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'Literally Showing That I Care about Them': A Peer Mentor Leadership Model

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Title: 'Literally Showing That I Care about Them': A Peer Mentor Leadership Model
Language: English
Authors: Katherine L. Friesen (ORCID 0000-0003-3348-2846), Nicholas C. Martinez (ORCID 0000-0002-9315-9082)
Source: New Directions for Student Leadership. 2025 (186):67-73.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 7
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Peer Teaching, Mentors, Models, Leadership Training, Skill Development, Learning Experience, College Students, Private Colleges
DOI: 10.1002/yd.20677
ISSN: 2373-3349
2373-3357
Abstract: As a high-impact practice, peer mentoring programs are used in a variety of contexts, with a variety of outcomes for mentees. Peer mentoring programs present a unique experience for mentors to develop leadership skills. However, gaps in the literature expose the need for a greater understanding of peer mentor leadership practice and more intentional leadership education and training for mentors. Our study explored significant learning experiences of peer mentors who served in a first-year experience program at a small, private institution in the Midwestern United States, with a model of peer mentor leadership emerging among participants' narratives.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1475194
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0186163587;[i75m]01jun.25;2025Jun27.04:04;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0186163587-1">"Literally Showing That I Care About Them": A Peer Mentor Leadership Model </title> <sbt id="AN0186163587-2">Introduction</sbt> <p>As a high‐impact practice, peer mentoring programs are used in a variety of contexts, with a variety of outcomes for mentees. Peer mentoring programs present a unique experience for mentors to develop leadership skills. However, gaps in the literature expose the need for a greater understanding of peer mentor leadership practice and more intentional leadership education and training for mentors. Our study explored significant learning experiences of peer mentors who served in a first‐year experience program at a small, private institution in the Midwestern United States, with a model of peer mentor leadership emerging among participants' narratives.</p> <p>Undergraduate peer mentor programs are valued developmental experiences in higher education. Though the focus is on the development of mentees, the leadership development that occurs for mentors is tremendous. However, there does not exist a model for peer mentor leadership practice, something that can promote intentional development as mentors navigate the mentoring experience. Therefore, this grounded theory study sought to develop a peer mentor leadership model to aid in the deliberate training and teaching of peer mentors and improve programmatic leadership development outcomes.</p> <p>Emergent themes among mentor experiences included generativity, accountability, adaptability, and authenticity. Relationships among these themes revealed the emergence of peer mentor leadership, where mentors were compelled to become mentors because of generativity. Once in the mentoring experience, they negotiated accountability with their mentees, adapted throughout the experience, and found success in connecting with mentees through authenticity. The model contributes to the lack of peer mentor leadership models and could be used as a window into understanding the practice of peer mentorship. However, we believe more research into peer mentor leadership development is needed.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-3">Peer Mentoring and Leadership Development</hd> <p>Peer mentoring programs are considered high‐impact practices (Kuh [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref1">17</reflink>]). We define peer mentoring as "...a relationship where a more experienced student helps a less experienced student improve overall academic performance and provides advice, support, and knowledge to the mentee" (Collier [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref2">6</reflink>], 9). The lessened power differential and similar age between mentors and mentees arguably allow mentees to be more open with mentors. As such, the use of peer mentoring programs are used in a variety of contexts, including curricular and non‐curricular, student population specific (e.g., first‐generation and honors students, first‐year experience, living and/or learning communities, and service to K‐12 students), discipline‐specific (e.g., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics [STEM], education, leadership), or outcome specific (e.g., financial literacy). Though the focus may be different, the peer mentoring experience across contexts fosters leadership development in students who mentor.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-4">Leadership Development</hd> <p>Mentoring experiences promote leadership skill development in every area of Seemiller's ([<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref3">23</reflink>]) student leadership competencies. The mentoring experience provides situations for learning and applying leadership theory (Dunn and Moore [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref4">8</reflink>]; Lee et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref5">18</reflink>]; Soria et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref6">25</reflink>]), developing problem‐solving, adaptability, decision‐making, and reflection skills (Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref7">11</reflink>]; Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref8">12</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref9">15</reflink>]; Micari et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref10">21</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref11">28</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref12">29</reflink>]), all associated with competencies in learning and reasoning. Mentoring fosters skill development in group dynamics, such as leading mentees, organizing and delegating tasks, time management, and co‐creating learning environments with their mentees (Bowling [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref13">3</reflink>]; Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref14">5</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref15">15</reflink>]; Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref16">12</reflink>]; Skipper and Keup [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>]; Wallin et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref18">27</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref19">29</reflink>]). Mentors develop skills in strategic planning, including developing a mission and vision, goal setting, and providing feedback (Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref20">12</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref21">15</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref22">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Navigating mentoring relationships promote the development of skills in self‐awareness, clarifying values, leadership philosophies, and openness to feedback as mentors are met with challenges (Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref23">5</reflink>]; Wallin et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref24">27</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref25">28</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref26">29</reflink>]). Students learn to address uncertainty by acknowledging their limitations, adjusting their beliefs, and even using the advice they would give their mentees (Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref27">5</reflink>]; Skipper and Keup [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref28">24</reflink>]; Taylor et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref29">26</reflink>]). Students often become mentors because of their sense of generativity (Hastings et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref30">13</reflink>]). However, the experience promotes the cultivation of generativity, developing capacity for social responsibility (e.g., presenting ideas for program improvement), inclusion, and cultural intelligence (Bowling [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref31">3</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref32">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Mentoring also supports the further development of interpersonal and communication skills strengthening skills in motivation, trust, building relationships, and empathy (Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref33">11</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref34">28</reflink>]), and refining skills in listening, facilitation, collaboration, and conflict resolution (Bowling [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref35">3</reflink>]; Dunn and Moore [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref36">8</reflink>]; Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref37">11</reflink>]; Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref38">12</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref39">15</reflink>]; Lee et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref40">18</reflink>]; Micari et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref41">21</reflink>]; Skipper and Keup [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref42">24</reflink>]; Wallin et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref43">27</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref44">28</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref45">29</reflink>]). The mentoring experience nurtures personal behaviors such as ethical and personal responsibility, initiative, and integrity (Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref46">5</reflink>]; Bowling [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref47">3</reflink>]; Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref48">11</reflink>]; Micari et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref49">21</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref50">28</reflink>]). Efficacy and confidence in teaching and leading are fostered by being a mentor, even changing students' perspectives that they could, in fact, be leaders (Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref51">11</reflink>]; Lee et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref52">18</reflink>]; Micari et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref53">21</reflink>]; Skipper and Keup [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref54">24</reflink>]; Wallin et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref55">27</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-5">Improving Leadership Development</hd> <p>Mentoring presents significant challenges with real consequences, such as letting mentees struggle or fail, being skilled at engaging disinterested and uncooperative mentees, having mastery content knowledge, and managing their own personal and academic responsibilities while mentoring (Dunn and Moore [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref56">8</reflink>]; Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref57">11</reflink>]; Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref58">12</reflink>]; Taylor et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref59">26</reflink>]; Skipper and Keup [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref60">24</reflink>]). Training and ongoing development of mentors is critical for learning and feeling supported. However, because of how widely used peer mentoring programs are, practitioners do not always have the expertise for leadership education. Peer mentoring training is at risk for the oversimplification of leadership learning and failure to engage on‐going reflective practices that are needed for intentional and deliberate leadership development (Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref61">5</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref62">15</reflink>]; Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref63">29</reflink>]). That is if leadership learning is even covered in mentoring training, which Collier ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref64">6</reflink>]) did not add as a critical component for training. Therefore, we propose the development of a peer mentor leadership model to improve the training and development of mentors.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-6">Program Context</hd> <p>The following study was conducted at a small, private institution in the Midwestern United States. Friesen, Director of First‐Year Experience, implemented a peer mentoring program as part of the first‐year seminar course, based on a program administered with Martinez at a previous institution. The course focused on understanding expectations of college, developing skills to problem solve and advocate for oneself, developing healthy habits, and learning about campus resources and making campus connections. The class met twice a week; the first meeting included the faculty member and mentor, and the second meeting was led by the mentor only.</p> <p>Students applied and interviewed to be peer mentors. Once hired, mentors went through a two‐day training focusing on developing facilitation, mentoring, and support skills; inclusivity, empowerment, ethical responsibility, and purpose; and applying critical thinking and problem‐solving skills. The relational model of leadership (Komives et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref65">16</reflink>]) was used as the main model for leadership learning. Students were then paired with their faculty member. Throughout the semester, they met weekly as a group with the Director to discuss the mentoring experience and challenges, and with their faculty member to plan classes and discuss challenges. The experience lasted one semester.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-7">Methods</hd> <p>A qualitative narrative inquiry, grounded theory design (Merriam [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref66">20</reflink>]) was used for the study, along with the sense‐making interview structure from Baxter Magolda and King ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref67">2</reflink>]). We were interested in gathering participants' rich and thick narrative descriptions of their experiences as a peer mentor and how they made sense of the experience. The grounded theory approach allowed us to analyze the data and develop a model for peer mentor leadership guided by participant narratives.</p> <p>Thirteen mentors were hired for the Fall 2023 semester: 11 women and 2 men. Seven were second‐year students and six were fourth‐year students by time on campus, not credits earned. One was an international student, and one identified with an underrepresented minority group. The demographics of mentors reflected the demographics of the institution. Mentors were asked to participate in a one‐hour interview to discuss their experiences at the end of the semester. Five mentors agreed to participate. Of the five, all of them were women, and one was a student of color. Four were second‐year students, and one was a fourth‐year student getting ready to graduate.</p> <p>Data collection included a 1‐h, semi‐structured interview using Baxter Magolda and King's ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref68">2</reflink>]) meaning‐making interview structure. The interview began by asking participants about a meaningful or significant experience as a peer mentor. Probing questions then explored how they understood, or made meaning of, the experience. Interviews were transcribed and sent to participants for member‐checking (Merriam [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref69">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>Inductive, open‐coding methods (Merriam [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref70">20</reflink>]) were used for data analysis, allowing the mentors' narratives to guide the analysis for codes within individual interviews. Then, themes were developed by analyzing codes across interviews. Themes began to emerge in relationship to one another, revealing a theory of peer mentor leadership practice. This reflected grounded theory methods using inductive, open‐coding for theory development (Merriam [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref71">20</reflink>]). Friesen conducted the initial round of analysis, and Martinez served as an expert peer, checking and discussing codes, themes, and the model.</p> <p>Several limitations impact this study. First, we explored the experiences of mentors as part of a very specific peer mentoring experience at one private university in the Midwest. Second, our sample only included five participants; all were women, and one identified with an underrepresented minority group. These findings can only be transferable to a very specific population of peer mentors. However, it is our hope that this study will encourage future research on developing a model for peer mentor leadership.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-8">Findings</hd> <p>Our study aimed to explore the experiences of students who served as peer mentors for a first‐year seminar course and how they made sense of their experiences. Inductive coding revealed four themes related to participants' experiences practicing leadership as mentors: generativity, a sense of commitment to serving the next group of first‐year students (Erikson [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref72">10</reflink>]); accountability, responsibility to ensure mentees complete tasks to expectations (Bergman [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref73">4</reflink>]; McGrath and Whitty [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref74">19</reflink>]); adaptability, changing procedures and processes using a different frame or perspective in the face of challenges (Northouse [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref75">22</reflink>]); and authenticity, the ability to connect with mentees through personal and shared experiences (Northouse [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref76">22</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-9">Generativity</hd> <p>Many participants took their responsibility as mentors seriously because of their desire to help new students. Participants discussed wanting to be there for new students and to help students understand various aspects of their experience at the institution. For example, Lynn reflected on the challenges she faced as a new student, sharing, "...and then what I went through last semester just like, I don't want that to happen to my kids." Lynn was highly committed to discussing with her students being safe as a first‐year student, calling students "my kids" as a form of endearment. Ally reflected on her positive experience with roommates and being there for mentees who may struggle with their roommates. She shared:</p> <p>What if they don't become friends with their roommate? Then they could have no one, and so it kind of gives them that, like landline like they always have, they have at least one person to fall back on, even if it was something stupid like, how do I get a meal plan?...Like, I'm very stressed. I don't know what to do, I am not happy here, like I need help. And you [the mentor] could be that person for someone.</p> <p>Ally recognized that her mentees may have different experiences, and she might be the only person her mentees felt comfortable approaching for help.</p> <p>In addition to expressing a desire to help students, participants helped mentees make sense of their experiences as new students and prepared them for the road ahead. As an athlete, Sarah reflected on students complaining about weight training.</p> <p>A lot of them had opinions about weights. I typically just said that I know that it's annoying, and I find it annoying on some occasions. But I know that, like what they're doing is trying to help us to get better, which is what the university is trying to do as a whole.</p> <p>Even though Sarah might have agreed with the students in their complaints, she reminded the students of the purpose and importance of weight training and school in their effort to get better. Similarly, participants were focused on making sure mentees did not miss important information for their success as students. Amy reflected on trying to explain the importance of having an academic plan, expressing:</p> <p>I see you as a person who's trying to graduate in four years. And so I know that what you're not gonna learn in any of your other classes is that you have [so many more] fall semester[s]. And like, I want you to graduate on time.</p> <p>From her own experience, Amy knew it was important to know what classes to take and when, otherwise, they would not graduate on time. Ally discussed the importance of continuing to try, even when things did not work, sharing with students, "This is what worked for me, but it won't work for all of you, so you have to try things out to find out for yourself." She was aware that college was about trying and failing and helping students to understand they would need to keep trying. The attitude toward generativity encouraged participants to take personal responsibility for their role as a mentor, helping their mentees navigate their first semester of college.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-10">Accountability</hd> <p>The second theme from participant reflections was accountability. Participants reflected on the need to create structure and expectations for their students so that their mentees would respect them. Two leadership approaches emerged that participants used to establish accountability, authentic leadership and transactional leadership.</p> <p>Participants who implemented a more authentic leadership approach reflected on their ability to get students to come to class and turn in assignments. Ally shared her personal frustrations with being told what to do without explanation and choosing to approach mentees differently, "I'll explain to them like the reason that you need to know this. The reason that they're doing this...I'm a why person, so I like to explain things." Even if students did not want to engage, Ally found them turning in assignments and coming to class. Lynn shared her approach to establishing respect for her class by caring for her students:</p> <p>I think it just really comes from being nice and literally showing that I care about them. I feel like a leader authentically, who cares about the group and that's visibly like, if that's very noticeable, I think that probably gained me some respect.</p> <p>Ally and Lynn both used authentic approaches to establishing accountability with their classes, gaining respect from their students.</p> <p>Some participants used a transactional approach to establish expectations with students. Like Ally, Amy shared her frustrations with patronizing teachers she experienced in the past. Her intentions were to influence her mentees' sense of responsibility, like coming to class, paying attention, and doing their work. She compared the student experience to having a job:</p> <p>I really want to help you, but you do have to be an adult today...I showed up and did my job. And I said, you get to show up and do whatever your job looks like that day, or you can not show up, you know, like these are the consequences of our own actions.</p> <p>When mentees chose not to pay attention, she implemented one expectation, "You can ignore me. You just can't distract me [while I am trying to do my job]." Sarah, too, struggled to engage students in class, detailing the challenge of doing so:</p> <p>I feel like that was the only way that I could get any responses out of them is if I said, Okay, I need three responses from three different people on about three different things or we can't move on and you're just gonna sit here all hour.</p> <p>This approach left Sarah with the same three students participating in the discussion, still struggling to engage the rest of the class. Establishing accountability with mentees was a significant theme of participants' experiences. However, how they responded to the challenge was different, leading to different outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-11">Adaptability</hd> <p>A few participants discussed the need for adaptability as a mentor, knowing when to admit mistakes, remaining flexible, and asserting oneself for the first time. Reflecting on an event that did not go as planned, Sarah said, "You have to be able to admit 'Hey, I messed up during this part, but like we just had to roll, to flow. And this is how it went and we're not expecting it to go like that again."' Her willingness to admit a mistake and commit to doing things differently in the future demonstrated her adaptability as a mentor.</p> <p>In class, Amy was willing to provide extra time for students to do assignments that she knew were important for the students to understand, "I'm telling you right now, like, I'm giving you an extra week, because I think you really need to pay attention to this, and then a lot of them reached out." Amy was willing to be flexible so students could understand the assignment rather than risk them missing out on an important learning opportunity.</p> <p>Emma reflected on a significant moment when she asserted herself for the first time. When students were too distracted during a guest speaker, she reflected, "I projected my voice...I told them that this was a very serious topic, and I needed them to be quiet and show respect for our presenter and to take it more seriously." Emma shared that she would not have felt comfortable asserting herself as such a year ago. However, she recognized the need to speak up, adapting to the needs of the environment in the moment.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-12">Authenticity</hd> <p>Participants recognized the need to make authentic connections with their mentees if they wanted to develop trust with them. They did so by considering the environment they were creating in the class, connecting with students outside of class, and not shying away from being themselves. Emma was aware of her approach to working with mentees, expressing, "I always kept it really real with my students." She shared that she kept her expectations very clear, but intentionally provided space for everyone to be themselves in class.</p> <p>Student safety, especially in class, was a priority for Lynn, "I thought it was really important to create more of an emotional safety especially because I wanted them to be open with me as well." She was aware that feeling safe in class could help mentees open up. Ally was mindful of the classroom environment, "Just making [class] a better atmosphere, made them, made it like go into trusting me, I guess." The desire to establish authentic relationships with students was a priority for participants, and they were aware that doing so required safety and trust.</p> <p>Some participants reflected on funny situations or stories they shared with their students in class to connect with students. Lynn shared an experience when she accidentally cursed in class:</p> <p>Oh, this is stupid...they thought it was so funny, maybe this is bad, but I accidentally, like I said, a cussword and then I said, I told them I was like, "if you're scared, I'm scared, too" type of thing. Yeah...it was like little kids when you say something funny or bad they all laughed.</p> <p>In a vulnerable moment, Lynn authentically shared her feelings with students about being nervous. Though she made a mistake, together they were able to laugh about it. Humor was a strategy Amy used to stress an important and vulnerable financial learning moment she had:</p> <p>I was like, '"No, literally, that's why I told you this, because Amy was an idiot, and Amy is a pretty smart person, and Amy was still very stupid, and spent all her money, and then had to work very, very hard to save up. And now I'm still scared because I'm leaving and I'm graduating. I have to be an adult", and I was like, "so don't be Amy."'</p> <p>Amy reflected about having a mentor, "It's less scary to talk to someone who's closer to your age than talking to like 50‐year‐old professor." Participants used authentic moments of humor to build trust and show care for their mentees.</p> <p>Some participants used informal opportunities to connect with students. Ally invited students to lunch every Friday, reflecting, "I think the lunches helped because we really got to sit down and just talk about random stuff." Sarah focused on connecting with students before class, sharing, "We would just like talk about [weights], and like the down times before class started because about half of them that like to show up five, 10 minutes early. I was able to connect with them more." Participants seemed to make use of the informal moments to be authentic and connect with students. Ally realized these informal opportunities became part of the class, "I was able to be more personal which made it more relaxing because I'm getting to actually be me. The leadership persona that I put on was more authentic." The idea of being an authentic leader was new for Ally. Being authentic took some of the pressure of being right and the only responsible person for the group away. Participants made authentic connections by focusing on the development of the class environments and leaning into humor and informal opportunities.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-13">Peer Mentor Leadership Model</hd> <p>During data analysis, relationships among the themes emerged into a model of peer mentor leadership (Figure 1). The model is cyclical in nature; mentors discussed making adjustments throughout the experience as they tried new strategies and learned about their mentees. Mentors entered the role with a strong sense of generativity. Many were committed to helping new students at the institution based on their own experiences. Lynn, Ally, Sarah, and Amy discussed their experiences as new students, how those experiences might impact their mentees, and the importance of addressing them with their mentees. As mentors started their mentoring experience, they quickly realized the importance of setting expectations with mentees, responding to feelings of responsibility and accountability for their students' success.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/I75M/01jun25/yd20677-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="yd20677-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Peer mentor leadership model." /> </p> <p></p> <p>Mentors seemed to respond to establishing accountability using two different leadership approaches: authentic leadership and transactional leadership (Northouse [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref77">22</reflink>]). Ally and Lynn used more authentic leadership approaches, working with the students to develop expectations for the class, demonstrating care for their students, and sharing why the class was important. Amy and Sarah responded with more transactional approaches, negotiating with students over their role in college and deadlines for turning in important assignments.</p> <p>The willingness of mentors to test new approaches identified the importance of adaptability in the model of peer mentor leadership. As mentors received real‐time feedback through their experience, they negotiated adaptability by developing more fluid or rigid leadership practices. For example, Ally and Lynn, who used more authentic leadership approaches, used practices that reflected process‐oriented leadership, practicing authenticity, intentionality, intellectual humility, and psychological safety. Those who practiced leadership more from a transactional frame became more rigid in their approach. Mentors like Amy and Sarah seemed to respond with more attention to expectations, responsibility, and control. Regardless of the response to accountability and adaptability, almost all participants talked about the importance of authenticity, connecting with students through shared experiences, honesty, or funny situations. They expressed that these experiences led to a connection with their mentees.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-15">Discussion</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was to explore meaningful or significant experiences of peer mentors in a first‐year experience course. What emerged was a peer mentor leadership model revealing a gap in leadership skills mentors develop and how they apply those skills in practice.</p> <p>Like previous research, participants were drawn to becoming a peer mentor to help new students, demonstrating a strong sense of generativity (Hastings et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref78">13</reflink>]; Hastings and Sunderman [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref79">14</reflink>]). One notable finding about generativity was that many of the participants understood that what worked for them may not work for their mentees. The awareness demonstrates a shift to considering others in leadership practice (Komives et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref80">16</reflink>]). How many of them helped student mentees figure out what worked for them was to walk with their mentees, providing a safe environment, support, and motivation to keep going.</p> <p>Some participants expressed the need to be authentic in their mentoring leadership practice, something that was new for some of them. Participants shared how they used personal experiences to open topics of discussion in class, demonstrating intellectual humility (Bąk et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>]) and creating psychologically safe environments for their mentees (Edmondson [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref82">9</reflink>]). They alluded to the idea that, without being themselves, their mentees would be less likely to connect and engage in the experience. Previous literature demonstrates the ability of mentors to co‐create learning environments, practice empathy, develop trust, and build relationships (Dunn and Moore [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref83">8</reflink>]; Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref84">11</reflink>]; Wallin et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref85">27</reflink>]; Ward et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref86">28</reflink>]). However, studies fail to foreground how authentic leadership may be used to help mentors achieve these skills. Additionally, how mentors show up as their authentic selves is unclear, as not everyone is as comfortable openly sharing themselves with others.</p> <p>Participants seemed to struggle the most with establishing expectations and holding their mentees accountable and how to approach doing so, reflecting similar challenges in previous literature (Dunn and Moore [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref87">8</reflink>]; Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref88">11</reflink>]; Haqqee et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref89">12</reflink>]). Across participants' reflections, two approaches to leadership practice emerged: authentic leadership and transactional leadership. Participants who took a more authentic leadership approach (Northouse [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref90">22</reflink>]) used elements of intellectual humility (Bąk et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref91">1</reflink>]), psychological safety (Edmonson [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref92">9</reflink>]), and group consensus (Komives et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref93">16</reflink>]) to establish and support mentees in meeting expectations. Those who used a more transactional leadership approach established expectations and accountability using transactional methods, using reward systems to get students to participate (Northouse [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref94">22</reflink>]). Though studies on mentor leadership skill development have shown increases in leadership efficacy and confidence (Fine [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref95">11</reflink>]), our study revealed disconnects between the kind of leadership mentors practice and how students practice leadership.</p> <p>Adapting to the mentor role seemed to be the least articulate reflection of participants' experiences. Many participants alluded to adapting their leadership approach throughout their experience as mentors, such as making changes to class when mentees lacked participation or needed additional time to understand the importance of class topics. However, they had a hard time articulating that they had adapted their practices, some even struggling to articulate how they made adaptations. Previous research indicates that mentors develop skills in dealing with ambiguity and problem‐solving (Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref96">29</reflink>]). How students navigate adapting their leadership style and how they make sense of their decisions and actions was not as clear.</p> <hd id="AN0186163587-16">Implications and Conclusion</hd> <p>The findings of our study reveal important implications for practice and research related to peer mentor leadership practice and development. Practitioners must develop peer mentor training focused on leadership learning, not just individual competencies and skills, and enacting leadership when working with mentors (Byrne et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref97">5</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref98">15</reflink>]). Bowling et al. ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref99">3</reflink>]) recommended adding those with leadership expertise to the training team, which is especially important if the program is not developed by leadership educators. Conducting training before the mentoring experience is not enough. It is imperative practitioners create opportunities for mentors to reflect and process their leadership learning throughout the mentoring experience (Collier [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref100">6</reflink>]; Hirsch et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref101">15</reflink>]). Failure to do so leaves mentor leadership development up to chance and risks peer mentors developing harmful leadership practices.</p> <p>Last, practitioners must remember how they are role modeling leadership practice for their mentors, which reflects the idea of mentoring as a leadership laboratory (Watkins [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref102">29</reflink>]). Mentors who have role models and examples for mentoring have higher levels of confidence when mentoring their peers (Collier [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref103">7</reflink>]; Soria et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref104">25</reflink>]). In addition to modeling leadership, mentors can benefit from practitioners pulling back the curtain, so to speak, on the strategies they use to practice leadership. Our hope is the model of peer mentor leadership development will help practitioners and mentors better identify how they are practicing leadership and areas for redirection or improvement.</p> <p>Though we proposed a model for peer mentor leadership, further research is needed. Our model emerged from a monolithic group of mentors in one type of mentoring program. This limits the transferability of findings to mentoring contexts beyond a first‐year experience class at a small, private institution in the Midwest and a sample of all women mentors. Further studies should explore the model in different mentoring contexts and with diverse students. Additionally, future studies should focus on training and experiences of peer mentors throughout their mentoring experience for continued development of the model and improving training for mentors. Last, scholars must disseminate their research across disciplines and fields of practice as mentoring programs are utilized in a variety of contexts in higher education.</p> <p>In conclusion, our study revealed the emergence of a peer mentor leadership model, confirming the leadership development that occurs through the mentoring experience and demonstrating the need for deliberate and intentional leadership training for mentors. However, further research is needed to confirm the transferability of the model in different mentoring contexts, providing further insight for redirection and improvement in mentor leadership development. Nonetheless, these findings begin to outline how peer mentor programs are creating opportunities for student mentors to develop and practice generative and authentic leadership that can create spaces to support mentees in their growth and learning.</p> <ref id="AN0186163587-17"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref81" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Bąk, W., B. Wójtowicz, and J. Kutnik. 2021. " Intellectual Humility: An Old Problem in a New Psychological Perspective." Current Issues in Personality Psychology 10, no. 2 : 85 – 97. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2021.106999.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref67" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Baxter Magolda, M. B., and P. M. King. 2012. Assessing Meaning Making and Self-‐Authorship: Theory, Research, and Application (ASHE Higher Education Report, 38.3). Jossey‐Bass.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref13" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Bowling, B., M. Doyle, J. Taylor, and A. 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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Katherine+L%2E+Friesen%22">Katherine L. Friesen</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3348-2846">0000-0003-3348-2846</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Nicholas+C%2E+Martinez%22">Nicholas C. Martinez</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9315-9082">0000-0002-9315-9082</externalLink>)
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: As a high-impact practice, peer mentoring programs are used in a variety of contexts, with a variety of outcomes for mentees. Peer mentoring programs present a unique experience for mentors to develop leadership skills. However, gaps in the literature expose the need for a greater understanding of peer mentor leadership practice and more intentional leadership education and training for mentors. Our study explored significant learning experiences of peer mentors who served in a first-year experience program at a small, private institution in the Midwestern United States, with a model of peer mentor leadership emerging among participants' narratives.
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