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Parenting Correlates of Changes in School Engagement among Racial/Ethnic Minority Students

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Title: Parenting Correlates of Changes in School Engagement among Racial/Ethnic Minority Students
Language: English
Authors: Aryn M. Dotterer (ORCID 0000-0002-4199-0165)
Source: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal. 2025 28(1).
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Parent Child Relationship, Adolescents, Minority Groups, African American Students, Hispanic American Students, Multiracial Persons, Middle School Students, Urban Schools, Affective Behavior, Conflict, Knowledge Level, Parents, Predictor Variables, Learner Engagement, Socialization, Student Participation, Parent Background, Educational Attainment, Gender Differences
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
DOI: 10.1007/s11218-025-10067-z
ISSN: 1381-2890
1573-1928
Abstract: The present study examined the extent to which parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices were associated with changes in school engagement among racial and ethnic minority adolescents. Participants (58% female) were 208 racial/ethnic minority students (63% African American, 19% Latinx, 18% Multiracial) in grades 6-8 from an urban middle school in the Midwestern United States. In the fall (Time 1) and subsequent spring (Time 2) of the school year, youth completed in-school surveys with items on parent-adolescent warmth, conflict, parental knowledge, academic socialization, and school engagement (commitment to learning, school trouble, school bonding, school self-esteem). Results from residualized change models revealed that parental knowledge was a salient and consistent predictor of changes in school engagement. These results suggest that parents' awareness or understanding of adolescents' daily lives and activities is key to supporting school engagement during early adolescence. Parental knowledge of adolescents' daily lives can foster a more collaborative relationship between home and school, which can boost adolescents' engagement in school.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1473561
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0185810199;luo09jun.25;2025Jun11.02:22;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0185810199-1">Parenting correlates of changes in school engagement among racial/ethnic minority students </title> <p>The present study examined the extent to which parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices were associated with changes in school engagement among racial and ethnic minority adolescents. Participants (58% female) were 208 racial/ethnic minority students (63% African American, 19% Latinx, 18% Multiracial) in grades 6–8 from an urban middle school in the Midwestern United States. In the fall (Time 1) and subsequent spring (Time 2) of the school year, youth completed in-school surveys with items on parent-adolescent warmth, conflict, parental knowledge, academic socialization, and school engagement (commitment to learning, school trouble, school bonding, school self-esteem). Results from residualized change models revealed that parental knowledge was a salient and consistent predictor of changes in school engagement. These results suggest that parents' awareness or understanding of adolescents' daily lives and activities is key to supporting school engagement during early adolescence. Parental knowledge of adolescents' daily lives can foster a more collaborative relationship between home and school, which can boost adolescents' engagement in school.</p> <p>Keywords: Parent-adolescent relationships; Parenting practices; Racial/ethnic minority adolescents; School engagement; Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology Education Specialist Studies In Education</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Nearly half of adolescents in the United States identify as a racial or ethnic minority, reflecting the growing diversity in the U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref1">56</reflink>]). Research has increasingly focused on the importance of family and school experiences in response to education and opportunity gaps among historically disadvantaged racial/ethnic minority youth (Potter & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref2">45</reflink>]). To better understand racial and ethnic minority youth's experiences, researchers have investigated dimensions of academic functioning such as school engagement (i.e., students' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in relation to the school environment; Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref3">18</reflink>]; Gray et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref4">21</reflink>]). A body of research has documented the impact of race-related stressors on adolescents' school engagement (Chavous et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref5">8</reflink>]; Saleem et al., [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref6">49</reflink>]) and showed that discrimination and (other race stressors) are associated with declines in school engagement. We know less about the roles of parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices (Malczyk & Lawson, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref7">38</reflink>]) in promoting school engagement among racial/ethnic minority youth. This is surprising given that scholars have pointed out that warm, involved parenting might be even more important in promoting school engagement, especially among youth who may be at risk for experiencing discrimination at school (Rickert & Skinner, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref8">48</reflink>]). Therefore, the present study examined parenting correlates of changes in school engagement among African American, Latinx, and multiracial early adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-3">Theoretical framework</hd> <p>An ecological perspective draws attention to the complex interactions among persons, (e.g. adolescents), processes (e.g., parenting and parent-adolescent relationships), and contexts. The contexts in Bronfenbrenner's ecological model include the microsystem (the environment that a developing person directly interacts with such as family and school), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (external environments that indirectly influence a child's development), macrosystem (broader societal and cultural influences), and the chronosystem (changes over time). Further, the Bioecological Model of Human Development emphasizes the importance of proximal processes, which are the ongoing, reciprocal interactions between the person and their immediate environment. Proximal processes, such as positive parent–child interactions, have been described as the "engines of development" that support children's healthy development in a variety of contexts, including school (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref9">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>Ecological perspectives posit that warm/supportive relationships with parents are essential for children's healthy development, including students' engagement in school. For example, parenting behaviors and parent–child relationship quality promotes adolescents' developmental competencies such as school engagement. Research suggests that positive relationships with parents can promote a healthy sense of competence and autonomy within the home, which then becomes internalized and used in other settings such as schools (Ryan & Deci, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref10">48</reflink>]). However, the role of positive parenting in promoting school engagement among racial/ethnic minority youth has been given less attention in the literature (Rickert & Skinner, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref11">48</reflink>]). Therefore, the present study focused on parenting correlates of school engagement among African American, Latinx, and multiracial youth. Complementing an ecological perspective, the present study is grounded in a conceptual model of school engagement which views engagement as multidimensional and as an interaction between the individual and the environment (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref12">18</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref13">59</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-4">School engagement</hd> <p>School engagement is a multidimensional construct comprised of affective, behavioral and cognitive dimensions which describe students' school-related feelings, behaviors and thoughts (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref14">19</reflink>]). Affective engagement in the context of education signifies an emotional connection to the school environment and encapsulates students' feelings toward their school/classroom, teachers, and peers. For instance, students' perceptions of belonging at school is often referred to as school bonding (Libbey, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref15">35</reflink>]). Further, the degree to which students feel a sense of closeness with peers and teachers at school, feel like they are a part of their school, and are happy to be at their school all reflect aspects of school bonding (Allen et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref16">1</reflink>]; Wang & Degol, [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref17">58</reflink>]).</p> <p>The behavioral dimension of school engagement refers to students' overt actions within the school setting, encompassing their participation in academic and social activities in the classroom including their behavior, attention, and adherence to regulations. Positive behaviors such as following classroom rules and expectations indicate higher student engagement whereas negative behaviors including inattention and disruptive behaviors indicate lower engagement or disengagement (Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref18">23</reflink>]; Nguyen et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref19">43</reflink>]). The concept of school trouble for example, refers to students' challenges in maintaining positive behavior including aspects like paying attention/on task behavior, and interpersonal relationships with teachers and peers. While this construct has been utilized to index behavioral engagement (Johnson et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref20">31</reflink>]; Lowe & Dotterer, [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref21">37</reflink>]), some have argued that a lack of disengagement may not necessarily reflect a student's engagement (Wang, [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref22">59</reflink>]). Therefore, the present study also considered behaviors such as active engagement in learning and completing schoolwork to indicate behavioral engagement.</p> <p>The cognitive dimension of school engagement refers to students' perceptions and beliefs related to the self, such as students' sense of academic self-efficacy or school self-esteem (Jimerson et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref23">33</reflink>]). School self-esteem is one measure of cognitive engagement that draws on the idea of self-regulated learning (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref24">19</reflink>]) because students use metacognitive strategies to monitor and evaluate their performance in school. For example, students may monitor their performance by reviewing their assigned grades and may reflect on how well they are doing by assessing whether they feel good about their performance.</p> <p>Research suggests that school engagement declines over time and racial and ethnic minority youth are particularly at-risk for decline (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref25">19</reflink>]; Wang & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref26">60</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref27">61</reflink>]). Further, there is consensus among researchers that being engaged in school is critical to students' school success and educators, psychologists, and sociologists have devoted considerable attention to understanding how to enhance engagement in school as a way to ameliorate problems of low academic achievement and high dropout rates. The view of school engagement as a malleable construct, responsive to variations in the environment (Fredricks, et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref28">18</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref29">59</reflink>]), has spurred a solid research base demonstrating that family and school contexts contribute to engagement (Dotterer & Lowe, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref30">12</reflink>]; Fan & Williams, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref31">15</reflink>]; Li et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref32">34</reflink>]; Smith et al., [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref33">50</reflink>]). Although much of this work has focused on the contributions of school and classroom features to school engagement (Hughes & Kwok, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref34">28</reflink>]; Rickert et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref35">47</reflink>]; Wang & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref36">62</reflink>]), a growing body of literature has also demonstrated the importance of the family context (Harris et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref37">23</reflink>]). The present study contributes to this literature by examining parent-adolescent relationships and parenting practices as they relate to school engagement among racial/ethnic minority adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-5">Parenting correlates of school engagement</hd> <p>Parental warmth such as interacting with a child in an affectionate and responsive way, makes adolescents feel loved and cared for, promoting a healthy sense of self. During early adolescence, parent-adolescent conflict is considered a temporary perturbation that is a normative aspect of the relationship (Branje, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref38">3</reflink>]). However, parent-adolescent conflict characterized by anger, irritation, and negative behaviors can undermine adolescents sense of support from parents (Eadeh et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref39">14</reflink>]). Past research has shown that parent adolescent relationship quality including warmth and conflict have implications for adolescents' school engagement. Dotterer et al. ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref40">13</reflink>]) examined changes in relationship quality and trajectories of school engagement among African American adolescents and found that increases in parent-adolescent warmth were associated with increases in school engagement, while increases in conflict was associated with declines in school engagement. Further, Hill and Wang ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref41">27</reflink>]) found that higher levels of parental warmth in 7 th grade was associated with higher levels of behavioral engagement in 8 th grade which in turn predicted greater behavioral engagement in 11 th grade and subsequent enrollment in college.</p> <p>Parenting practices are also important predictors of school engagement and the present investigation focused on two parenting practices—parental monitoring or knowledge and academic socialization. Broadly, these two parenting practices reflect types of parental involvement that have implications for adolescents' school engagement (Goodall, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref42">20</reflink>]). Further, parental monitoring/knowledge and academic socialization are aspects of parental involvement that are especially important for racial/ethnic minority youth (Cebello et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref43">7</reflink>]; Jeynes, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref44">30</reflink>]; 2017).</p> <p>Parental monitoring or parent's knowledge of their adolescent's activities and whereabouts (Stattin & Kerr, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref45">52</reflink>]) is one of the strongest contributors to adolescents' wellbeing (Liu et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref46">36</reflink>]). Among racial/ethnic minority adolescents in particular, past research indicates that higher levels of parental knowledge is consistently related to lower levels of problem behaviors such as delinquency and drug/alcohol use and is associated with higher psychosocial competencies (Bush et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref47">5</reflink>]; Chang & Qin; 2018; Cunningham & Swanson; 2010; Cutrín et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref48">10</reflink>]; Dittus et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref49">11</reflink>]; Herman et al., [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref50">25</reflink>]; Tebes et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref51">55</reflink>]). Huguley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref52">29</reflink>]) reported that parental knowledge of what was happening at school and monitoring homework are strategies urban African American parents utilize to ensure student success during adolescence. A review of literature on parental control in Latinx families by Halgunseth and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref53">22</reflink>]) similarly noted parental monitoring, parental protection, and involved parent–child relationships supported the best psychological and academic outcomes for Latinx youth.</p> <p>Academic socialization is a form of parent involvement that includes communicating the value of education and parental expectations for education (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Academic socialization aligns with the socialization goal of <emph>educación</emph> in Latinx families, which is characterized by parents' holding high educational aspirations, endorsing strong values for formal education, and providing encouragement for academic success (Halgunseth et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref54">23</reflink>]), and are positively associated with achievement outcomes (Cebello et al., 2014; Cross et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref55">9</reflink>]; Henry, et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref56">24</reflink>]). African American parents also hold high educational aspirations for their children (Wood et al., [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref57">63</reflink>]) and may utilize academic socialization as a vehicle for helping their children overcome societal barriers, such as racism and discrimination (Franklin et al., [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref58">17</reflink>]; Huguley et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref59">32</reflink>]; Suizzo et al., [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref60">53</reflink>]). Further, Suizzo et al., ([<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref61">52</reflink>]) found that academic socialization in secondary school was associated with adjustment in college among African American and Mexican American students. Taken together, academic socialization is crucial aspect of parenting because it is linked to academic and school-related development, which is particularly significant during adolescence—a time when youth often face challenges (Metzger et al., [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref62">41</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-6">Current study</hd> <p>Grounded in an ecological perspective (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref63">4</reflink>]) which posits that proximal processes, such as parent–child interactions, are important for children's development and that the mesosystem links contexts such as home and school, the goal of the present study was to investigate family factors as they relate to changes in school engagement. To address this goal, two research questions were posed: How does school engagement change over time (Research Question 1), and are parent–child relationship quality and parenting practices associated with changes in school engagement (Research Question 2)?</p> <p>Based on the previous research that documented declines in school engagement (Fredricks et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref64">19</reflink>]; Wang & Eccles, [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref65">60</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref66">61</reflink>]), including over short intervals such as six months (Del Toro & Wang, 2021), we hypothesized that there would be declines in school engagement reflected as increases in school trouble and decreases in commitment to learning, school bonding, and school self-esteem. Guided by extant literature documenting the importance of parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices on youth's academic outcomes, we formulated the following hypotheses: parental warmth will be associated with less decline in school engagement (Hypothesis 2); parental conflict will be associated with more decline in school engagement (Hypothesis 3); parental knowledge will be associated with less decline in school engagement (Hypothesis 4); academic socialization will be associated with less decline in school engagement (Hypothesis 5).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185810199-8">Participants</hd> <p>Participants were 208 racial/minority adolescents (63% African American, 19% Latinx, 18% Multiracial) from a Midwestern urban middle school. Adolescents (58% female) were in six (<emph>n</emph> = 80), seventh (<emph>n</emph> = 78), and eighth grade (<emph>n</emph> = 50) and ranged in age from 11 to 15 (<emph>M</emph> = 12.71, <emph>SD</emph> = 0.93). Participants in this sample largely reflected the demographic make-up of racial/ethnic minority students in the entire school (NCES CCD Public School Data). Parents' average level of education indicated some college and the distribution showed that 9% of parents did not have a high school degree, 21% had a high school degree or GED, 31% had completed some college, 27% had a college degree, and 12% had completed an advanced degree (e.g., MD, Ph.D., MS). Most youth resided in two-parent households (53%) and the remainder lived in single-parent households (45%), or with grandparents (2%). Most adolescents (94%) reported on their relationships with their mothers and their fathers regardless of their household/family configuration; for the 6% of adolescents who reported on their relationships with one parent, only that relationship was considered in the results.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-9">Procedure</hd> <p>Data from this study were drawn from a short-term study investigating school and family experiences of urban youth. Adolescents were recruited at school registration and via letters mailed to their homes. The response rate was approximately 32%. Following parental consent, adolescents completed self-report surveys twice during the academic year, in the fall and spring, during a free class period. Adolescents who were absent from school on the day of data collection were mailed a survey and surveys were returned to the research project with via mail with prepaid return envelope.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-10">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185810199-11">Parent-adolescent warmth</hd> <p>Adolescents reported on their mother's and father's warmth and acceptance via an 8-item scale adapted from previous research (Schwarz et al., 1985) using a four-point scale (1 = <emph>Really unlike</emph>, 4 = <emph>Really like</emph>). An example item was "My mother/father is able to make me feel better when I am upset." A mean score was calculated from the 16 items (eight items indexed mother-adolescent warmth; eight items indexed father-adolescent warmth) such that higher scores indicated higher levels of parental warmth/acceptance (α = 0.91).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-12">Parent-adolescent conflict</hd> <p>Adolescents reported on conflict with their mother and father using a 12-item scale adapted from previous research (Smetana, 1998). Adolescents indicated how frequently they had problems or disagreements (1 = <emph>Not at all disagree,</emph> 6 = <emph>Several times a day</emph>) in the following twelve areas: chores, appearance, homework and schoolwork, social life, romantic relationships, bedtime and curfew, health, money, choosing activities, behavior, and relationships with siblings and friends. A mean score was calculated from adolescent reports of conflict with their mothers (12 items) and fathers (12 items), such that higher scores indicated higher levels of parent-adolescent conflict (α = 0.91).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-13">Parental knowledge</hd> <p>Parents' knowledge and monitoring was assessed using a 9-item scale developed by Stattin and Kerr ([<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref67">51</reflink>]). Adolescents reported how often their parents knew about their activities and whereabouts (1 = <emph>Never</emph>, 6 = <emph>Always</emph>), using questions such as "How often do your parents know what you do in your free time?" Scores were summed to create a total parental knowledge score, for which higher scores indicated higher levels of parental knowledge (α = 0.82).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-14">Academic socialization</hd> <p>Academic socialization was measured with items adapted from Murdock's ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref68">42</reflink>]) Economic Value of Education scale. Adolescents responded to eight items such as "My parents tell me that many of the things I learn in school will be useful in the future" using a 5-point scale, (1 = <emph>Strongly disagree,</emph> 5 = <emph>Strongly agree</emph>). A mean score was calculated such that higher scores indicated more academic socialization (α = 0.79).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-15">School engagement</hd> <p>Adolescents reported their school engagement on four scales: commitment to learning, school trouble, school self-esteem, and school bonding. Commitment to learning (behavioral engagement) was measured with four items that assessed positive school behaviors such as "I am actively engaged in learning new things" and "I do my homework". Adolescents responded using a three-point scale (1 = <emph>Not True</emph>; 3 = <emph>Very True</emph>). Items were summed to create a total score such that higher scores indicate higher levels of commitment to learning (α = 0.72).</p> <p>School trouble (behavioral disengagement) was measured using four items that assessed difficulty adhering to positive conduct in the learning environment such as "I have trouble paying attention in school" and "I have trouble getting along with other students". Adolescents responded using a five-point scale (1 = <emph>Strongly Disagree</emph>, 5 = <emph>Strongly Agree</emph>). Items were summed to create a total school trouble score for which higher values indicated higher levels of school trouble (α = 0.76).</p> <p>School self-esteem (cognitive engagement) was measured using ten items adapted from the Hare (1996) self-esteem scale and assessed students' reflections of themselves and their performance with statements such as "I usually have been proud of my report card" and "I have been an important person in my classes". Adolescents responded using a four-point scale (1 = <emph>Strongly Disagree</emph>, 4 = <emph>Strongly Agree)</emph>. Items were summed to create a total score for school self-esteem such that higher scores indicated higher levels of school self-esteem (α = 0.80).</p> <p> <emph>School bonding</emph> (affective engagement) was measured with a scale that was adapted from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (AddHealth; Udry, 1998). This five-item scale assessed students' feelings of connectedness with their school and a sample item was "<emph>I feel like I am part of my school</emph>." Items were rated on a scale that ranged from 1 (<emph>Strongly Disagree</emph>) to 5 (<emph>Strongly Agree</emph>). Total scores were calculated by summing the five items, with higher scores representing more school bonding. Cronbach's alpha was 0.77.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-16">Control variables</hd> <p>Adolescents reported their gender (male = 0; female = 1) and race/ethnicity. Adolescents also reported their mother's and father's education levels (1 = <emph>Less than a high school degree</emph>, 2 = <emph>High school degree or GED</emph>, 3 = <emph>Some college</emph>, 4 = <emph>College degree</emph>, 5 = <emph>Advanced degree</emph>.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-17">Analysis plan</hd> <p>As a first step, repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted to test whether school engagement outcomes changed over the course of the school year from fall to spring. To examine parenting correlates of changes in school engagement, residualized change models within a hierarchical regression framework were conducted. Residualized change models are well suited for data with two occasions of measurement and are estimated by regressing the time 2 outcome on itself at a prior occasion, (e.g., time 1), and on predictors of interest (Castro-Schilo & Grimm, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref69">6</reflink>]). In the present study, Time 2 school engagement outcomes assessed in the Spring at the end of the school year (School Trouble, School Self-Esteem, School Bonding) were regressed on the Time 1 school engagement variables assessed in the Fall at the beginning of the school year, along with parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices. Any variability in the outcomes that are explained by Time 1 school engagement variables will be set aside and not explainable by the key predictors (relationship quality and parenting practices). The autoregressive effect residualizes the outcome leaving only variability that is unexplained by Time 1 school engagement, which can be construed as the variability due to change. Four models (one for each dimension of school engagement) were estimated. The first step included only the Time 1 predictor; the second step added the control variables (child gender, child race/ethnicity, and parental education assessed at Time 1); the third step added the parent-adolescent relationship and parenting practices variables. All statistical analyses were performed with SAS software version 9.4 (SAS Institute). Repeated measures analysis of variance and residualized change models require complete data at both time points, thus the analyses in the present study were conducted on the 208 participants who completed the Time 1 and Time 2 surveys. Twenty students did not complete both surveys and were excluded from the analyses. No differences were observed between the 20 students who did not complete both time points and those who did. We also examined whether there were differences in study variables by survey type (in-person vs. mailed). No significant differences were observed thus survey type was not included in the analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185810199-19">Descriptive statistics</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics and correlations for all study variables are presented in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, adolescents reported moderate levels of relationships quality, parenting practices, and school engagement.</p> <p>Table 1 Correlations and descriptive statistics for control, predictor, and outcome variables (<emph>N</emph> = 208)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Variables</p></th><th align="left"><p>1</p></th><th align="left"><p>2</p></th><th align="left"><p>3</p></th><th align="left"><p>4</p></th><th align="left"><p>5</p></th><th align="left"><p>6</p></th><th align="left"><p>7</p></th><th align="left"><p>8</p></th><th align="left"><p>9</p></th><th align="left"><p>10</p></th><th align="left"><p>11</p></th><th align="left"><p>12</p></th><th align="left"><p>13</p></th><th align="left"><p>14</p></th><th align="left"><p>15</p></th><th align="left"><p>16</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Child gender<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. Race/Ethnicity<sup>1</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Race/Ethnicity<sup>2</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. Parent Edu</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.35***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.15*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Warmth</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.04</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Conflict</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7. Knowledge</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.04</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.30***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.14*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8. Acad. socialization</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.32**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.25*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.36***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9. Commitment T1</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.41***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.22***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.24***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>10. School trouble T1</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.30***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.38***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.24***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.28***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.42***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>11. School self-esteem T1</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.34***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.26***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.22***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.25***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.44***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.60***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>12. School bonding T1</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.19**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.33***</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.25***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.50***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>13. Commitment T2</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.00</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.22**</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.25***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.36***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.27***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.48***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.28***</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>_</p></td><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>14. School trouble T2</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.15*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.32***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.29***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.32***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.23***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.31***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.62***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.49***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.24***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.28***</p></td><td align="left"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>15. School self-esteem T2</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.03</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.30***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.28***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.37***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.28***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.29***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.43***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.20***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.35***</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.65***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td><td char="." align="char" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>16. School bonding T2</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.01</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.16*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.19**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.32**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.25***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>− 0.17**</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.23***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.28***</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.23**</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.39***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.51***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>–</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>M0</italic></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.60</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>2.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>2.26</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>35.14</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.32</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>29.25</p></td><td align="left"><p>17.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>10.18</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.91</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>25.71</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.86</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>SD</italic></p></td><td align="left"><p>0.49</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.12</p></td><td align="left"><p>.38</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.12</p></td><td align="left"><p>.62</p></td><td align="left"><p>.93</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>6.65</p></td><td align="left"><p>.59</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.81</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>5.13</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.30</p></td><td align="left"><p>1.75</p></td><td align="left"><p>3.67</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.75</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.40</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Child Gender<sups>a</sups> = Boys = 0; girls = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>1</sups>: African American = 0, Latinx = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>2</sups>: African American = 0; Multiracial = 1. Commitment = Commitment to Learning; T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2 <sups><emph>*</emph></sups><emph>p</emph> < 0.05<emph>. **p</emph> < 0.01. <emph>***p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-20">Change in school engagement</hd> <p>We first examined the extent to which the dimensions of school engagement changed over the course of the school year and found that commitment to learning did not significantly change over time, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref70">1</reflink>, 208) = 0.01, <emph>p</emph> = 0.92 whereas school trouble significantly increased over time, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref71">1</reflink>, 208) = 10.07, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. School bonding significantly decreased over time <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref72">1</reflink>, 208) = 14.02, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 and school self-esteem also declined at the trend level, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref73">1</reflink>, 208) = 2.88, <emph>p</emph> = 0.09.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-21">Residualized change models</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185810199-22">Behavioral engagement/disengagement</hd> <p>The results showed that the first model predicting changes in commitment to learning was significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>, 195) = 51.00, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. Model 2 then added the control variables but did not significantly contribute to the overall variance accounted for. As shown in Model 3, Table 2, the final model was significant <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref75">9</reflink>, 187) = 9.08, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001 and the change was significant (Δ <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.09, <emph>t</emph> = 2.47, <emph>p</emph> < 0.0001). After accounting for Time 1 commitment to learning (β = 0.39, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), more parental knowledge of youth's activities and whereabouts was positively associated with changes in commitment to learning, β = 0.25, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. For every one unit increase in parental knowledge, there was a predicted 0.06 increase in Time 2 commitment to learning (see Table 2). Parent-adolescent conflict was associated with less commitment to learning, <emph>β</emph> = − 0.12, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. For every one-unit increase in conflict, there was a predicted 0.22 decrease in Time 2 commitment to learning, though this association was at a trend level (see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2 Summary of residualized change models for variables predicting commitment to learning (behavioral engagement)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 3</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1 school engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.54***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.44</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.46***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.37</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.39***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.23</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>1</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.35</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.29</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.29</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.14</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.30</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parents' education</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child warmth</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.19</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12<sup>+</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parental knowledge</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.25***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic socialization</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.21</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.21</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.30</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>51.00***</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>10.36***</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>9.08***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F for Δ in R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3" /><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.37</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>6.10***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Boys = 0; girls = 1 Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>1</sups>: African American = 0, Latinx = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>2</sups>: African American = 0; Multiracial = 1 + <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05. **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01. *** <emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <p>The residualized change model (Model 1, Table 3) predicting changes in school trouble was significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref76">1</reflink>, 193) = 120.36, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. Model 2 added control variables and indicated that multiracial adolescents had greater increases in school trouble than did African American or Latinx youth (see Table 3). As shown in Model 3, Table 3, the final model was significant <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref77">9</reflink>, 187) = 17.27, <emph>p</emph> < 0.0001 and the change was significant (Δ <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.05, <emph>t</emph> = 2.06, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). after accounting for Time 1 school trouble (β = 0.54, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), more parental knowledge of youth's activities and whereabouts was negatively associated with changes in school trouble, <emph>β</emph> = − 0.16, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01. For every one unit increase in parental knowledge, there was a predicted 0.09 decrease in Time 2 school trouble (see Table 3). Parent-adolescent warmth was associated with greater decline in school trouble, <emph>β</emph> = − 0.15, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, such that a one-unit increase in warmth predicted 0.86 decrease in Time 2 school trouble (see Table 3).</p> <p>Table 3 Summary of residualized change models for variables predicting school trouble (behavioral disengagement)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 3</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>β</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>β</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>β</italic></p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1 school engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>.62***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.62***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.54***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.42</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.43</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>1</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.14</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.59</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.58</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.26</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.56</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13*</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>1.11</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.54</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.11</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parents' education</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.03</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.01</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.20</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.00</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child warmth</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.87</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.36</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.15*</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.24</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.03</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parental knowledge</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.16**</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic socialization</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.45</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.39</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.38</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.41</p></td><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>0.46</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>120.36***</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>25.92***</p></td><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>17.27***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F for Δ in R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3" /><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>1.81</p></td><td align="left" colspan="3"><p>4.24***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Boys = 0; girls = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>1</sups>: African American = 0, Latinx = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>2</sups>: African American = 0; Multiracial = 1 + <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05. **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01. *** <emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-23">Affective engagement</hd> <p>The residualized change model (Model 1, Table 4) predicting changes in school bonding was significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref78">1</reflink>, 191) = 15.53, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. Model 2 added control variables but did not significantly contribute to the overall variance. As shown in Model 3, Table 4, the final model was significant <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref79">9</reflink>, 183) = 4.81, <emph>p</emph> < 0.0001 and the change was significant (Δ <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.09, <emph>t</emph> = 2.28, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). After accounting for Time 1 school bonding, more parental knowledge of youth's activities and whereabouts was positively associated with changes in school bonding, β = 0.20, <emph>p</emph> < 0.01, such that every one unit increase in parental knowledge was associated with a predicted 0.13 increase in school bonding. Further, academic socialization was positively associated with changes in school bonding, β = 0.15, <emph>p</emph> = 0.05. Each unit increase in academic socialization was associated with a 1.11 increase in Time 2 school bonding.</p> <p>Table 4 Summary of residualized change models for variables predicting school bonding (Affective Engagement)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 3</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1 school engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.27***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.27***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.07</p></td><td align="left"><p>.21***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.22</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.64</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.62</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.02</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>1</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.04</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.90</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.87</p></td><td align="left"><p>.01</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.38</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.84</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.12</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 1.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.80</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.11</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parents' education</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.32</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.25</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.30</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.06</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child warmth</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.24</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.52</p></td><td align="left"><p>.03</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.15</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.33</p></td><td align="left"><p>−.03</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parental knowledge</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>.20***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic socialization</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1.10</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.57</p></td><td align="left"><p>.14<sup>+</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.10</p></td><td align="left"><p>.19</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>15.53***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>4.14***</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.81***</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F for Δ in R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>1.27</p></td><td align="left"><p>5.19***</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td align="left" /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Boys = 0; girls = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>1</sups>: African American = 0, Latinx = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>2</sups>: African American = 0; Multiracial = 1 + <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. *<emph>p</emph> <.05. **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01. *** <emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-24">Cognitive engagement</hd> <p>The residualized change model (Model 1, Table 5) predicting changes in school self-esteem was significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref80">1</reflink>, 193) = 84.07, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. Model 2 added control variables but did not significantly contribute to the overall variance. As shown in Model 3, Table 5, the final model was significant <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref81">9</reflink>, 185) = 13.97, <emph>p</emph> < 0.0001 and the change was significant (Δ <emph>R</emph><sups>2</sups> = 0.09, <emph>t</emph> = 2.62, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). After accounting for Time 1 school self-esteem, more parental knowledge of youth's activities and whereabouts was positively associated with changes in school self-esteem, β = 0.23, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. For every one unit increase in parental knowledge there was a 0.17 increase in Time 2 school self-esteem. Parent-adolescent conflict was negatively associated with changes in school self-esteem, <emph>β</emph> = − 0.11, <emph>p</emph> = 0.06, though this association was a trend and indicated that for every one unit increase in conflict there was 0.61 unit decrease in school self-esteem.</p> <p>Table 5 Summary of residualized change models for variables predicting school self-esteem (Cognitive Engagement)</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left" /><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 1</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 2</p></th><th align="left" colspan="3"><p>Model 3</p></th></tr><tr><th align="left"><p>Variable</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p><italic>SE B</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>β</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Time 1 school engagement</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.51</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.55***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.56***</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.42</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.45***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Gender</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.18</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.02</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.09</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.57</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.01</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>1</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.83</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.00</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.13</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.01</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Race/Ethnicity<sup>2</sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.74</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.79</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.06</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.74</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.04</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parents' education</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.36</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.28</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.08</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.31</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.27</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.07</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child warmth</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.36</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.50</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parent–child conflict</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.60</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.32</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>− 0.11<sup>+</sup></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Parental knowledge</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.17</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.23***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Academic socialization</p></td><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char" /><td char="." align="char"><p>0.43</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.52</p></td><td char="." align="char"><p>0.05</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.30</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.32</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.41</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F</italic></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>84.07***</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>17.45***</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>13.97***</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p><italic>F for Δ in R</italic><sup><italic>2</italic></sup></p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3" /><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>0.86</p></td><td char="." align="char" colspan="3"><p>6.90***</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Boys = 0; girls = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>1</sups>: African American = 0, Latinx = 1; Child Race/Ethnicity<sups>2</sups>: African American = 0; Multiracial = 1 + <emph>p</emph> = 0.06. *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05. **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01. *** <emph>p</emph> < 0.001</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-25">Discussion</hd> <p>Grounded in an ecological perspective (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref82">4</reflink>]), this study aimed to investigate family correlates of changes in adolescents' school engagement. Given that school engagement tends to decline over time and that racial/ethnic minority youth are especially vulnerable to negative school experiences (Bottiani et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref83">2</reflink>]), we sought to explore parenting factors that may be related to changes in adolescents' school engagement. The results from the present study showed that proximal processes including parent-adolescent relationships and parenting practices have implications for changes in adolescents' school engagement. As such, these mesosytemic linkages that connect home and school contexts provide an avenue for parents and educators to mitigate potential declines in school engagement.</p> <p>Within parent-adolescent relationships, both quality of the relationship (warmth and conflict) along with parenting practices (parental knowledge and academic socialization) have implications for adolescents' school engagement (Perkins et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref84">44</reflink>]; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref85">65</reflink>]). Results from the present study revealed that relationship quality was not consistently related to changes in school engagement after accounting for other parenting practices. For example, parent-adolescent warmth was associated with changes in school trouble (behavioral disengagement) but was not linked to changes in school bonding (affective engagement) or school self-esteem (cognitive engagement). Additionally, parent-adolescent conflict was linked to declines in commitment to learning and school self-esteem at the trend level. While warmth and connection to parents may increase adolescents' positive behaviors, resulting in less trouble at school, conflict with parents can undermine adolescents' confidence and feelings of self-worth, which may explain these findings.</p> <p>Although past research found links among more positive, less conflictual parent-adolescent relationships and adolescents' academic functioning (e.g., Dotterer et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref86">13</reflink>]; Sun et al., [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref87">54</reflink>]), these studies generally have not simultaneously addressed the role of other parenting practices such as parental knowledge or academic socialization. One exception however was a study by Voisin et al. ([<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref88">57</reflink>]), which found that parental warmth was associated with higher levels of affective engagement including student–teacher connection and school bonding. The researchers found however, that when parental knowledge was examined simultaneously with warmth, only parental knowledge remained significant.</p> <p>Previous research has emphasized the importance of parental knowledge for a host of adolescent outcomes including delinquency, substance use sexual risk behaviors, and mental health (Flannagan et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref89">16</reflink>]; Jones et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref90">32</reflink>]; Racz & McMahon, [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref91">46</reflink>]) and results from the present study add to the body of literature regarding parental knowledge as a parenting practice that is beneficial for adolescents' school engagement (Voisin et al., 2017). The results from this study seem to suggest that parental knowledge is a salient parenting practice that is most beneficial for racial/ethnic minority youths' school engagement and is in line with previous research (Hill & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref92">27</reflink>]). Broadly, parental knowledge reflects involvement in education, which may explain this pattern of findings. Indeed, several items on this scale include knowledge about school-related things such as homework, when assignments are due, and performance in school. Additional items were not specific to school, but reflect parents' awareness and understanding of what is going on in their child's life. These findings offer support for the idea that when parents have more knowledge about how their adolescents are doing in school, who they are hanging out with, and where they spend their time, adolescents may engage in fewer behaviors that could undermine academic success (i.e., behavioral engagement), develop more positive attitudes about schooling (i.e., affective engagement), and have greater confidence in their academic potential (i.e., cognitive engagement).</p> <p>These findings are also consistent with previous research. For example, Woolley et al. ([<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref93">64</reflink>]) explored links between parental knowledge and Latinx middle school students' school engagement and achievement. Results showed parents' educational monitoring (e.g., discussion with parents about upcoming school events, and problems with teachers or peers) had direct associations with youths' school satisfaction (i.e., affective engagement). Further, Voisin et al. (2017) also found that parental knowledge was a better predictor of school engagement among low income African American adolescents than was parental warmth. Voisin and colleagues indexed school engagement as student–teacher connection and school bonding which are indicators of affective engagement, thus, our results extend to other domains of school engagement –- behavioral and cognitive engagement. Results from the present study indicated that parental knowledge was associated with reduced school trouble and increased commitment to learning, school bonding, school self-esteem.</p> <p>In addition to parental knowledge, the present study investigated academic socialization indexed as educational values. Academic socialization includes the messages parents convey about the utility and value of education and is thought to be particularly beneficial in early adolescence (Hill & Tyson, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref94">26</reflink>]) and among racial/ethnic minority adolescents. Smith et al ([<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref95">50</reflink>]) for example, found that higher levels of parent education values were associated with higher levels of behavioral and affective engagement among racial/ethnic minority adolescents from immigrant families. Similarly, results from the present showed that academic socialization indexed as educational values from parents was associated with increased affective engagement via school bonding. As adolescents internalize educational values from their parents, they may develop more positive feelings about their school environment.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-26">Limitations, strengths, and future directions</hd> <p>There are several limitations that should be noted. First, the present study relied on adolescent self-reports. Future research should incorporate multiple reporters because it is possible that parents' and teachers' unique perspectives on the same constructs could be related differentially to academic outcomes. Second, we were not able to separate out effects for mothers versus fathers due to wording in measures on parental knowledge and academic socialization in which questions asked about "parents" rather than each parent separately. For consistency we averaged reports of relationship quality with mothers and fathers, but future research should attempt to tease apart effects for mothers versus fathers. Third, the data was correlational in nature and preclude causal inferences from being made. For example, it is plausible that adolescents who are less engaged and motivated influence parents to increase their monitoring. Finally, longitudinal data with multiple measurement occasions are needed to investigate the direction of effects as well as how changes in relationship quality and parenting practices are related to youths' academic functioning across adolescence.</p> <p>Considering these limitations, the strengths of this study should also be noted. A strength of the present study was the use of both parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices to simultaneously predict changes in school engagement. As previous research has often focused on dimensions of parenting in isolation (Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2014), parenting is multi-faceted, and some components may be more strongly linked to adolescents' academic outcomes than others. Indeed, results from the present study showed that it is important to consider these aspects of parenting simultaneously. Future research might also consider the dynamic interaction between relationship quality and parenting practices as predictors of adolescents' school engagement.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-27">Conclusion</hd> <p>Understanding the factors that support school engagement among racial and ethnic minority adolescents is an important area of research that can highlight successful practices and strategies. By understanding the family processes that promote school engagement, we can better support racial/ethnic minority adolescents in their educational journeys. Results from this study suggest that parental knowledge conceptualized as an awareness or understanding of adolescents' daily lives and activities is key to supporting school engagement during early adolescence. Given that parental knowledge typically declines across adolescence as needs for autonomy increase (Masche, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref96">40</reflink>]), parents should be encouraged to continue cultivating close relationships with their children as they age in order to stay informed and connected. Such relationships are especially important for adolescents of color as close parent–child relationships build resiliency in minority youth (Marks et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref97">39</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-28">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0185810199-29">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The author declares that they have no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0185810199-30">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0185810199-31"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref16" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Allen KA, Jamshidi N, Berger E, Reupert A, Wurf G, May F. Impact of school-based interventions for building school belonging in adolescence: A systematic review. 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Dotterer (corresponding author) is a Professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies in the Emma Eccles Jones College of Education and Human Services at Utah State University. She received her doctorate in Human Development and Family Studies from the Pennsylvania State University. Her research interests include understanding how family and school experiences shape youth development, promotive and protective factors that facilitate healthy development, and broadening participation in STEM.</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref21"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref32"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref35"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref44"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref84"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref85"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref87"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref91"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref94"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref96"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref97"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
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An: EJ1473561
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PubType: Academic Journal
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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Parenting Correlates of Changes in School Engagement among Racial/Ethnic Minority Students
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Aryn+M%2E+Dotterer%22">Aryn M. Dotterer</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4199-0165">0000-0002-4199-0165</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Social+Psychology+of+Education%3A+An+International+Journal%22"><i>Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal</i></searchLink>. 2025 28(1).
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Minority+Groups%22">Minority Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22African+American+Students%22">African American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Hispanic+American+Students%22">Hispanic American Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Multiracial+Persons%22">Multiracial Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Middle+School+Students%22">Middle School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Urban+Schools%22">Urban Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Affective+Behavior%22">Affective Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Conflict%22">Conflict</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Knowledge+Level%22">Knowledge Level</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parents%22">Parents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Predictor+Variables%22">Predictor Variables</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Learner+Engagement%22">Learner Engagement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Socialization%22">Socialization</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Participation%22">Student Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Background%22">Parent Background</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Attainment%22">Educational Attainment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22National+Longitudinal+Study+of+Adolescent+Health%22">National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11218-025-10067-z
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1381-2890<br />1573-1928
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: The present study examined the extent to which parent-adolescent relationship quality and parenting practices were associated with changes in school engagement among racial and ethnic minority adolescents. Participants (58% female) were 208 racial/ethnic minority students (63% African American, 19% Latinx, 18% Multiracial) in grades 6-8 from an urban middle school in the Midwestern United States. In the fall (Time 1) and subsequent spring (Time 2) of the school year, youth completed in-school surveys with items on parent-adolescent warmth, conflict, parental knowledge, academic socialization, and school engagement (commitment to learning, school trouble, school bonding, school self-esteem). Results from residualized change models revealed that parental knowledge was a salient and consistent predictor of changes in school engagement. These results suggest that parents' awareness or understanding of adolescents' daily lives and activities is key to supporting school engagement during early adolescence. Parental knowledge of adolescents' daily lives can foster a more collaborative relationship between home and school, which can boost adolescents' engagement in school.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1473561
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1473561
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11218-025-10067-z
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Minority Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: African American Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Hispanic American Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multiracial Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Middle School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Urban Schools
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Affective Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Conflict
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Knowledge Level
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Predictor Variables
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Learner Engagement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Socialization
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Participation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Background
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Attainment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Parenting Correlates of Changes in School Engagement among Racial/Ethnic Minority Students
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Aryn M. Dotterer
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1381-2890
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-1928
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 28
            – Type: issue
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            – TitleFull: Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal
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