to adjust your study habits and time management to a remote learning style.</td><td char=".">0.544</td><td char=".">0.043</td><td char=".">12.580</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">8.</td><td>Loss of collaborative study groups.</td><td char=".">0.455</td><td char=".">0.048</td><td char=".">9.397</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">9.</td><td>Feeling disconnected from your university or school.</td><td char=".">0.558</td><td char=".">0.043</td><td char=".">13.005</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">10.</td><td>Difficulty establishing rapport with professors or teachers online.</td><td char=".">0.541</td><td char=".">0.044</td><td char=".">12.335</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">11.</td><td>Struggling to meet deadlines for assignments or work-related tasks.</td><td char=".">0.847</td><td char=".">0.023</td><td char=".">36.592</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Self-mental/physical health-related</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">25.</td><td>Increased loneliness or sense of aloneness.</td><td char=".">0.733</td><td char=".">0.027</td><td char=".">27.049</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">26.</td><td>Feelings of being stuck or trapped in your home.</td><td char=".">0.652</td><td char=".">0.033</td><td char=".">19.619</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">28.</td><td>New mental health issues or overall worsening mental health.</td><td char=".">0.797</td><td char=".">0.022</td><td char=".">36.214</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">29.</td><td>Lack of accessibility to online mental health resources.</td><td char=".">0.607</td><td char=".">0.037</td><td char=".">16.518</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">30.</td><td>Sense of hopelessness or doubt around the idea of a new future after the pandemic.</td><td char=".">0.803</td><td char=".">0.021</td><td char=".">37.849</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">31.</td><td>Decreased motivation toward work or daily tasks.</td><td char=".">0.823</td><td char=".">0.020</td><td char=".">41.497</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">32.</td><td>Intense boredom or indifference to activities that you once enjoyed or are now unable to do.</td><td char=".">0.791</td><td char=".">0.023</td><td char=".">34.979</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">34.</td><td>Decrease in self-confidence due to weight gain and/or a decrease in physical activity.</td><td char=".">0.758</td><td char=".">0.025</td><td char=".">30.090</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">35.</td><td>Losing proper coping skills or developing poor coping skills.</td><td char=".">0.860</td><td char=".">0.017</td><td char=".">51.729</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">36.</td><td>Having to put hobbies that helped buffer your intense or draining work life aside due to new life circumstances.</td><td char=".">0.628</td><td char=".">0.035</td><td char=".">17.934</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">38.</td><td>Decline in physical health such as engaging in less physical activity, unhealthy eating habits, poor sleep patterns.</td><td char=".">0.678</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">21.482</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Relational</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">18.</td><td>Weakened relationships with friends and/or family.</td><td char=".">0.652</td><td char=".">0.039</td><td char=".">16.908</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">19.</td><td>Increased family conflict.</td><td char=".">0.746</td><td char=".">0.034</td><td char=".">21.852</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">20.</td><td>Increased hostility with family or friends.</td><td char=".">0.762</td><td char=".">0.034</td><td char=".">22.716</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">23.</td><td>Feeling unsafe in your own home or with your family/loved ones.</td><td char=".">0.612</td><td char=".">0.041</td><td char=".">14.902</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Societal/General</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">21.</td><td>Inability to see family and friends during religious holidays and events.</td><td char=".">0.514</td><td char=".">0.042</td><td char=".">12.125</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">24.</td><td>Increased worry surrounding your own health and/or the health of others.</td><td char=".">0.688</td><td char=".">0.031</td><td char=".">22.159</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">37.</td><td>Worry about you or your loved ones dying or falling ill.</td><td char=".">0.700</td><td char=".">0.030</td><td char=".">23.091</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">41.</td><td>Loss of trust in the local or federal government's ability to protect you and your loved ones.</td><td char=".">0.672</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">20.692</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">42.</td><td>Feeling guilt by association to your age group and their lack of taking proper precautions.</td><td char=".">0.817</td><td char=".">0.022</td><td char=".">37.126</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">43.</td><td>Feeling unable to participate in protests, rallies, and other forms of in-person advocation for the Black Lives Matter Movement or other protests.</td><td char=".">0.723</td><td char=".">0.029</td><td char=".">25.036</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">45.</td><td>Seeing people in your community experience inequitable medical help due to their race/ethnicity.</td><td char=".">0.640</td><td char=".">0.035</td><td char=".">18.230</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">46</td><td>Having more time to reflect on the state of the world and your position in it.</td><td char=".">0.712</td><td char=".">0.031</td><td char=".">23.018</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Societal/General (cont.)</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">47.</td><td>Difficulty understanding the reality of the pandemic out of inaccessibility to credible scientific research or information.</td><td char=".">0.600</td><td char=".">0.038</td><td char=".">15.664</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">48.</td><td>Trying to separate the politicization of the virus from the scientific basis of the pandemic.</td><td char=".">0.531</td><td char=".">0.042</td><td char=".">12.638</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">53.</td><td>A looming sense of doom or fear about contracting COVID-19.</td><td char=".">0.704</td><td char=".">0.031</td><td char=".">22.702</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Financial</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">2.</td><td>Cannot afford college or school due to lack of employment.</td><td char=".">0.593</td><td char=".">0.039</td><td char=".">15.362</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">13.</td><td>Unable to find employment.</td><td char=".">0.632</td><td char=".">0.036</td><td char=".">17.688</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">14.</td><td>Loss of job or experienced reduced workload/income.</td><td char=".">0.696</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">21.573</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">15.</td><td>Your family had to use money from a savings account or retirement fund out of decrease in income or extra expenses.</td><td char=".">0.738</td><td char=".">0.030</td><td char=".">24.637</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">16.</td><td>Feeling restless in your current job or position.</td><td char=".">0.595</td><td char=".">0.038</td><td char=".">15.579</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">54.</td><td>Having to relocate homes or experience changes in your living situation.</td><td char=".">0.576</td><td char=".">0.041</td><td char=".">13.967</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">55.</td><td>Experiencing hardship surrounding COVID-19 testing-cost, multiple tests, long waiting period for results, inaccessibility to nearby testing centers.</td><td char=".">0.724</td><td char=".">0.031</td><td char=".">23.686</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">56.</td><td>Carrying the burden of your family's financial struggles or hardship.</td><td char=".">0.747</td><td char=".">0.028</td><td char=".">26.842</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">58.</td><td>Depleting expendable income on health care costs or medical needs.</td><td char=".">0.732</td><td char=".">0.029</td><td char=".">25.448</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Death/Loss-related</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td char=".">51.</td><td>Death of family members due to COVID-19.</td><td char=".">0.783</td><td char=".">0.042</td><td char=".">18.591</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td char=".">52.</td><td>Death of friends due to COVID-19.</td><td char=".">0.757</td><td char=".">0.042</td><td char=".">17.903</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold><italic>Positive Impacts</italic></bold></td></tr><tr><td>P1.</td><td>Enjoy more time with family.</td><td char=".">0.535</td><td char=".">0.042</td><td char=".">12.590</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P2.</td><td>Enjoy more time at home.</td><td char=".">0.452</td><td char=".">0.047</td><td char=".">9.643</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P3.</td><td>Enjoy more time taking care of someone/something else (e.g., family members, plants, living spaces, home, etc.).</td><td char=".">0.524</td><td char=".">0.043</td><td char=".">12.128</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P4.</td><td>Become closer to family members.</td><td char=".">0.600</td><td char=".">0.039</td><td char=".">15.546</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P5.</td><td>Spend more time taking care of myself.</td><td char=".">0.691</td><td char=".">0.033</td><td char=".">21.028</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P6.</td><td>Enjoy more time outside in the sun/in nature.</td><td char=".">0.650</td><td char=".">0.035</td><td char=".">18.444</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P7.</td><td>Enjoy more time exercising (any form of physical movement).</td><td char=".">0.588</td><td char=".">0.039</td><td char=".">15.130</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P8.</td><td>Enjoy a less hectic life/have more time to relax.</td><td char=".">0.689</td><td char=".">0.032</td><td char=".">21.388</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P9.</td><td>Spend less time commuting (e.g., to school or work) or none at all.</td><td char=".">0.409</td><td char=".">0.048</td><td char=".">8.444</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P10.</td><td>Increase efforts to connect socially (e.g., virtual happy hours, game night, etc.).</td><td char=".">0.560</td><td char=".">0.041</td><td char=".">13.635</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P11.</td><td>Increase focus on personal health.</td><td char=".">0.770</td><td char=".">0.026</td><td char=".">29.249</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P12.</td><td>Connect with loved ones through any social media.</td><td char=".">0.673</td><td char=".">0.034</td><td char=".">20.018</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P13.</td><td>Engage in any mindfulness related activities (therapy, meditation, yoga).</td><td char=".">0.633</td><td char=".">0.036</td><td char=".">17.572</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P14.</td><td>Start new hobbies/interests.</td><td char=".">0.667</td><td char=".">0.034</td><td char=".">19.834</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P15.</td><td>Spend more time on established hobbies.</td><td char=".">0.653</td><td char=".">0.035</td><td char=".">18.595</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P16.</td><td>Learn to be more empathetic toward others.</td><td char=".">0.664</td><td char=".">0.034</td><td char=".">19.666</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr><tr><td>P17.</td><td>Learn to budget or manage money.</td><td char=".">0.611</td><td char=".">0.038</td><td char=".">16.123</td><td char=".">0.000</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> All estimates are standardized regression coefficients. ***<emph>p</emph> <.001; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; *<emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <p>Table 3. Autocorrelations among the negative COVID-19 factors at W1, W2, and W3.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td><td char=".">8</td><td char=".">9</td><td char=".">10</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">12</td><td char=".">13</td><td char=".">14</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1</td><td>Educational W1</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Educational W2</td><td char=".">.65***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Educational W3</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.50***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Health W1</td><td char=".">.65***</td><td char=".">.54***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Health W2</td><td char=".">.53***</td><td char=".">.69***</td><td char=".">.36***</td><td char=".">.67***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Relational W1</td><td char=".">.38***</td><td char=".">.42***</td><td char=".">.25***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.48***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Relational W2</td><td char=".">.33***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.15*</td><td char=".">.40***</td><td char=".">.65***</td><td char=".">.61***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Societal/General W1</td><td char=".">.49***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.37***</td><td char=".">.69***</td><td char=".">.56***</td><td char=".">.44***</td><td char=".">.35***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Societal/General W2</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.31***</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.71***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.56***</td><td char=".">.68***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Financial W1</td><td char=".">.39***</td><td char=".">.35***</td><td char=".">.21***</td><td char=".">.47***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.45***</td><td char=".">.38***</td><td char=".">.47***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Financial W2</td><td char=".">.31***</td><td char=".">.43***</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.28***</td><td char=".">.48***</td><td char=".">.40***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.29***</td><td char=".">.51***</td><td char=".">.64***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Death/Loss W1</td><td char=".">.13**</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.17***</td><td char=".">.13*</td><td char=".">.20***</td><td char=".">.15**</td><td char=".">.26***</td><td char=".">.18**</td><td char=".">.34***</td><td>.24***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Death/Loss W2</td><td char=".">.12*</td><td char=".">.20***</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.26***</td><td char=".">.20***</td><td char=".">.39***</td><td char=".">.13*</td><td char=".">.38***</td><td char=".">.29***</td><td>.52***</td><td char=".">.44***</td><td>–</td><td /></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Positive W2</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char="."><.01</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.17**</td><td char=".">.28***</td><td char=".">.12*</td><td>.17**</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.22***</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>2 <emph>Note.</emph> ***<emph>p</emph> <.001; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; *<emph>p</emph> <.05. We did not include Covid-19 health, relational, societal/general, financial, death/loss, positive subscales at Wave 3 as they were no longer relevant. We did not include a W1 positive Covid-19 scale because we only assessed it at W2 and as such have no autocorrelations.</p> <p>Table 4. Autocorrelations among perceived and acculturative stress, depressive and anxiety symptoms, hope and self-esteem at W1, W2, and W3.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td /><td /><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td><td char=".">5</td><td char=".">6</td><td char=".">7</td><td char=".">8</td><td char=".">9</td><td char=".">10</td><td char=".">11</td><td char=".">12</td><td char=".">13</td><td char=".">14</td><td char=".">15</td><td char=".">16</td><td char=".">17</td><td char=".">18</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1</td><td>Per. St. W1</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2</td><td>Per. St. W2</td><td char=".">.63***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>Per. St. W3</td><td char=".">.50***</td><td char=".">.58***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4</td><td>Acc. St. W1</td><td char=".">.32***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5</td><td>Acc. St. W2</td><td char=".">.30***</td><td char=".">.35***</td><td char=".">.32***</td><td char=".">.70***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>6</td><td>Acc. St. W3</td><td char=".">.26***</td><td char=".">.29***</td><td char=".">.34***</td><td char=".">.69***</td><td char=".">.72***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>7</td><td>Dep. Sx W1</td><td char=".">.72***</td><td char=".">.57***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.34***</td><td char=".">.31***</td><td char=".">.25***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>8</td><td>Dep. Sx W2</td><td char=".">.59***</td><td char=".">.78***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.38***</td><td char=".">.29***</td><td char=".">.63***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>9</td><td>Dep. Sx W3</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.53***</td><td char=".">.70***</td><td char=".">.36***</td><td char=".">.32***</td><td char=".">.36***</td><td char=".">.62***</td><td char=".">.59***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>10</td><td>Anx. Sx W1</td><td char=".">.67***</td><td char=".">.54***</td><td char=".">.41***</td><td char=".">.35***</td><td char=".">.31***</td><td char=".">.30***</td><td char=".">.75***</td><td char=".">.59***</td><td char=".">.50***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>11</td><td>Anx. Sx W2</td><td char=".">.51***</td><td char=".">.69***</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.44***</td><td char=".">.39***</td><td char=".">.37***</td><td char=".">.53***</td><td char=".">.75***</td><td char=".">.51***</td><td char=".">.63***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>12</td><td>Anx. Sx W3</td><td char=".">.47***</td><td char=".">.46***</td><td char=".">.66***</td><td char=".">.39***</td><td char=".">.38***</td><td char=".">.42***</td><td char=".">.57***</td><td char=".">.54***</td><td char=".">.76***</td><td char=".">.61***</td><td char=".">.64***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>13</td><td>Hope W1</td><td char=".">−0.52***</td><td char=".">−0.46***</td><td char=".">−0.40***</td><td char=".">−0.09*</td><td char=".">−0.12*</td><td char="."><-0.01</td><td char=".">−0.48***</td><td char=".">−0.40***</td><td char=".">−0.40***</td><td char=".">−0.32***</td><td char=".">−0.31***</td><td char=".">−0.32***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>14</td><td>Hope W2</td><td char=".">−0.46***</td><td char=".">−0.54***</td><td char=".">−0.42***</td><td char=".">−0.17**</td><td char=".">−0.15**</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">−0.43***</td><td char=".">−0.53***</td><td char=".">−0.33***</td><td char=".">−0.29***</td><td char=".">−0.35***</td><td char=".">−0.26***</td><td char=".">.64***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>15</td><td>Hope W3</td><td char=".">−0.47***</td><td char=".">−0.47***</td><td char=".">−0.54***</td><td char=".">−0.10</td><td char=".">−0.16*</td><td char=".">−0.09</td><td char=".">−0.45***</td><td char=".">−0.48***</td><td char=".">−0.48***</td><td char=".">−0.32***</td><td char=".">−0.31***</td><td char=".">−0.39***</td><td char=".">.62***</td><td char=".">.64***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>16</td><td>Self-est. W1</td><td char=".">−0.52***</td><td char=".">−0.47***</td><td char=".">−0.39***</td><td char=".">−0.10*</td><td char=".">−0.14*</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">−0.43***</td><td char=".">−0.43***</td><td char=".">−0.36***</td><td char=".">−0.33***</td><td char=".">−0.30***</td><td char=".">−0.26***</td><td char=".">.68***</td><td char=".">.56***</td><td char=".">.48***</td><td>–</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>17</td><td>Self-est. W2</td><td char=".">−0.43***</td><td char=".">−0.58***</td><td char=".">−0.45***</td><td char=".">−0.17**</td><td char=".">−0.15**</td><td char=".">−0.09</td><td char=".">−0.34***</td><td char=".">−0.53***</td><td char=".">−0.40***</td><td char=".">−0.24***</td><td char=".">−0.39***</td><td char=".">−0.29***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">62***</td><td char=".">.52***</td><td char=".">.71***</td><td>–</td><td /></tr><tr><td>18</td><td>Self-est. W3</td><td char=".">−0.45***</td><td char=".">−0.46***</td><td char=".">−0.55***</td><td char=".">−0.14*</td><td char=".">−0.15*</td><td char=".">−0.12</td><td char=".">−0.35***</td><td char=".">−0.45***</td><td char=".">−0.42***</td><td char=".">−0.28***</td><td char=".">−0.32***</td><td char=".">−0.31***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.55***</td><td char=".">.64***</td><td char=".">.62***</td><td char=".">.67***</td><td>–</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>3 <emph>Note.</emph> ***<emph>p</emph> <.001; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; *<emph>p</emph> <.05.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-14">Step 3: Examining convergent and divergent validity</hd> <p>Next, we examined convergent validity by exploring the relationships among the seven COVID-19 impact factors, perceived stress, and acculturative stress. As shown in Table 5, perceived stress at all three study waves was positively correlated with the negative COVID-19 factors at all three waves (with the exception of the death/loss factors which was positively correlated with W2 and W3 perceived stress at W1 only). Perceived stress at all three waves was negatively correlated with the W2 positive COVID-19 factor. Moreover, acculturative stress at all three waves was positively correlated with all the negative COVID-19 factors at all three waves. Acculturative stress (only at W2) was also positively correlated with the positive COVID 19 factor at all three waves. We also determined divergent validity by exploring correlations of the seven COVID impact factors with students' age and collectivism values. Age across all waves was significantly correlated with the financial COVID-19 impact factors at W1. Only age at Wave 1 was significantly correlated with the financial COVID-19 impact factor at W1 and only age at Wave 2 was significantly correlated with the death/loss COVID-19 factor at W2. Collectivism at W1, W2, and W3 was significantly correlated with the societal/general COVID-19 factor at W1. Collectivism at W1 and W2 was correlated with the societal/general COVID-19 factor at W1 and W2 but not W3. Collectivism at W1, W2, and W3 was also significantly correlated with the financial COVID-19 factor at W1 and only collectivism at W1 was correlated with the financial COVID-19 factor at W2. Collectivism at W1 was also significantly correlated with the death/loss COVID-19 factor at W1 and W2. Collectivism at W2 was only correlated with the death/loss factor at W2. Lastly, collectivism across all Waves was correlated with the positive COVID-19 factor.</p> <p>Table 5. Correlations between covid 19 impact subscales, perceived stress, acculturative stress, age, and collectivism at waves 1, 2, and 3.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Covid-19 Variable</td><td>Perceived Stress W1</td><td>Perceived Stress W2</td><td>Perceived Stress W3</td><td>Accult. Stress W1</td><td>Accult. Stress W2</td><td>Accult. Stress W3</td><td>Age W1</td><td>Age W2</td><td>Age W3</td><td>Collecti. W1</td><td>Collecti.W2</td><td>Collecti. W3</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational W1</td><td char=".">.422***</td><td char=".">.382***</td><td char=".">.310***</td><td char=".">.361***</td><td char=".">.429***</td><td char=".">.304***</td><td char=".">.012</td><td char=".">.073</td><td char=".">.064</td><td char=".">.075</td><td char=".">.038</td><td char=".">.087</td></tr><tr><td>Educational W2</td><td char=".">.382***</td><td char=".">.404***</td><td char=".">.318***</td><td char=".">.338***</td><td char=".">.391***</td><td char=".">.345***</td><td char=".">−0.036</td><td char=".">−0.088</td><td char=".">−0.039</td><td char=".">.017</td><td char=".">.036</td><td char=".">.035</td></tr><tr><td>Educational W3</td><td char=".">.221***</td><td char=".">.219***</td><td char=".">.298***</td><td char=".">.187***</td><td char=".">.263***</td><td char=".">.246***</td><td char=".">−0.030</td><td char=".">.055</td><td char=".">.029</td><td char=".">.015</td><td char=".">−0.055</td><td char=".">.111</td></tr><tr><td>Health W1</td><td char=".">.606***</td><td char=".">.534***</td><td char=".">.478***</td><td char=".">.457***</td><td char=".">.469***</td><td char=".">.422***</td><td char=".">−0.010</td><td char=".">.090</td><td char=".">.053</td><td char=".">.045</td><td char=".">.081</td><td char=".">.113</td></tr><tr><td>Health W2</td><td char=".">.508***</td><td char=".">.605***</td><td char=".">.541***</td><td char=".">.449***</td><td char=".">.494***</td><td char=".">.386***</td><td char=".">−0.004</td><td char=".">.063</td><td char=".">.046</td><td char=".">.007</td><td char=".">−0.038</td><td char=".">.026</td></tr><tr><td>Relational W1</td><td char=".">.351***</td><td char=".">.335***</td><td char=".">.314***</td><td char=".">.400***</td><td char=".">.436***</td><td char=".">.354***</td><td char=".">.042</td><td char=".">.070</td><td char=".">.038</td><td char=".">−0.028</td><td char=".">.038</td><td char=".">.057</td></tr><tr><td>Relational W2</td><td char=".">.337***</td><td char=".">.369***</td><td char=".">.309***</td><td char=".">.392***</td><td char=".">.423***</td><td char=".">.366***</td><td char=".">.040</td><td char=".">.056</td><td char=".">.018</td><td char=".">.030</td><td char=".">.035</td><td char=".">−0.003</td></tr><tr><td>Societal/General W1</td><td char=".">.341***</td><td char=".">.349***</td><td char=".">.387***</td><td char=".">.513***</td><td char=".">.501***</td><td char=".">.455***</td><td char=".">−0.006</td><td char=".">.086</td><td char=".">.100</td><td char=".">.149***</td><td char=".">.207***</td><td char=".">.228***</td></tr><tr><td>Societal/General W2</td><td char=".">.320***</td><td char=".">.337***</td><td char=".">.323***</td><td char=".">.426***</td><td char=".">.498***</td><td char=".">.397***</td><td char=".">.008</td><td char=".">.103</td><td char=".">.051</td><td char=".">.116*</td><td char=".">.124*</td><td char=".">.088</td></tr><tr><td>Financial W1</td><td char=".">.275***</td><td char=".">.247***</td><td char=".">.270***</td><td char=".">.403***</td><td char=".">.432***</td><td char=".">.405***</td><td char=".">.125**</td><td char=".">.226***</td><td char=".">.138*</td><td char=".">.213***</td><td char=".">.112*</td><td char=".">.168**</td></tr><tr><td>Financial W2</td><td char=".">.219***</td><td char=".">.233***</td><td char=".">.172**</td><td char=".">.389***</td><td char=".">.477***</td><td char=".">.403***</td><td char=".">.124*</td><td char=".">.106</td><td char=".">.067</td><td char=".">.148**</td><td char=".">.104</td><td char=".">.002</td></tr><tr><td>Death/Loss W1</td><td char=".">.076</td><td char=".">.119*</td><td char=".">.187**</td><td char=".">.255***</td><td char=".">.181**</td><td char=".">.248***</td><td char=".">.007</td><td char=".">−0.018</td><td char=".">.020</td><td char=".">.136**</td><td char=".">.097</td><td char=".">.109</td></tr><tr><td>Death/Loss W2</td><td char=".">.067</td><td char=".">.090</td><td char=".">.066</td><td char=".">.241***</td><td char=".">.277***</td><td char=".">.228***</td><td char=".">.101</td><td char=".">.113*</td><td char=".">.111</td><td char=".">.194**</td><td char=".">.127*</td><td char=".">.106</td></tr><tr><td>Positive W2</td><td char=".">−0.167**</td><td char=".">−0.194***</td><td char=".">−0.107</td><td char=".">.089</td><td char=".">.155**</td><td char=".">.175**</td><td char=".">.040</td><td char=".">.036</td><td char=".">.101</td><td char=".">.160**</td><td char=".">.257***</td><td char=".">.237***</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>4 <emph>Note.</emph> ***<emph>p</emph> <.001; **<emph>p</emph> <.01; *<emph>p</emph> <.05; We did not assess for the Covid-19 health, relational, societal/general, financial, death/loss, positive subscales at Wave 3 as they were no longer relevant.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-15">Step 4: Examining concurrent and predictive validity</hd> <p>As shown in Tables 6 and 7, with regard to concurrent validity, greater COVID-19 mental/physical health changes were associated with more symptoms of depression and anxiety, and with lower hope and self-esteem. Moreover, greater COVID-19 relational changes were associated with lower hope and self-esteem. Unexpectedly, greater COVID-19 societal/general changes were associated with greater hope. With regard to predictive validity, greater W1 mental/physical COVID-19 related health changes were associated with more symptoms of depression and anxiety at W2 and W3, and with lower hope and self-esteem at W2 and W3. Moreover, higher COVID-19 relational changes at W1 were associated with higher W2 symptoms of depression and anxiety, lower hope and self-esteem, and with higher symptoms of anxiety at W3 (but only marginally significant). Higher COVID-19 societal/general changes at W1 were associated with greater hope (W1 and W2) and self-esteem (W1). Higher financial changes at W1 were associated with greater anxiety and self-esteem at W2 and with greater anxiety at W3 (only marginally significant). Death/Loss related changes at W1 were associated with higher anxiety (W2, marginally significant), and lower hope (W2 and W3), and lower self-esteem (W2). Lastly, positive COVID 19 changes at W1 were associated with lower W2 anxiety (only marginally significant) and higher hope (W2 and W3) and higher self-esteem (W2 and W3).</p> <p>Table 6. Predictive effects of COVID stress factors on depressive and anxiety symptoms.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Outcomes</td><td>Symptoms of Depression (D)</td><td>Symptoms of Anxiety (A)</td></tr><tr><td>W1</td><td>W2</td><td>W3</td><td>W1</td><td>W2</td><td>W3</td></tr><tr><td>Covid Factors W1</td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.318</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.772</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.497</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.441</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.905</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.353</td></tr><tr><td>Health</td><td char=".">.69</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.34</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.45</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">0.000</td><td char=".">.51</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.30</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.34</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.000</td></tr><tr><td>Relational</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.482</td><td char=".">.17</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.002</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.162</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.528</td><td char=".">.12</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.028</td><td char=".">.11</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.064</td></tr><tr><td>Societal/General</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.792</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.862</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.749</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.927</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.881</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.376</td></tr><tr><td>Financial</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.939</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.170</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.318</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.315</td><td char=".">.21</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.123</td></tr><tr><td>Death/Loss</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.992</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.157</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.227</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.692</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.045</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.181</td></tr><tr><td>Positive (W2)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td char=".">−0.22</td><td /><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">−0.09</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.121</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td char=".">−0.08</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.082</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.290</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Covariates W1</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.610</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.341</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.792</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.517</td><td char=".">−0.12</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.011</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.460</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.323</td><td char=".">−0.07</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.142</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.376</td><td char=".">−0.11</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.002</td><td char=".">−0.10</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.036</td><td char=".">−0.13</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.020</td></tr><tr><td>Nativity</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.725</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.969</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.460</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.945</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.886</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.611</td></tr><tr><td>Employment</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.421</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.053</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.493</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.335</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.764</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.898</td></tr><tr><td>Parent education</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.060</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.247</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.584</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.141</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.526</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.577</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>5 <emph>Note.</emph> All estimates are standardized regression coefficients.</p> <p>Table 7. Predictive effects of COVID stress factors on hope and self-esteem.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Outcomes</td><td>Hope</td><td>Self-Esteem</td></tr><tr><td>W1</td><td>W2</td><td>W3</td><td>W1</td><td>W2</td><td>W3</td></tr><tr><td>Covid Factors W1</td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td><td><italic>β</italic></td><td>SE</td><td><italic>p</italic></td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.960</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.770</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.654</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.960</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.763</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.795</td></tr><tr><td>Health</td><td char=".">−0.47</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">−0.29</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">−0.29</td><td char=".">.10</td><td char=".">.002</td><td char=".">−0.37</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">−0.33</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">−0.25</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.008</td></tr><tr><td>Relational</td><td char=".">−0.10</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.011</td><td char=".">−0.15</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.014</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.528</td><td char=".">−0.13</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.011</td><td char=".">−0.12</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.041</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.610</td></tr><tr><td>Societal/General</td><td char=".">.21</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.004</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.248</td><td char=".">.21</td><td char=".">.09</td><td char=".">.013</td><td char=".">.17</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.004</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.480</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.717</td></tr><tr><td>Financial</td><td char=".">.11</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.186</td><td char=".">.13</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.038</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.992</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.186</td><td char=".">.16</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.012</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.741</td></tr><tr><td>Death/Loss</td><td char=".">−0.05</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.354</td><td char=".">−0.11</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.035</td><td char=".">−0.07</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.186</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.354</td><td char=".">−0.10</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.048</td><td char=".">−0.06</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.243</td></tr><tr><td>Positive (W2)</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td char=".">.32</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.18</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.003</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td>–</td><td char=".">.32</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.000</td><td char=".">.26</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.000</td></tr><tr><td><bold>Covariates (W1)</bold></td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.267</td><td char=".">−0.11</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.028</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.919</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.267</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.804</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.224</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.551</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.759</td><td char=".">.02</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.722</td><td char=".">.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.551</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.139</td><td char=".">−0.01</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.819</td></tr><tr><td>Nativity</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.513</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.298</td><td char=".">−0.02</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.771</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.513</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.815</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.830</td></tr><tr><td>Employment</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.801</td><td char=".">−0.03</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.563</td><td char=".">.00</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.996</td><td char=".">.01</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.801</td><td char=".">−0.04</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.448</td><td char=".">−0.08</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.214</td></tr><tr><td>Parent Education</td><td char=".">.11</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.105</td><td char=".">.14</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.007</td><td char=".">12</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.046</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.04</td><td char=".">.105</td><td char=".">.07</td><td char=".">.05</td><td char=".">.228</td><td char=".">.08</td><td char=".">.06</td><td char=".">.197</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>6 <emph>Note.</emph> All estimates are standardized regression coefficients.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-16">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study was designed to examine the concurrent and predictive effects of pandemic-related changes vis-à-vis mental health outcomes among Hispanic college students in Texas during and following pandemic-related campus closures. We generated and factor-analyzed survey items related to educational, health-related, relational, societal, financial, and death/loss stressors attributable to the pandemic, and we used students' open-ended descriptions of the impact of the pandemic to generate positive pandemic impact items for the second survey wave. We ascertained the convergent and divergent validity of these subscale scores vis-à-vis general and acculturative stressors and vis-à-vis age and collectivism. We also examined the predictive effects of the pandemic-related stressors and impacts vis-à-vis self-esteem, hope, and symptoms of depression and anxiety.</p> <p>Supporting our first hypothesis, statistically reliable subscale factors emerged for each of the pandemic-related stressors domains for which we generated items. Forty-four of the original 58 items were retained in the final version of the scale, and Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients ranged from.74 to.93. As a result, the items we generated appear to reflect the negative impact of pandemic-related stressors and lockdowns on Hispanic college students attending a public university in Texas. While many scholars have written about possible COVID-19 stressors college students experienced,[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref69">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref70">25</reflink>]]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref71">29</reflink>] we could not identify any measure designed to capture these stressors as most COVID-19 impact studies assessed COVID-19 related anxiety, obsession, and assurance-seeking behaviors.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref72">23</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref73">24</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref74">26</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref75">29</reflink>] Although the COVID-19 pandemic has ended, future pandemics may emerge, and the possibility remains that they may be at least as severe as COVID-19 has been. As a result, the present measure may be useful in the future.</p> <p>A somewhat surprising finding was the predominance of positive effects of the pandemic among students' open-ended responses. Students listed effects such as spending more time with family, starting new hobbies or interests, spending less time commuting, and enjoying more time outside. The fact that students discussed positive pandemic-related experiences were surprising because most studies on pandemic-related effects reported on the negative or aversive.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref76">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref77">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref78">25</reflink>]]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref79">29</reflink>] However, some students may have benefited from the lockdowns that forced many people to focus away from work or school and toward family, self-care, and leisure pursuits, resulting in positive COVID-19 related changes.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref80">52</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref81">53</reflink>] For example, some college students coped with the pandemic by focusing on its benefits such as being able to focus on personal growth, learning to be grateful, and finding clarity about the future.[<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref82">52</reflink>] Relatedly, some students experienced relationship strain with peers caused by COVID-19 lockdowns while others experienced increased relationship closeness.[<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref83">53</reflink>] Positive changes may not have been unique to college students and further research is needed to identify potential positive pandemic-related effects that might have emerged in other age and social groups.</p> <p>Consistent with our second hypothesis regarding convergent validity, all of the pandemic-related stressors were significantly and positively associated with acculturative stress, and all but death/loss stressors were related to general stress. Given that the pandemic served to widen many existing social inequalities,[<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref84">31</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref85">54</reflink>] it is not surprising that individuals who experienced more difficulties associated with language or other aspects of cultural adaptation appeared to be more likely to report greater pandemic-related stress in all of the areas we examined. Surprisingly, acculturative stress was correlated with higher positive COVID-19 changes, suggesting that students who with greater acculturative stress may have experienced more positive COVID-19 changes or vice versa. Because the measure used to tap into acculturative stress assessed interpersonal stressors,[<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref86">43</reflink>] it is possible that the lockdown protected students from acculturative stress as they had less interpersonal contact and fewer opportunities for acculturative stress.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref87">25</reflink>]</p> <p>The associations between pandemic-related and general stress may reflect a stress accumulation effect, whereby pandemic-related financial problems, educational challenges, difficulties with friendships and romantic relationships, and health-related changes may have contributed to higher overall life stress. This is also consistent with studies indicating that pandemic-related closures and changes contributed to college students' distress.[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref88">25</reflink>] All told, these findings reinforce the theme that Hispanic college students, especially those facing higher levels of culturally related challenges, were adversely affected by the pandemic.[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref89">54</reflink>] As Gil et al.[<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref90">55</reflink>] have suggested, COVID-19 was a social, cultural, and biological pandemic. As such, developing and implementing policies to decrease or reverse the effects that it has caused for Hispanic populations (including college students) in the United States can help protect their mental health.</p> <p>Findings for divergent validity vis-à-vis age and collectivism were largely, but not universally, nonsignificant. Age was significantly and positively related to financial and death/loss stressors. Older students may have been more likely to hold jobs from which they were separated because of the lockdowns, or they may have experienced difficulties finding work to meet their expenses. They may also have been more likely to have older parents whose risks for death from COVID-19 would have been greater. Collectivism was significantly and positively related with societal/general, financial, death and loss, and positive COVID-19 changes. It is possible that students with higher collectivism values might have experienced changes in these domains more strongly because of their interdependent orientation toward others. However, future research is needed to fully understand the role of collectivism values in students' pandemic-related experiences.</p> <p>Findings for the positive pandemic-related effects were partially consistent with our hypotheses. Positive pandemic-related effects were inversely related to general stress at all study waves, but were positively related to acculturative stress at Waves 2 and 3. It is possible that the positive pandemic-related effects that students mentioned, such as being home more and spending more time with family members, may have increased perceived pressures to behave in accordance with the family's cultural heritage. For example, students who had grown accustomed to being in English-speaking schools with more Americanized friends may have experienced some culture shock upon being locked down with traditionally oriented family members. Given that we could not identify other studies examining positive pandemic related changes, more research is needed to understand the dynamics between positive pandemic-related changes stress and Hispanic students' mental health.</p> <p>Third, among the pandemic-related stressor subscales, health-related stressors were most consistently related, both cross-sectionally and over time, to lower reports of self-esteem and hope and to greater symptoms of depression and anxiety. Because the messaging around the coronavirus was largely fear based, it is possible that students in the present study were terrified about getting ill and dying or about passing on the virus to another person.[<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref91">23</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref92">24</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref93">26</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref94">29</reflink>] As a result of these dynamics, health-related stressors were most consistently related with students' mental health and well-being. Relational stressors, which centered on family conflicts and on problems with friends and family members, were associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety; and with lower levels of self-esteem and hope. Social issues-related stressors were linked with increased self-esteem and hope, but not with symptoms of depression or anxiety. The fact that societal stressors related with increased hope and self-esteem was surprising. It is possible that students cope with the uncertainty of the pandemic through positive thinking about themselves and the future, contributing to higher hope and self-esteem. It was Death/loss stressors were associated with symptoms of anxiety and with lower levels of hope and self-esteem. Surprisingly, education related pandemic stressors were not related, either cross-sectionally or longitudinally, to any of the mental health outcome variables.</p> <p>Unexpectedly, financial stressors were <emph>positively</emph> related to hope and to self-esteem. Although these findings are difficult to interpret, they may reflect an optimistic anticipation at the beginning of the pandemic that financial conditions would improve once the lockdowns ended and businesses were allowed to reopen. Students may have externalized these financial stressors, knowing that they had not done anything to cause these problems. These findings are counterintuitive and future research could benefit from qualitative or mixed method approaches to explore further what these results might mean.</p> <p>The present findings suggest that the measure that we developed as part of the present study appears to reflect the concerns that Hispanic college students in Texas perceived during and following the pandemic-related lockdowns. Results obtained using this measure are consistent with other work indicating that pandemic-related stressors are linked with other types of stressors occurring in the lives of these individuals,[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref95">25</reflink>] and that the social and health effects of the pandemic may have impacted those people who were already most burdened with other general and culturally related sources of stress.[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref96">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref97">54</reflink>] Indeed, these findings are consistent with research on natural disasters suggesting that the most socially vulnerable people – that is, those characterized by the greatest existing social and socioeconomic disparities – are most likely to suffer the most severe effects from the disaster.[<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref98">56</reflink>]</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-17">Limitations</hd> <p>This study has at least five important limitations. First, the present sample was not randomly selected. Rather, students were recruited from classes, first-year student mailing lists, Hispanic organizations, and social media advertisements. As such, we may not have reached all Hispanic first-year students in our recruitment efforts and our findings may not generalize to all Hispanic first-year students at the university or in the state of Texas as a whole. Most students in this study identified as female, reported being foreign-born and of Mexican origin. Because the university does not provide public data on the demographic breakdown of their Hispanic student population, we were unable to compare students in the present study to those enrolled at the university. However, given that the Hispanic population in Texas is predominantly of Mexican origin (84%), we believe that we can assume that the study population is reflective of the general Hispanic population in Texas.</p> <p>Second, all variables were assessed <emph>via</emph> students' self-reports. Self-report measures represent a direct and efficient way to assess mental health and perceptions of stress, but associations may be inflated when all constructs are assessed from the same reporter.[<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref99">57</reflink>] Future work might include interviews and clinically administered measures of depression and anxiety.</p> <p>Third, although the attrition rates in the present study may not be surprising given the pandemic and associated campus closures, attrition represents a threat to the external validity of research studies. We should note that our analytic procedures used all available data and did not omit participants who dropped out of the study. However, our results should be considered with some degree of caution given the attrition rate, especially at Wave 3.</p> <p>Also, the majority of students identified as Mexican or Mexican American and we were unable to determine whether subgroup differences existed as a function of students' identification with diverse Hispanic subgroups (e.g., Cuban, Mexican, etc.). Given the diversity in experiences among different Hispanic subgroups,[<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref100">10</reflink>] future research should gather data from more diverse sample with regard to students' identification with various Hispanic subgroups.</p> <p>Lastly, we did not include extant COVID-19 measures[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref101">1</reflink>]<sups>,</sups>[<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref102">25</reflink>] into the survey utilized in this study which precludes the assessment of relatedness or distinctiveness of the measure developed for this study from other extant measures.</p> <p>In conclusion, despite these and other limitations, the present study has contributed to the assessment of pandemic-related stressors among a large and rapidly growing, but marginalized and underrepresented, ethnic minority group in the United States. Although pandemic stress measures have been developed for other age and general-population samples, the present study is among the first to introduce a pandemic-related stress measure specifically for Hispanic college students. We hope that this instrument will find use not only as the current pandemic ends, but also during future pandemics that may impact this age and ethnic group. For example, loss of study groups and feeling disconnected from the university represented one negative COVID-19 related change for students in this study. Universities could actively implement efforts to prevent these negative changes during future pandemics. They could, for example, create closed study groups or learning pods for students and develop safe social distancing procedures (e.g., outside instruction) to facilitate learning with others and developing relationships with their professors and university.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-18">Conflict of interest disclosure</hd> <p>The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of the United States and received approval from the University of Texat at Austin.</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-19">Appendix A.</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0184444287-20">COVID-19 student and personal impact list (COVID)</hd> <p> <bold>Instructions:</bold> Since the coronavirus disease pandemic, what has changed for you?</p> <hd1 id="AN0184444287-21">Response Scale:</hd1> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead><tr><td>Not applicable/No change</td><td>A small amount</td><td>Moderately</td><td>Quite a bit</td><td>A large amount</td></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>0</td><td char=".">1</td><td char=".">2</td><td char=".">3</td><td char=".">4</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd1 id="AN0184444287-22">Items:</hd1> <hd1 id="AN0184444287-23"> <emph>(Administered at both waves)</emph> </hd1> <p>Dropped out of college or deferred enrollment out of uncertainty for the future.</p> <p>Cannot afford college or school due to lack of employment.</p> <p>Worsened academic performance in college/high school courses.</p> <p>Difficulty learning class content with remote learning.</p> <p>Loss of internship or research opportunities.</p> <p>Being put behind on your academic track in college.</p> <p>Had to adjust your study habits and time management to a remote learning style.</p> <p>Loss of collaborative study groups.</p> <p>Feeling disconnected from your university or school.</p> <p>Difficulty establishing rapport with professors or teachers online.</p> <p>Struggling to meet deadlines for assignments or work-related tasks.</p> <p>Considering different career paths that would offer job stability.</p> <p>Unable to find employment.</p> <p>Loss of job or experienced reduced workload/income.</p> <p>Your family had to use money from a savings account or retirement fund out of decrease in income or extra expenses.</p> <p>Feeling restless in your current job or position.</p> <p>Seeing a decline in your romantic life or existing romantic relationships.</p> <p>Weakened relationships with friends and/or family.</p> <p>Increased family conflict.</p> <p>Increased hostility with family or friends.</p> <p>Inability to see family and friends during religious holidays and events.</p> <p>Worsening control over emotional outbreaks with family or friends.</p> <p>Feeling unsafe in your own home or with your family/loved ones</p> <p>Increased worry surrounding your own health and/or the health of others.</p> <p>Increased loneliness or sense of aloneness.</p> <p>Feelings of being stuck or trapped in your home.</p> <p>Increased stress when performing daily tasks that involve being in public.</p> <p>New mental health issues or overall worsening mental health.</p> <p>Lack of accessibility to online mental health resources.</p> <p>Sense of hopelessness or doubt around the idea of a new future after the pandemic.</p> <p>Decreased motivation toward work or daily tasks.</p> <p>Intense boredom or indifference to activities that you once enjoyed or are now unable to do.</p> <p>Feeling helpless about the state of the world.</p> <p>Decrease in self-confidence due to weight gain and/or a decrease in physical activity.</p> <p>Losing proper coping skills or developing poor coping skills</p> <p>Having to put hobbies that helped buffer your intense or draining work life aside due to new life circumstances.</p> <p>Worry about you or your loved ones dying or falling ill.</p> <p>Decline in physical health such as engaging in less physical activity, unhealthy eating habits, poor sleep patterns.</p> <p>Using drugs or alcohol to escape from the state of the world.</p> <p>Having to postpone or cancel regular medical checkups.</p> <p>Loss of trust in the local or federal government's ability to protect you and your loved ones.</p> <p>Feeling guilt by association to your age group and their lack of taking proper precautions.</p> <p>Feeling unable to participate in protests, rallies, and other forms of in-person advocation for the Black Lives Matter Movement or other protests.</p> <p>Feeling blamed for the pandemic because of your race/ethnicity.</p> <p>Seeing people in your community experience inequitable medical help due to their race/ethnicity.</p> <p>Having more time to reflect on the state of the world and your position in it.</p> <p>Difficulty understanding the reality of the pandemic out of inaccessibility to credible scientific research or information.</p> <p>Trying to separate the politicization of the virus from the scientific basis of the pandemic.</p> <p>Fear or prejudice toward individuals of Chinese descent.</p> <p>Being separated from family members due to illness, exposure, or high risk related to COVID.</p> <p>Death of family members due to COVID-19.</p> <p>Death of friends due to COVID-19.</p> <p>A looming sense of doom or fear about contracting COVID-19.</p> <p>Having to relocate homes or experience changes in your living situation.</p> <p>Experiencing hardship surrounding COVID-19 testing-cost, multiple tests, long waiting period for results, inaccessibility to nearby testing centers.</p> <p>Carrying the burden of your family's financial struggles or hardship</p> <p>Loss of community in your religious or other groups.</p> <p>Depleting expendable income on health care costs or medical needs</p> <p>Is there anything else you would like to share with us about how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted your life? (open ended question, participant writes in an answer or can skip)</p> <hd id="AN0184444287-24">COVID-19 positive impact (only administered at Wave 2)</hd> <p>P1. Enjoy more time with family.</p> <p>P2. Enjoy more time at home.</p> <p>P3. Enjoy more time taking care of someone/something else (e.g., family members, plants, living spaces, home, etc.).</p> <p>P4. Become closer to family members.</p> <p>P5. Spend more time taking care of myself.</p> <p>P6. Enjoy more time outside in the sun/in nature.</p> <p>P7. Enjoy more time exercising (any form of physical movement).</p> <p>P8. Enjoy a less hectic life/have more time to relax.</p> <p>P9. Spend less time commuting (e.g., to school or work) or none at all.</p> <p>P10. Increase efforts to connect socially (e.g., virtual happy hours, game night, etc.).</p> <p>P11. Increase focus on personal health.</p> <p>P12. Connect with loved ones through any social media.</p> <p>P13. Engage in any mindfulness related activities (therapy, meditation, yoga).</p> <p>P14. Start new hobbies/interests.</p> <p>P15. Spend more time on established hobbies.</p> <p>P16. Learn to be more empathetic toward others.</p> <p>P17. Learn to budget or manage money.</p> <ref id="AN0184444287-25"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2024.2378300.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0184444287-26"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibtext> Regan P, Michikyan M, Subrahmanyam K, Bartholomew J, Michikyan M, Castillo L. "I Haven't Been in the Right Mind:" The experiences of first-generation and continuing-generation university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. College Stud J. 2023; 57 (1): 23 – 44.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Ioannidis JPA. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Mental Health among Hispanic College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Concurrent and Predictive Effects of Negative and Positive COVID-19 Changes
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Elma+I%2E+Lorenzo-Blanco%22">Elma I. Lorenzo-Blanco</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Minyu+Zhang%22">Minyu Zhang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Seth+J%2E+Schwartz%22">Seth J. Schwartz</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+American+College+Health%22"><i>Journal of American College Health</i></searchLink>. 2025 73(4):1697-1710.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: SourceSuprt
  Label: Sponsoring Agency
  Group: SrcSuprt
  Data: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (DHHS/NIH)<br />National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (DHHS/NIH)
– Name: NumberContract
  Label: Contract Number
  Group: NumCntrct
  Data: P2CHD042849<br />K01AA02805701A1
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research<br />Tests/Questionnaires
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Mental+Health%22">Mental Health</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hispanic+American+Students%22">Hispanic American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22COVID-19%22">COVID-19</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Pandemics%22">Pandemics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Stress+Variables%22">Stress Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychological+Patterns%22">Psychological Patterns</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Esteem%22">Self Esteem</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Change%22">Change</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adjustment+%28to+Environment%29%22">Adjustment (to Environment)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2378300
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481<br />1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: We generated items to assess COVID-19 changes among Hispanic college students and examined the concurrent and predictive effects of these changes vis-à-vis mental health. Participants: The sample consisted of 559 Hispanic first-year (69% women; age range 18-22; 88.1% U.S.-born; 84% Mexican/Mexican American) attending a public university in Texas. Methods: Students participated in a three-wave longitudinal online survey assessing stressors, COVID-19 changes, anxious and depressive symptoms, hope, and self-esteem. Results: Students experienced negative changes across six life domains as a result of the pandemic-related lockdowns--"education"; "health"; "relationships"; "finances"; "social issues"; "death/loss." They also reported positive changes during the lockdowns. Negative changes were positively correlated with higher, and positive changes with lower, acculturative and perceived stress. Negative COVID-19 changes predicted lower mental health. Conclusions: Hispanic students experienced both negative and positive COVID-19 changes, which were related to their mental health. Results can guide research and decision-making during future pandemics.
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  Data: As Provided
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  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1472882
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1472882
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2378300
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 1697
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Mental Health
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hispanic American Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Anxiety
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Stress Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Psychological Patterns
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Esteem
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Change
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adjustment (to Environment)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Mental Health among Hispanic College Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Concurrent and Predictive Effects of Negative and Positive COVID-19 Changes
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            NameFull: Minyu Zhang
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            NameFull: Seth J. Schwartz
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              Y: 2025
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              Value: 73
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