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The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Alcohol Use Disorder Symptoms: Testing Interactions with Polygenic Risk

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Title: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Alcohol Use Disorder Symptoms: Testing Interactions with Polygenic Risk
Language: English
Authors: Kaitlin E. Bountress, Daniel Bustamante, Mohammad Ahangari, Fazil Aliev, Steven H. Aggen, Eva Lancaster, The Spit for Science Working Group, Roseann E. Peterson, Jasmin Vassileva, Danielle M. Dick, Ananda B. Amstadter
Source: Journal of American College Health. 2025 73(4):1532-1537.
Availability: Taylor & Francis. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 6
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (DHHS/NIH)
National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) (DHHS/NIH)
National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) (DHHS/NIH), Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSA) Program
Contract Number: P20AA017828
R37AA011408
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: COVID-19, Pandemics, Alcohol Abuse, Symptoms (Individual Disorders), Substance Abuse, Longitudinal Studies, Genetics, Prediction, College Students, Hunger, Housing, At Risk Persons, Correlation, Measures (Individuals)
Geographic Terms: Virginia
DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2308255
ISSN: 0744-8481
1940-3208
Abstract: Objective: The purpose of this study was to test whether COVID impact interacts with genetic risk (polygenic risk score/PRS) to predict alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms. Method: Participants were n = 455 college students (79.6% female, 51% European Ancestry/EA, 24% African Ancestry/AFR, 25% Americas Ancestry/AMER) from a longitudinal study during the initial stage (March-May 2020) of the pandemic. Path models allowed for the examination of PRS and previously identified COVID-19 impact constructs. Results: There was a main effect of the AUD PRS on AUD symptoms within the EA group ([beta]: 0.165, p < 0.01). Additionally, food/housing insecurity was predictive in the AMER group ([beta]: 0.295, p < 0.05), and greater increases in substance use were associated with AUD symptoms for EA ([beta]: 0.459, p < 0.001) and AMER groups ([beta]: 0.468, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Greater food/housing instability and increases in substance use, as well higher scores on PRS are associated with more AUD symptoms for some ancestral groups within this college sample.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1473389
Database: ERIC
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  Value: &lt;anid&gt;AN0184444269;acl01apr.25;2025Apr15.05:17;v2.2.500&lt;/anid&gt; &lt;title id=&quot;AN0184444269-1&quot;&gt;The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on alcohol use disorder symptoms: Testing interactions with polygenic risk&#160;&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Objective: The purpose of this study was to test whether COVID impact interacts with genetic risk (polygenic risk score/PRS) to predict alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms. Method: Participants were n = 455 college students (79.6% female, 51% European Ancestry/EA, 24% African Ancestry/AFR, 25% Americas Ancestry/AMER) from a longitudinal study during the initial stage (March-May 2020) of the pandemic. Path models allowed for the examination of PRS and previously identified COVID-19 impact constructs. Results: There was a main effect of the AUD PRS on AUD symptoms within the EA group (β:.165, p &amp;lt;.01). Additionally, food/housing insecurity was predictive in the AMER group (β.295, p &amp;lt;.05), and greater increases in substance use were associated with AUD symptoms for EA (β:.459, p &amp;lt;.001) and AMER groups (β:.468, p &amp;lt;.001). Conclusions: Greater food/housing instability and increases in substance use, as well higher scores on PRS are associated with more AUD symptoms for some ancestral groups within this college sample.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Keywords: COVID-19; college students; genetic risk; pandemic; substance use&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-2&quot;&gt;Introduction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted many aspects of life for college students, among other things, influencing alcohol use and mental health outcomes.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;] Although there is a body of work finding an increase in anxiety and depressive symptoms between pre-pandemic and the first months of the pandemic in college students[[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib5&quot; id=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;5&lt;/reflink&gt;]] and for meta analysis see,[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib6&quot; id=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;6&lt;/reflink&gt;] less work has focused on changes in alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms. Our prior work[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;] suggests that AUD symptoms significantly &lt;emph&gt;decreased&lt;/emph&gt;, between pre-pandemic and spring (March-May) 2020, potentially because college students were forced to move home to live with their families. Others have found that AUD significantly increased between December 2019 and May 2020.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref7&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;] Yet another group found that alcohol use increased between Fall 2019 and Spring 2020.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;] It is possible that some of the inconsistency in findings is due to where students primarily moved to when they had to leave campus, and/or potentially the severity of pre-pandemic symptoms.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In terms of operationalizing &lt;emph&gt;how&lt;/emph&gt; the COVID-19 pandemic exerts an influence on mental health symptoms, some simply counted up the number of stressful experienced endorsed (e.g., perceived risk of infection + perceived discrimination due to COVID + perceived financial risk due to COVID, etc.).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref9&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;] Alternatively, some simply examined how symptoms change for individuals experiencing a particular COVID-related stressor (e.g., having to leave behind valuable belongings).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref10&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;] However, in prior analyses from our group, we found that the COVID-19 impact was best modeled as five correlated factors (discussed more below).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref11&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;] Generally, these papers (including our[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;] paper) find that those experiencing great COVID-19 impact or severity, report increased mental health symptoms.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;] However, given the existing work, is it not clear the extent to which pre-pandemic risk factors, such as aggregate genetic risk, might moderate the impact of these COVID-19 factors on AUD symptoms.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;AUD is moderately heritable, as demonstrated by twin[[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref15&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]] and molecular studies.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;] One of the methods for inves-tigating different phenotypes&#39; aggregate genetic liability is polygenic risk scores (PRSs). PRSs are used for estimating the proportion of the phenotypic variance and risk accounted for by genetic factors, based on the sum of the weighted effect sizes of the risk alleles, using genome-wide association studies (GWASs) data. Prior studies find that PRSs explain a small but significant proportion of the variance in AUD (∼2.5–3.5%;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref19&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]—all in individuals of EA). Nevertheless, more work in addition to recent efforts, e.g.,[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;] is needed to assess whether such genetic risk might moderate the impacts of COVID-19 exposure on this phenotype. There is also a need to increase the number of analyses that include ancestries other than EA. Doing so will lead to greater generalizability of the results across populations, with more people of diverse ancestries benefitting from the results of genetic research.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In addition to perhaps these PRSs exerting main effects on symptoms, it is also possible that they will moderate the impact of COVID exposure. Diathesis-stress models suggest that stressors may bring on disorder in the context of some predisposition, or diathesis, for the condition itself.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;] The effect of the diathesis/predisposition on the outcome may be larger in the context of greater environmental stressors. Indeed, within the gene-environment literature predicting alcohol outcomes, genetic effects are larger in the context of more problematic environments (e.g., more delinquent peers, more parental negativity, low parental warmth).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;] Thus, in the current study, it may be that for those at higher genetic risk, the impact of the COVID-19 impact factors will exert stronger effects on propensity for AUD symptoms. Specifically, we hypothesize that PRS for AUD symptoms will moderate the effects of COVID-19 exposure factors on AUD symptoms, such that the effects of COVID-19 exposure will predict greater risk for those at higher levels of genetic propensity.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-3&quot;&gt;Materials and method&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-4&quot;&gt;Participants&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Participants for the current project came from a larger, ongoing longitudinal study of emotional well-being and substance use in college students at a mid-Atlantic public university. Data were collected on five cohorts during the fall and spring of participants&#39; first year of college through Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The fifth cohort of this large study was enrolled and included data collected on 2,476 students during their first year of college (2017–2018). Individuals in this fifth cohort who were still enrolled as students in spring of 2020 were recruited for a COVID-related survey to be conducted in the spring/summer of 2020, at the end of their third year (&lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 1,899; &quot;year 3 spring&quot;). Of the &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 1,899 eligible students in cohort 5 who were invited to participate in this COVID-related online survey, 897 (47.2%) completed it. Because the outcome of interest was AUD symptoms, only individuals who endorsed at least one lifetime drink were allowed to be included (&lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 696 out of the &lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 897).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The three largest ancestral groups were included in analyses: European Ancestry (EA), African Ancestry (AFR), and American Ancestry (AMER). N&#39;s of individuals in these groups meeting other inclusion criteria were &lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 233, &lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 108, and &lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 114, respectively. Of the &lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 455 individuals included in analyses, 79.6% were female and 18.2% were male. About 2.2% chose not to answer this question about their sex.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-5&quot;&gt;Procedures&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Virginia Commonwealth University. Recruitment procedures for this larger project are described in detail elsewhere.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;] Participants completed surveys during the fall semester of their freshman year, and each spring thereafter. The cohort of individuals included in these analyses began college in the fall of 2017.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-6&quot;&gt;Measures&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-7&quot;&gt;Demographics&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Sex was coded 0 = Female and 1 = Male. Sex was initially included as a covariate in the study model.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-8&quot;&gt;COVID impact factors&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Prior work by our group[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;] analyzed items from the Coronavirus Health Impact Survey (CRISIS)[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref28&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;] and Epidemic-Pandemic Impacts Inventory (EPII).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;] A correlated five factor model provided a good fit with the clearest substantive interpretation of these data (COVID exposure, COVID worry, food and housing concerns, change in social media use, and change in substance use). The factor scores from this model were estimated jointly, saved, and used as predictors of outcomes of interest in current analyses.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-9&quot;&gt;Alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Individuals who had ever consumed alcohol in their lifetime reported on 11 DSM-5 AUD symptoms since the onset of COVID-19 using DSM-5 AUD symptoms from the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism (SSAGA).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref30&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;] These items showed adequate internal consistency in the current dataset among drinkers at the COVID time point (alpha:.769).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-10&quot;&gt;Genotyping and quality control&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;A summary of the primary cohort collection, genotyping methods, and quality control procedures are published elsewhere.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref31&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref33&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;] DNA was extracted from saliva, and genotyping was performed using the Infinium Global Screening Array-24 v3.0 BeadChip. Imputation and quality control procedures were performed[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref34&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;] prior to association analyses. For imputation with the 1000 Genomes Project (1KGP) phase 3 reference panel,[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;] SHAPEIT2[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref37&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;] and IMPUTE2[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref38&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;] were used.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-11&quot;&gt;Ancestry assignments and genetic principal components&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Participants were assigned to one of five ancestral groups (e.g., African [AFR], Admixed Americas [AMR], East Asian [EAS], European [EA], or South Asian [SAS]) &lt;emph&gt;via&lt;/emph&gt; selecting the minimum Mahalanobis distance between subjects and the 1000 Genomes Project reference population &lt;emph&gt;via&lt;/emph&gt; genetic-based principal component analysis (PCA).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref39&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;] PCA steps were performed using EIGENSOFT SmartPCA.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib32&quot; id=&quot;ref40&quot;&gt;32&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref41&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;] Within each ancestry, a set of ten principal components (PCs) were calculated using directly genotyped SNPs.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref42&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;] These PCs were used as covariates in the path model including the polygenic risk scores, in order to reduce effects of population stratification.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-12&quot;&gt;Genome-wide polygenic scores (PRS)&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;PRS were developed using PRS-CSx, which has been shown to perform well in large, diverse training samples by using a Bayesian regression framework to adjust SNP effect sizes for local linkage disequilibrium patterns across population groups.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref43&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;] The AUD PRS was created utilizing the latest published results from the Million Veterans Program (MVP; EA case &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 34,658; AFR case &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 17,267).[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref44&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;] The meta-analysis weights from PRS-CSx were employed to weight each SNP in the PRS and were created for each study participant using the profile option in PLINK.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref45&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;] Before conducting regression analyses, each of the PRS were standardized to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-13&quot;&gt;Data analytic plan&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;To evaluate study questions, a path model predicting AUD symptoms within a multiple group modeling framework, stacked on ancestral group, including main and interaction effects, was estimated. Models were estimated in Mplus Version 8 software.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref46&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;] Our Planned Model involved examining the potential interactions between COVID impact factors and polygenic risk for AUD symptoms. The covariates sex and the ancestry PCs were entered after the creation of the interaction terms. Non-significant (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05) interaction effects between COVID impact factors and the PRS was dropped, and the covariate sex was dropped when non-significant. See Figure 1 for paths to be tested within this model.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Graph: Figure 1. Planned model, stacked on ancestral group. Notes. Depiction of planned model to be tested. Each COVID impact factor was entered as a predictor of AUD symptoms, with the PRS added as main effects and interactions with these factors. Sex and PCs were entered as covariates. Non-significant interactions and covariates were dropped to increase interpretability and model parsimony.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-14&quot;&gt;Results&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-15&quot;&gt;Model results&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Because the primary model was fully saturated, there were no fit indices to present. See Table 1 for study results. We used the top 2 PCs to account for the largest variance that may be due to population stratification. Because sex was not significantly associated with AUD symptoms for any groups, it was dropped from the model. The error message suggesting that the parameter estimates may not be stable remained when sex was dropped and when only 2 PCs were included. Thus, we also ran a model with none of the PCs included as covariates, and the error message went away, suggesting that the model with no PCs had a sufficient number of people to parameters ratio to produce stable results. As examining the effects of PRSs without the inclusion of PCs is not advisable, we ran, and present two models here: one including two PCs as covariates in which Mplus suggested that the estimates may not be stable because we had too many parameters and not enough people, and a second model in which no PCs were included and in which no such error message appeared. It is important to mention here that the findings are not significantly different between these two models.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 1. Standardized betas, standard errors, and 95% CIs for planned model (n&#39;s for EA, AA and AMER= 233, 108, 114).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Predictors&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#946;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;95% CI&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#946;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;95% CI&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody valign=&quot;top&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;COVID Exposure&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.053/.264/&amp;amp;#8722;.113&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td 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char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.206&amp;amp;#8211;.064/&amp;amp;#8722;.312&amp;amp;#8211;.247/.073&amp;amp;#8211;.537&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Change in Media Use&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.072/.189/.018&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.075/.145/.126&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.075&amp;amp;#8211;.219/&amp;amp;#8722;.095&amp;amp;#8211;.472/&amp;amp;#8722;.229&amp;amp;#8211;.265&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.072/.172/.022&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.075/.148/.128&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.074&amp;amp;#8211;.219/&amp;amp;#8722;.117&amp;amp;#8211;.461/&amp;amp;#8722;.229&amp;amp;#8211;.272&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Change in Substance Use&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.459***/&amp;amp;#8722;.105/.468***&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.065/.146/.116&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.332&amp;amp;#8211;.586/&amp;amp;#8722;.390&amp;amp;#8211;.180/.240&amp;amp;#8211;.695&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.460***/&amp;amp;#8722;.145/.462***&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.064/.144/.118&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.334&amp;amp;#8211;.587/&amp;amp;#8722;.427&amp;amp;#8211;.138/.231&amp;amp;#8211;.693&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;Polygenic Risk Score (PRS)&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.165**/&amp;amp;#8722;.045/.091&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.061/.108/.095&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.045&amp;amp;#8211;.285/&amp;amp;#8722;.257&amp;amp;#8211;.168/&amp;amp;#8722;.096&amp;amp;#8211;.278&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.168**/&amp;amp;#8722;.035/.092&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.061/.106/.096&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.049&amp;amp;#8211;.286/&amp;amp;#8722;.243&amp;amp;#8211;.174/&amp;amp;#8722;.095&amp;amp;#8211;.283&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;PC1&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.016/&amp;amp;#8722;.193/&amp;amp;#8722;.089&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.062/.107/.109&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.105&amp;amp;#8211;.137/&amp;amp;#8722;.402&amp;amp;#8211;.017/&amp;amp;#8722;.303&amp;amp;#8211;.126&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;PC2&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.006/.054/&amp;amp;#8722;.199&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;.061/.126/.110&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.125&amp;amp;#8211;.113/&amp;amp;#8722;.194&amp;amp;#8211;.301/&amp;amp;#8722;.415&amp;amp;#8211;.016&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8211;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;1 &lt;emph&gt;Notes.&lt;/emph&gt; *&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05, **&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.01, ***&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001; Bolded effects are significant at at least (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05). Coefficients are listed out for EA/AA/AMER ancestral groups; the primary study model was run with and without the top two ancestry PCs due to the relatively small ratio of number of participants to number of parameters and the need to limit estimated parameters.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In predicting AUD symptoms, there were no significant interactions between the PRS and any of the COVID impact factors for any of the three groups. There was however a main effect of the PRS on AUD symptoms for the EA group only (β:.165, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.01). Additionally, for the EA (β:.459, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001) and AMER groups (β:.468, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001), those who reported more increases in substance use during COVID reported more AUD symptoms. Finally, more food and housing instability was associated with more AUD symptoms in the AMER group only (β:.295, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.05).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-16&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;In this study, we hypothesized that higher levels of COVID exposure would be associated with more symptoms, with effects moderated by genetic risk. Our results indicate that the main effect of the AUD PRS was significant in the EA group, but not the AFR or AMER groups. Additionally, those who had experienced an increase in substance use during the pandemic reported more AUD symptoms in the EA and AMER groups. Finally, those with more food and housing instability reported more AUD symptoms in the AMER group only.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In recent years, PRSs generated from GWAS have emerged as a useful tool for characterizing genetic liability to complex disorders such as AUD.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref47&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref48&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]&lt;sups&gt;,&lt;/sups&gt;[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref49&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;] The predictive power of PRS depends on various factors such as the GWAS sample size and polygenicity of the trait.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref50&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;] Current AUD PRSs in both population-based and high-risk samples, are shown to explain only ∼3% of the variance in AUD.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref51&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;] In our study, the PRS explained ∼2.2%, 0.0%, and 0.8% of the variance in AUD symptoms in the EA, AFR, and AMER groups, respectively.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The fact that the AUD PRS only predicted AUD symptoms in the EA group, which was the largest group, about double the size of the others, is perhaps not surprising. Our sample size for all groups was low, so we were likely under-powered to detect this effect in all groups, especially in the AFR and AMER groups. The lack of significant interaction effects between the PRS and COVID impact factors may also be due to low power. In general, one has much less power to detect interactions compared to main effects, so it is not surprising that no interactions here were found to be significant. In addition to not having power to detect interactions, it is also possible that the main effect of the AUD PRS in the EA group was too strong to be moderated by COVID exposure risk.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;We also found that for two of the ancestral groups, greater increases in substance use during COVID was associated with more AUD symptoms. Specifically, for those in the EA and AMER groups, a one standard deviation increase in substance use during the pandemic (increasing about ∼ half of the distance between &quot;have been using the same&quot; and &quot;have been using a lot more&quot;) resulted in a ∼ half a standard deviation increase in AUD symptoms (translating to ∼1.15 AUD symptoms). Although our data on college students found in other work that alcohol use decreased between pre-pandemic and the beginning, acute stage of the pandemic, there is of course still variability and not everyone reduced their drinking during this time. It is possible that those who increased their alcohol use—in addition to vaping, tobacco products, and marijuana—did so to the point of increasing their number of AUD symptoms. Indeed, a review of changes in substance use during COVID found that in general, people increased in their consumption of alcohol and other substances during this time.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref52&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;] Other work found that harmful alcohol use and risk of dependence also increased during the pandemic.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib41&quot; id=&quot;ref53&quot;&gt;41&lt;/reflink&gt;] Thus, it is perhaps not surprising that among those who reported increases in their substance use during the first stage of the pandemic also reported increased symptoms of AUD.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;There was a main effect of food and housing instability on AUD symptoms in the AMER group. During the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US, food/housing insecurity was shown to be significantly associated with mental distress among the general population.[&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib42&quot; id=&quot;ref54&quot;&gt;42&lt;/reflink&gt;] Thus, it may be that among this sub-group specifically, concern about where food would be coming from and/or experience with or concern for loss of housing increased anxiety and distress and in turn led to more AUD symptoms. We need to better understand heterogeneity in the way that stressors influence substance use problems, and for whom some of these stressors are more impactful. This finding also underscores the importance of including ancestral groups outside of only EA samples.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;It is important to mention study limitations. Our sample size was very small, and we were only able to include three ancestral groups. It is possible we were under-powered to detect effects, particularly PRS X COVID interaction effects. We also included college students, so these findings may only generalize to other college samples. This is particularly important to note since the rates of change in alcohol use/AUD symptoms during COVID seem to vary as a function of sample.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Although our sample included those of EA, AFR, and AMER, these groups were relatively small. Therefore, in order to increase power, future research should focus on replicating and extending these findings in a larger, more diverse sample of college students that also includes students from other ancestral backgrounds to provide a more complete picture of the demographics of college students in the US. Follow-up work should also attempt to disentangle the degree to which environmental exposures or genetic influences of AUD are contributing to COVID-19 food and housing stability among college students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-17&quot;&gt;Acknowledgments&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Spit for Science has been supported by Virginia Commonwealth University, P20AA017828, R37AA011408, K02AA018755, P50AA022537, and K01AA024152 from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, UL1RR031990 from the National Center for Research Resources and National Institutes of Health Roadmap for Medical Research, as well as support by the Center for the Study of Tobacco Products at VCU. REDCap support provided by CTSA award UM1TR004360 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the views of the respective funding agencies. Data from this study are available to qualified researchers via dbGaP (phs001754.v4.p2) or via spit4science@vcu.edu to qualified researchers who provide the appropriate signed data use agreement. We would like to thank Dr. Danielle Dick for founding and directing the Spit for Science Registry from 2011-2022, and the Spit for Science participants for making this study a success, as well as the many University faculty, students, and staff who contributed to the design and implementation of the project.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0184444269-18&quot;&gt;Conflict of interest disclosure&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements, of USA and received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Virginia Commonwealth University.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0184444269-19&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt; Footnotes &lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib1&quot; idref=&quot;ref1&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;1&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Disclaimer: This article was prepared while Eva Lancaster was employed at Virginia Commonwealth University. The opinions expressed in this article are the author&#39;s own and do not reflect the view of the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Health and Human Services, or the United States government.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib2&quot; idref=&quot;ref2&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;2&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; These authors were joint senior authors to this work.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib3&quot; idref=&quot;ref3&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;3&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; The Spit for Science Working Group: Director: Danielle M. Dick, Co-Director: Ananda Amstadter. Registry management: Emily Lilley, Renolda Gelzinis, Anne Morris. Data cleaning and management: Kaitlin E. Bountress, Amy E. Adkins, Nathaniel Thomas, Zoe Neale, Kimberly Pedersen, Thomas Bannard &amp;amp; Seung B. Cho. Data collection: Amy E. Adkins, Peter Barr, Holly Byers, Erin C. Berenz, Erin Caraway, Seung B. Cho, James S. Clifford, Megan Cooke, Elizabeth Do, Alexis C. Edwards, Neeru Goyal, Laura M. Hack, Lisa J. Halberstadt, Sage Hawn, Sally Kuo, Emily Lasko, Jennifer Lend, Mackenzie Lind, Elizabeth Long, Alexandra Martelli, Jacquelyn L. Meyers, Kerry Mitchell, Ashlee Moore, Arden Moscati, Aashir Nasim, Zoe Neale, Jill Opalesky, Cassie Overstreet, A. Christian Pais, Kimberly Pedersen, Tarah Raldiris, Jessica Salvatore, Jeanne Savage, Rebecca Smith, David Sosnowski, Jinni Su, Nathaniel Thomas, Chloe Walker, Marcie Walsh, Teresa Willoughby, Madison Woodroof &amp;amp; Jia Yan. Genotypic data processing and cleaning: Cuie Sun, Brandon Wormley, Brien Riley, Fazil Aliev, Roseann E. Peterson &amp;amp; Bradley T. Webb.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0184444269-20&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt; References &lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Horigian VE, Schmidt RD, Feaster DJ. Loneliness, mental health, and substance use among US young adults during COVID-19. 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  Data: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Alcohol Use Disorder Symptoms: Testing Interactions with Polygenic Risk
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Kaitlin+E%2E+Bountress%22&quot;&gt;Kaitlin E. Bountress&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Daniel+Bustamante%22&quot;&gt;Daniel Bustamante&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Mohammad+Ahangari%22&quot;&gt;Mohammad Ahangari&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Fazil+Aliev%22&quot;&gt;Fazil Aliev&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Steven+H%2E+Aggen%22&quot;&gt;Steven H. Aggen&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Eva+Lancaster%22&quot;&gt;Eva Lancaster&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22The+Spit+for+Science+Working+Group%22&quot;&gt;The Spit for Science Working Group&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Roseann+E%2E+Peterson%22&quot;&gt;Roseann E. Peterson&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Jasmin+Vassileva%22&quot;&gt;Jasmin Vassileva&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Danielle+M%2E+Dick%22&quot;&gt;Danielle M. Dick&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Ananda+B%2E+Amstadter%22&quot;&gt;Ananda B. Amstadter&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: Taylor &amp; Francis. Available from: Taylor &amp; Francis, Ltd. 530 Walnut Street Suite 850, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Tel: 215-625-8900; Fax: 215-207-0050; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (DHHS/NIH)&lt;br /&gt;National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) (DHHS/NIH)&lt;br /&gt;National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS) (DHHS/NIH), Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSA) Program
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  Data: Journal Articles&lt;br /&gt;Reports - Research
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22COVID-19%22&quot;&gt;COVID-19&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Pandemics%22&quot;&gt;Pandemics&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Alcohol+Abuse%22&quot;&gt;Alcohol Abuse&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Symptoms+%28Individual+Disorders%29%22&quot;&gt;Symptoms (Individual Disorders)&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Substance+Abuse%22&quot;&gt;Substance Abuse&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Longitudinal+Studies%22&quot;&gt;Longitudinal Studies&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Genetics%22&quot;&gt;Genetics&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Prediction%22&quot;&gt;Prediction&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22College+Students%22&quot;&gt;College Students&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Hunger%22&quot;&gt;Hunger&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Housing%22&quot;&gt;Housing&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22At+Risk+Persons%22&quot;&gt;At Risk Persons&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Correlation%22&quot;&gt;Correlation&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Measures+%28Individuals%29%22&quot;&gt;Measures (Individuals)&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Virginia%22&quot;&gt;Virginia&lt;/searchLink&gt;
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  Data: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2308255
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0744-8481&lt;br /&gt;1940-3208
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Objective: The purpose of this study was to test whether COVID impact interacts with genetic risk (polygenic risk score/PRS) to predict alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms. Method: Participants were n = 455 college students (79.6% female, 51% European Ancestry/EA, 24% African Ancestry/AFR, 25% Americas Ancestry/AMER) from a longitudinal study during the initial stage (March-May 2020) of the pandemic. Path models allowed for the examination of PRS and previously identified COVID-19 impact constructs. Results: There was a main effect of the AUD PRS on AUD symptoms within the EA group ([beta]: 0.165, p &lt; 0.01). Additionally, food/housing insecurity was predictive in the AMER group ([beta]: 0.295, p &lt; 0.05), and greater increases in substance use were associated with AUD symptoms for EA ([beta]: 0.459, p &lt; 0.001) and AMER groups ([beta]: 0.468, p &lt; 0.001). Conclusions: Greater food/housing instability and increases in substance use, as well higher scores on PRS are associated with more AUD symptoms for some ancestral groups within this college sample.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1473389
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1473389
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1080/07448481.2024.2308255
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 6
        StartPage: 1532
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: COVID-19
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Pandemics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Alcohol Abuse
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Substance Abuse
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Longitudinal Studies
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      – SubjectFull: Genetics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Prediction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hunger
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Housing
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Measures (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Virginia
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Alcohol Use Disorder Symptoms: Testing Interactions with Polygenic Risk
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0744-8481
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1940-3208
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 73
            – Type: issue
              Value: 4
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Journal of American College Health
              Type: main
ResultId 1