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Integrating Science Education through Cross-Disciplinary Digital Picture Books: 'My Helpful Friend Hydrogen'

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Title: Integrating Science Education through Cross-Disciplinary Digital Picture Books: 'My Helpful Friend Hydrogen'
Language: English
Authors: Joni Tzuchen Tang (ORCID 0000-0003-0887-7715), Meng-Hua Lin (ORCID 0000-0002-8758-0970), Yan-Yu Jau, Wen Chun Lan, Hung-Lung Chou (ORCID 0000-0002-9257-0494)
Source: Science & Education. 2025 34(4):2525-2551.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 27
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Interdisciplinary Approach, Science Education, Electronic Books, Picture Books, College Freshmen, Instructional Effectiveness
DOI: 10.1007/s11191-024-00567-3
ISSN: 0926-7220
1573-1901
Abstract: Cross-disciplinary learning aims to teach students to integrate and make connections between ideas and concepts across different fields. It helps with real-world problem-solving skills. The research adopts a cross-disciplinary perspective and creates a digital picture book titled "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen," with a thematic focus on hydrogen energy. The research successfully developed the picture book through cross-disciplinary collaboration and invited 11 first-year college students to participate in testing. The results show that using digital picture books for learning in science improves student learning outcomes and stimulates a positive response to learning. The study not only provides empirical support but also provides practical tools and methods for cross-disciplinary learning. Future research could explore different themes and subjects to enrich student's learning experiences and promote creativity and collaborative skills in solving real-world problems.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1482147
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187498046;nmo01aug.25;2025Aug26.02:35;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187498046-1">Integrating Science Education Through Cross-Disciplinary Digital Picture Books </title> <p>Cross-disciplinary learning aims to teach students to integrate and make connections between ideas and concepts across different fields. It helps with real-world problem-solving skills. The research adopts a cross-disciplinary perspective and creates a digital picture book titled "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen," with a thematic focus on hydrogen energy. The research successfully developed the picture book through cross-disciplinary collaboration and invited 11 first-year college students to participate in testing. The results show that using digital picture books for learning in science improves student learning outcomes and stimulates a positive response to learning. The study not only provides empirical support but also provides practical tools and methods for cross-disciplinary learning. Future research could explore different themes and subjects to enrich student's learning experiences and promote creativity and collaborative skills in solving real-world problems.</p> <p>Keywords: Education Curriculum and Pedagogy Specialist Studies In Education</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-2">The Research Background and Motivation</hd> <p>Emerging technologies have revolutionized science education, providing us with innovative teaching approaches. Science education is no longer confined to traditional forms such as text and images; instead, it incorporates various digital technologies such as animations, short films, augmented reality, and virtual reality to present content in a multidimensional manner. In addition, American scholars, Yakman, G., and Maeda, J., have proposed integrating art into science education, giving rise to STEM to STEAM. The evolving educational principle of STEAM emphasizes that new educational approaches should encompass interdisciplinary studies, design thinking, and practical problem-solving skills. This approach recognizes the importance of inquiry-based learning and skills relevant to real-life educational situations (Hardiman, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref1">17</reflink>]). Science education should take a more comprehensive approach, cultivating students' cross-disciplinary abilities and equipping them with the capacity to address real-world issues. This study encourages cross-disciplinary curricula to possess greater depth and practical application value.</p> <p>The cross-disciplinary curriculum aims to guide students in integrating concepts and methods from different academic disciplines to address problems. The objective is to strengthen the connections between ideas, enrich learning experiences, and assist students in better understanding the world (Yeung & Lam, [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref2">53</reflink>], Author). Some countries, particularly the USA, have significantly invested in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education. STEM education is designed to cultivate students' scientific literacy. According to research in behavior theory, practical STEM application courses can enhance students' attitudes and behaviors toward integrating disciplinary knowledge, thereby promoting students' self-efficacy (Huang, Z. R., & Lin, K. Y., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref3">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>In 2014, the Curriculum Guidelines of 12-year Basic Education reintroduced the concept of integrated curriculum, extending it to the high school level. The revisions of curriculum guidelines indicate a comprehensive content focus aimed at aligning with university-level cross-disciplinary courses. Cross-disciplinary curriculum can be conceptualized as linking content across different academic disciplines and spanning various cognitive approaches. Its primary objectives include fostering students' problem-solving skills and critical thinking (Yarker & Park, [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref4">52</reflink>]). Therefore, cross-disciplinary learning typically adopts a student-centered model. Students comprehensively understand problems through exploration, critical thinking, and comparing different methods and approaches (Klein, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref5">25</reflink>]). When a curriculum covers two or more interrelated disciplines and assists learners in understanding a specific topic or addressing a particular issue, it can be termed a cross-disciplinary curriculum.</p> <p>In universities and colleges, cross-disciplinary courses consider the complexities of the modern workplace, where many jobs require cross-disciplinary teamwork. These courses offer students from diverse professional backgrounds opportunities to interact, share knowledge, and overcome communication barriers between knowledge systems. They also encourage students to focus on real-world societal issues, enriching their learning experiences. In particular, teams with students from diverse disciplines who apply their specialized knowledge and skills to collaborate on tasks enhance their problem-solving abilities. Starting from cross-disciplinary courses and science education, integrating expertise in education and science, such as promoting hydrogen energy education as a long-term goal, has given rise to this research. The international community has been actively developing hydrogen technology for a long time, and Taiwan has also identified hydrogen energy as one of its development directions. However, there is still a limited understanding of hydrogen energy within society, which can influence public perceptions of energy transition and even the country's energy policies, planning, and development (Aditiya & Aziz, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref6">2</reflink>]). This phenomenon largely stems from the inadequacy of energy education, where the public lacks opportunities to delve into the advantages and importance of hydrogen energy and other new energies compared to traditional sources (Kandpal & Broman, [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref7">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>The main objective of this research is to create the digital picture book "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen," centered around the theme of hydrogen energy. The researchers choose picture books as the primary instructional tool, utilizing their unified visual style and narrative richness. Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are supplementary tools to enhance students' knowledge and interest in hydrogen energy. This teaching approach stimulates students' reflections on energy issues and prompts learners to consider the interconnection between humanity and the Earth. Zografakis et al. ([<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref8">56</reflink>]) found that after delivering courses on traditional energy, renewable energy, and energy conservation topics to students and parents, students gained a deeper understanding of these subjects (Zografakis et al., [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref9">56</reflink>]). Yüksel ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref10">54</reflink>]) outlined an educational framework for energy, including raising students' awareness of environmental and energy-related issues, providing information to distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources, and enabling students to propose solutions to energy issues and the environmental and economic goals of energy development (Yüksel, [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref11">54</reflink>]). Hoffmann et al. ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref12">19</reflink>]) conducted a study utilizing interactive VR scenarios and investigated whether factors related to energy supply security influenced participants' acceptance of green hydrogen (Hoffmann et al., [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref13">19</reflink>]). This study demonstrates the effectiveness of delivering energy knowledge through digital education.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-3">Research Objectives</hd> <p>The research purposes are as follows:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> The researchers create the science picture book "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen" and examine the learning outcomes of cross-disciplinary learners in scientific concepts and reflections on their learning experiences.</item> <p></p> <item> The research outcomes will provide recommendations for technology-assisted science teaching based on students' feedback.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0187498046-4">Theoretical Framework</hd> <p>This study employs a cross-disciplinary approach to create a science picture book. The conceptual framework for this study is depicted in Fig. 1.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Theoretical framework</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-5">Picture Book Instruction</hd> <p>Kiefer ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref14">24</reflink>]) argues that picture books convey messages through consecutive pages. These messages can be expressed entirely through visual images or a combination of text and images. "Picture books" are primarily visual or narrated stories through images. They can be divided into two main types: nonfiction, such as biographies and popular science books, used to engage readers' interest in real-world issues like war, history, or ecology; and fiction, including fairy tales and fantasy themes (Ming-chin, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref15">32</reflink>]; Painter et al., [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref16">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>In the realm of science education, picture books are increasingly recognized as valuable supplementary materials for teaching. Some researchers employ picture books to assist students in constructing scientific concepts (Cho & Kim, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref17">6</reflink>]). The scientific stories within picture books suit individuals already interested in science and offer those initially uninterested in science an opportunity to reconsider their impressions of science and scientists (Buxton & Austin, [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref18">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>Dowd ([<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref19">10</reflink>]) incorporated scientific facts into stories that enhance students' understanding of environmental issues and contribute to developing values. The characteristics of picture books make them valuable in educational applications, and their use has gradually increased in various teaching contexts. There is a growing trend in Taiwan to integrate picture books into environmental and science education, even incorporating them into formal science curriculum activities, demonstrating positive outcomes (Yang, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref20">50</reflink>]; Cheng, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref21">5</reflink>]; Liu & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref22">28</reflink>]). In recent years, several studies have utilized mobile devices for outdoor ecology teaching or science inquiry learning, yielding favorable research results (Cheng & Lee, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref23">7</reflink>]; Giasiranis & Sofos, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref24">14</reflink>]; Hung et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref25">16</reflink>]; Kong, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>]; Wei et al., [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref27">47</reflink>]). Additionally, digital picture books have been shown to foster children's interest in science (Lu et al., [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref28">29</reflink>]).</p> <p>Picture book instruction demonstrates rich potential for application in science education, especially in cross-disciplinary research and teaching. We can directly present scientific knowledge through picture books, sparking interest in science and prompting students to engage in deep thinking and construct scientific concepts. Kiefer ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref29">24</reflink>]) emphasized the diverse presentation modes of picture books, including visual representation and the combination of text and images. This study provides a richer learning experience, making the learning process more vivid and engaging. This study constructs a cross-disciplinary framework for science picture book education by integrating elements of picture book instruction, popular science reading courses, and hydrogen energy and popular science instruction. Such a comprehensive teaching model helps expand students' knowledge perspectives and stimulates their interest in scientific issues. Examining domestic research trends, incorporating picture books into formal science curricula has yielded positive outcomes, confirming the practical effectiveness of picture books in teaching. Furthermore, with the advancement of digital technology, digital picture books provide new possibilities for learning, enriching teaching content and motivating students to explore scientific knowledge further. Therefore, in this study, we propose including digital picture books within the scope of science picture book education to enhance learning experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-6">Popular Science Reading Course</hd> <p>When promoting STEM education or a popular science reading course, starting from the interdisciplinary perspective of technology-integrated education is recommended. Referring to the 6E instructional model, basing activities on thematic events or hands-on courses can lead to more effective outcomes. This perspective is drawn from the research of Tsai and Wu ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref30">44</reflink>]), which utilized technology-integrated teaching combined with the 6E instructional model. They designed activities related to a learning scenario of airdrop rescue supplies, achieving positive results.</p> <p>For the design and instruction of cross-disciplinary science popularization reading courses, the Big6 model can be referenced. The Big6 is an instructional approach based on problem-solving and thematic exploration, proposed by Eisenberg and Berkowitz ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref31">12</reflink>]). This method involves collaborative curriculum design by teacher librarians and subject teachers, guiding students in problem thinking, information searching, and report completion to learn how to find information and effectively use technology for learning. Big6 is a teaching method to enhance students' learning skills in the information age, integrating a systematic process of information needs, information retrieval, information application, and information evaluation (Wu, [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref32">49</reflink>]). Therefore, this approach can customize problem scenarios suitable for students' proficiency levels in specific subjects. It guides them to generate information needs and progressively seek, acquire, use, and evaluate information, providing a comprehensive and systematic learning process.</p> <p>When designing popular science reading courses, this study considered the perspective of interdisciplinary technology-integrated education and integrating the 6E instructional model with theme-based activities or practical courses as the foundation to enhance students' understanding of science. The study by Tsai and Wu ([<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref33">44</reflink>]) provides a feasible reference, employing the airdrop of rescue supplies as a learning scenario and successfully applying technology-integrated education and the 6E instructional model to achieve satisfactory outcomes. This approach does not just get students interested; it also helps them become better at solving problems and being practical. Furthermore, the design of interdisciplinary popular science reading courses can refer to the Big6 instructional method based on problem-solving and thematic exploration (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref34">12</reflink>]). Through Big6, students engage in problem-solving, information seeking, and report completion under the collaborative design of subject teachers and teacher librarians, learning how to find information and effectively utilize information technology for learning. This systematic learning process enhances students' information literacy and problem-solving skills.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-7">Hydrogen Energy and Popular Science Instruction</hd> <p>Hydrogen is a clean and efficient fuel, and it has attracted widespread attention and research interest worldwide over the past decades as countries' energy transition (Jain, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref35">21</reflink>]). Hydrogen holds vast potential applications, including transportation (Sharma & Ghoshal, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref36">41</reflink>]), industrial manufacturing (Ramachandran & Menon, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref37">39</reflink>]), and power generation (Dawood et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref38">8</reflink>]), making it a primary choice for global sustainable development. Compared to fossil fuels, hydrogen offers advantages such as zero carbon emissions during energy conversion and being a renewable source, thereby expanding its adoption in fueling industries and aiding countries in reducing overall carbon emissions (Kovač et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref39">27</reflink>]; Parra et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref40">37</reflink>]), ultimately aiming for net-zero carbon emissions. Consequently, numerous countries have formulated hydrogen energy policies and development plans, investing in hydrogen fuel cell technology (Staffell et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref41">42</reflink>]), hydrogen production (Dincer & Acar, [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref42">9</reflink>]), storage, and transportation (Abe et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref43">1</reflink>]; Durbin & Malardier-Jugroot, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref44">11</reflink>]). The International Energy Agency (IEA) also emphasizes hydrogen's potential as a low-carbon energy source to mitigate emissions while serving various applications, replacing traditional fuels or materials, and providing electricity (International Energy Agency, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref45">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>In achieving net-zero carbon emissions through hydrogen energy development, several major countries, including the European Union, the USA, Canada, China, Japan, and South Korea, have set several goals and timelines (Thomas et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref46">43</reflink>]). Among these countries, Japan, South Korea, and China actively promote hydrogen-related industries, positioning the Asian region as a potential global leader in hydrogen applications (Wei & Li, [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref47">48</reflink>]). The European Union also plans to expand its carbon trading system, proposing 12 related measures under the "Fit for 55 package" to implement a "Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism" by 2021, resulting in carbon-related regulations. Additionally, the EU plans to implement carbon pricing in the transportation and construction sectors by 2027, expanding to maritime transport, intra-European aviation, waste incineration, and natural gas heating. Meanwhile, in response to the EU's carbon neutrality goals, many regions in Europe are assessed to have the potential to transition carbon-intensive hydrogen production industries toward low-pollution green hydrogen (Kakoulaki et al., [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref48">22</reflink>]).</p> <p>In Taiwan, the announcement of the 2050 net-zero carbon emissions goal in 2021, along with subsequent key policies proposed to achieve this target, has highlighted the importance of hydrogen utilization as a future trend (National Development Council, Republic of China, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref49">33</reflink>]). In transitioning towards net-zero carbon emissions, hydrogen and hydrogen-derived fuels (such as ammonia) will play crucial roles. While Taiwan's short-to-medium-term strategies focus on low-carbon applications in energy and industry, the government and industries are assessing the establishment of hydrogen supply chains and infrastructure together. Hydrogen-based power generation (including hydrogen and hydrogen-derived fuels) is anticipated to contribute 9% to 12% by 2050. In Taiwan, the state-owned Taiwan Power Company is advancing development projects related to ammonia co-firing technology and blending hydrogen into natural gas. As Taiwan's largest energy supplier, CPC Corporation, Taiwan, is actively transforming, positioning the ultimate goal of energy supply as hydrogen and devising a roadmap to establish hydrogen reception and transportation systems. The aim is to achieve a "hydrogen-powered homeland" by 2040–2050.</p> <p>Today, the development and application of hydrogen energy also face many challenges, including the economic viability of hydrogen production (Nikolaidis & Poullikkas, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref50">34</reflink>]); technological problems in storage and transportation (Barthelemy et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref51">3</reflink>]); and issues related to the production, certification, and regulations of green hydrogen (Velazquez Abad & Dodds, [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref52">45</reflink>]). Currently, the focus of hydrogen energy development is primarily concentrated in several key directions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref53">1</reflink>) research on the production of green hydrogen, including methods such as water electrolysis and renewable energy–driven hydrogen production (Qi et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref54">38</reflink>]; Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref55">46</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref56">2</reflink>) breakthroughs in hydrogen storage and transportation technologies to address the challenges of stability and high energy density applications (Zhang et al., [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref57">55</reflink>]); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref58">3</reflink>) improvements in fuel cell technology to enhance efficiency, reduce costs and drive the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>) the integration of hydrogen energy with traditional energy systems and the application of smart grids to achieve the effective integration and coordination of hydrogen energy in the energy supply chain (Lin et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref60">30</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although many countries are actively developing hydrogen energy technology, and Taiwan also includes hydrogen energy as one of the development projects in the energy field, there remains only a superficial understanding of hydrogen energy technology and its applications within society. This limited understanding could impact public perceptions of energy system transformation and influence energy policies, planning, and development in countries (Aditiya & Aziz, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref61">2</reflink>]). A survey was conducted on the perceptions of Japanese citizens regarding hydrogen production, its applications, relevant regulations, and their views on hydrogen energy. They found that hydrogen energy development's cost and environmental factors are critical determinants of public acceptance. However, citizens' understanding of hydrogen is lower than their self-perception (Yap & McLellan, [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref62">51</reflink>]). Societal acceptance of hydrogen for domestic and export applications in Australia was synthesized, revealing a more significant concern among citizens regarding cost, reducing air pollution, and health impacts. However, there remains a relatively low level of awareness (Lozano et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref63">31</reflink>]). Furthermore, as one of the countries actively promoting hydrogen energy, the UK has proposed a series of measures for hydrogen energy to enter households, with several studies investigating its feasibility and public acceptance. Public opinions on using hydrogen for heating and cooking at home were surveyed, with the analysis indicating that a lack of knowledge dissemination has led to limited awareness of the potential applications of hydrogen energy in daily life (Gordon et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref64">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>This divide stems from the difference in knowledge between the public and experts focused on energy. The general public cannot delve into the advantages and importance of hydrogen and other new energy sources relative to conventional energy. Additionally, they may not be aware of the obstacles and challenges in developing these new energy alternatives, partly due to insufficient education in energy (Kandpal & Broman, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref65">23</reflink>]). Developing and disseminating new energy technologies require workforce resources, with a particular emphasis on education and training. The general public's attitudes toward promoting new energy technologies are crucial (Emodi et al., [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref66">13</reflink>]; Kandpal & Broman, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref67">23</reflink>]; Scovell, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref68">40</reflink>]). Therefore, it is necessary to establish broader energy education programs integrating resource assessment, technology, economics, sociocultural issues, and ecological and environmental concepts. These programs aim to convey the significant advancements of hydrogen energy technologies in economics, science, and engineering (Nowotny et al., [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref69">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>The conclusion of this study focuses on the popular science education of hydrogen energy. Despite the Taiwanese government declaring hydrogen energy a critical area for future energy development, public awareness and understanding of hydrogen energy remain relatively low. Therefore, this study can educate the public about hydrogen energy to enhance their awareness and comprehension.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-8">Research Participants</hd> <p>Participants included 11 students who have graduated from senior high school or vocational school and are about to enter the first year of university. Their specialization can be roughly divided into technical fields (eight students) and sports (three students). These participants had only known each other for a week before the testing.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-9">Research Tools</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187498046-10">Digital Picture Book</hd> <p>The goal is to guide students in learning through picture books, incorporating energy education with the theme of hydrogen energy. The creation of the scientific picture book "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen" aims to enhance students' understanding of hydrogen energy through reading. The researchers primarily employ digital picture books as a teaching method in class, with picture books as an essential teaching material source. Students' knowledge and interest in hydrogen energy are enriched through consistent visual styles and narrative elements in picture books, augmented by AR and VR as supplements. Additionally, this approach aims to stimulate students' reflections on energy, raise awareness of the relationship between humanity and the Earth, and encourage action towards environmental sustainability. Please see Fig. 2 for the picture book page design.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Picture book page design</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-11">Digital Picture Book Script</hd> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Teaching method: Situated learning</item> <p></p> <item> Target audience: Senior high school students to college students</item> <p></p> <item> Application area: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref70">1</reflink>) cross-dis disciplinary courses (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref71">2</reflink>) energy-relate general studies course (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref72">3</reflink>) online teaching platforms (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref73">4</reflink>) popular science activities</item> </ulist> <p>Story introduction: In a peaceful small town, an unexpected discovery leads to a magical journey about hydrogen energy. The residents stumble upon a metallic device left behind by a time traveler, changing the town's destiny and leading them toward a new future. Readers can personally engage in this marvelous adventure through this digital picture book. Please see Fig. 3 for the picture book cover design.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 Picture book cover design</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-12">AR/VR highlights</hd> <p>Using a smartphone or tablet, players will be brought to a futuristic exhibition about hydrogen energy, understand the atomic composition of hydrogen and its applications, and watch related videos. Players will see 3D scenes and characters, observe the operation of hydrogen power plants, explore hydrogen energy applications, and interact with characters in the exhibition. Please see Fig. 4 for the Hydrogen energy VR exhibition.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 Hydrogen energy VR exhibition</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-13">Assessments and Questionnaires</hd> <p>Various questionnaires were conducted to investigate the critical points of this study and students' digital picture book contact level.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Assessment of Learning Outcomes</item> </ulist> <p>The self-designed questionnaire for learning outcomes aims to evaluate students' understanding of scientific knowledge through digital picture books. The questionnaire included nine questions categorized. All questions have been reviewed and revised by experts in science education, ensuring the expert validity, as shown in Table 1.</p> <p>Table 1 Assessment of learning outcomes</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Question</p></th><th align="left"><p>Correct answer</p></th><th align="left"><p>Other options</p></th><th align="left"><p>Question types</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. What chemical element makes hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>H</p></td><td align="left"><p>O</p><p>N</p></td><td align="left"><p>Primary science education knowledge point</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>2. What are the emissions from hydrogen vehicles?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Water</p></td><td align="left"><p>Nitrogen</p><p>Carbon dioxide</p></td><td align="left"><p>Popular science knowledge memory question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>3. Which materials can be used to produce hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Water</p></td><td align="left"><p>Oxygen</p><p>Carbon monoxide</p></td><td align="left"><p>Scientific knowledge inference question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>4. How does the energy produced from hydrogen compare to other fuels (coal, petroleum)?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Lower</p></td><td align="left"><p>Higher</p><p>It cannot be compared</p></td><td align="left"><p>Scientific knowledge inference question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>5. Which of the following industrial methods is for the production of hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Steam reforming: A method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reacting hydrocarbons with water</p></td><td align="left"><p>Nuclear reactions: Other elements are converted into hydrogen gas through atomic decay</p><p>Biological fermentation: Hydrogen-containing materials undergo microbial fermentation to produce hydrogen gas</p></td><td align="left"><p>Popular science knowledge memory question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>6. Why is hydrogen called green energy?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Its use for energy purposes does not cause greenhouse gas emissions</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hydrogen gas is green in color</p><p>Green plants primarily produce hydrogen</p></td><td align="left"><p>Primary science education knowledge point</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>7. The colors represent different hydrogen production options. What is the difference between green, black, and gray hydrogen?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Green hydrogen is obtained from renewable energy sources. Black or gray hydrogen is obtained from coal through gasification</p></td><td align="left"><p>Green hydrogen is obtained from plants, while black or gray hydrogen comes from soil and sand</p><p>Green hydrogen is extracted from the forest, while black or gray hydrogen comes from the desert</p></td><td align="left"><p>Popular science knowledge memory question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>8. How is electricity generated from hydrogen fuel cells?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Electricity is generated through a redox reaction of hydrogen and oxygen, and water is produced as the reaction byproduct</p></td><td align="left"><p>Chemically reacting hydrogen gas with carbon dioxide produces gaseous fuels and generates electricity</p><p>They directly burn flammable hydrogen gas to release heat energy for electricity generation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Popular science knowledge memory question</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>9. Why is hydrogen used for energy storage?</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hydrogen can store electrical energy from renewable sources as chemical energy and convert it back into electrical energy when needed</p></td><td align="left"><p>Hydrogen is easy to store at standard temperature and pressure, and its convenience is comparable to coal or petroleum</p><p>Hydrogen gas can be directly charged like regular rechargeable batteries, and its small size makes it convenient to carry</p></td><td align="left"><p>Popular science knowledge memory question</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Questionnaire of Satisfaction and Comprehension</item> </ulist> <p>The questionnaire includes subjective opinions on satisfaction with the content of the picture book, the difficulty of the popular science content, and the volume and appropriateness of the content. The questionnaire uses a 5-point Likert scale, with one indicating strongly disagree and five indicating "strongly agree," and consists of 13 questions. The scale's internal consistency among the 11 participants reached Cronbach's alpha = 0.844, indicating a high internal consistency in completing the scale. Regarding the analysis of satisfaction with various dimensions, the internal consistency of picture book satisfaction reached Cronbach's alpha = 0.894. The internal consistency of content comprehension reached Cronbach's alpha = 0.794, and the analysis of various dimensions also demonstrated high internal consistency and reliability. The self-designed questionnaire is presented in Table 2.</p> <p>Table 2 Questionnaire of satisfaction and comprehension</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Dimension</p></th><th align="left"><p>Number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Question</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Satisfaction with the picture book</p></td><td align="left"><p>A1</p></td><td align="left"><p>The content of the picture book is rich</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>A2</p></td><td align="left"><p>The story of the picture book is fascinating</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>A3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Adding AR/VR to the picture book can better attract your attention</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>A4</p></td><td align="left"><p>The overall design of the picture book is attractive to you</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>A5</p></td><td align="left"><p>The artistic style of the picture book is comfortable and appropriate</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Content comprehension</p></td><td align="left"><p>B1</p></td><td align="left"><p>The difficulty of the popular science content in the picture book is acceptable</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B2</p></td><td align="left"><p>The volume of the popular science content in the picture book is appropriate</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Your understanding of the popular science content in the picture book after reading the picture book</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B4</p></td><td align="left"><p>Your understanding of hydrogen energy significantly improved after reading the picture book</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B5</p></td><td align="left"><p>Reading the picture book helps me learn about hydrogen energy</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B6</p></td><td align="left"><p>Do you think the content of hydrogen energy knowledge in this picture book is detailed enough?</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B7</p></td><td align="left"><p>Do you think the content of hydrogen energy knowledge in this picture book is easy to understand?</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>B8</p></td><td align="left"><p>After reading this picture book, have you become more interested in hydrogen energy?</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187498046-14">Research Process</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187498046-15">Testing Process</hd> <p>The whole testing process took place in the classroom, utilizing a projection screen and individual mobile devices. All participants underwent the testing process simultaneously and at the exact location, following the same sequence. While interaction among participants was not prohibited during the retesting process, no participants initiated discussions with others.</p> <p>The researchers presented slides, guiding participants to use their mobile devices to scan QR codes displayed on the screen according to the current instructions. These QR codes provided links to the pretest questionnaire, the static file of the picture book (PDF), AR/VR interactive elements, and the post-test questionnaire. Each QR code was accompanied by explanatory text, informing participants of the current task. Before testing, participants were instructed to download applications capable of playing AR/VR scenes for the interactive sessions. The testing process is shown in Fig. 5.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 Testing process</p> <p>The overall testing process took about 85 min. The following will discuss the pretest questionnaire, picture book instruction, interactive session, and post-test questionnaire.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-16">Pretest</hd> <p>The pretest covered the participants' educational background, interest level, and understanding of hydrogen energy and assessed whether they already possess relevant knowledge.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-17">Picture Book Instruction</hd> <p>During the picture book instruction, the researchers explained the scientific content and supplemented the content with additional knowledge as needed. Examples were used to aid understanding of complex concepts. Figure 6 shows the teaching during the picture book instruction.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 6 Picture book instruction</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-18">Interactive Session</hd> <p>The interactive session was integrated into the storyline of the picture book. As the picture book instruction reached this stage, the researchers used their devices to project the interactive content to all participants, demonstrate the operation, and show the functions of AR and VR, along with the graphical and textual elements within the interactive scenes.</p> <p>The elements in the interactive scenes included models of characters, vehicles, and buildings, as well as textual descriptions of hydrogen-related knowledge and QR codes for videos related to hydrogen applications and derivative issues. Notably, not all videos were played during the testing. Figure 7 depicts students engaging in the interactive session using their smartphones.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 7 Students engaged in the interactive session with their smartphones</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-19">Post-test</hd> <p>At the end of the instruction and interactive session, the participants were immediately given a post-test questionnaire, which included subjective opinions on their satisfaction with the content of the picture book, the difficulty of the popular science content, and the volume and appropriateness of the content. Participants were guided to provide feedback on the above items using quantifiable criteria. In addition, the post-test covered the same questions as the pretest, with the content remaining unchanged and only the order adjusted randomly.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-20">Research Analysis</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187498046-21">Test Analysis</hd> <p>The primary purpose of the test was to assess the participants' knowledge of hydrogen and hydrogen energy and to understand the effectiveness of the picture book through the pre-post comparison of the quasi-experimental research method. The pre/post-test accuracy rates for all nine questions are shown in Table 3 below:</p> <p>Table 3 Pre-post-test analysis</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Paired sample</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="3" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>M</p></td><td align="left"><p>N</p></td><td align="left"><p>SD</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><p>Pretest accuracy</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.54</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.25</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><p>Post-test accuracy</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.73</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.22</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Paired samples correlations</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4" /><td align="left"><p>N</p></td><td align="left"><p>Correlation</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>p</italic>-value</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><p>Pretest accuracy and post-test accuracy</p></td><td align="left"><p>9</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.82</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.007</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><p>Paired sample <italic>T</italic>-test</p></td><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>M</p></td><td align="left"><p>SD</p></td><td align="left"><p>SE</p></td><td align="left"><p>t</p></td><td align="left"><p>df</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>p</italic>-value</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Pretest accuracy—post-test accuracy</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.19</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.14</p></td><td align="left"><p>4.05</p></td><td align="left"><p>-3.96</p></td><td align="left"><p>8</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.004</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Paired sample effect size</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" /><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>95% Confidence Interval</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" /><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>Standardized effect<sup>a</sup></p></td><td align="left"><p>Point estimation</p></td><td align="left"><p>Lower bound</p></td><td align="left"><p>Upper bound</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><p>Pretest accuracy—post-test accuracy</p></td><td align="left"><p><italic>Cohen'</italic>s d</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.14</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.32</p></td><td align="left"><p>-2.22</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.39</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Hedges g</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.15</p></td><td align="left"><p>-1.26</p></td><td align="left"><p>-2.11</p></td><td align="left"><p>-0.37</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Based on the analysis in Table 3, this study <sups>a</sups> conducted a sample analysis of nine test items, divided into pretest and post-test. The average accuracy rate for the pretest was 53.84%, with a standard deviation of 0.25, while the average accuracy rate for the post-test was 72.71%, with a standard deviation of 0.22. After conducting a paired sample correlation test, the results showed a correlation of 0.82, with a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.007, indicating a significant correlation between the pretest and post-test, demonstrating a significant association between paired samples. Furthermore, after conducting a paired sample <emph>t</emph>-test, it was found that the <emph>t</emph>-value for the difference in accuracy rates between the pretest and post-test was − 3.96, with a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.004, suggesting a significant difference. This result implies that participants' knowledge of hydrogen energy significantly improved after reading the "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen" science picture book. In summary, the analysis results indicate a significant improvement in participants' relevant knowledge levels after reading "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen."</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-22">Difficulty Level Analysis</hd> <p>This study analyzed the questions according to their difficulty level and basic education level. They were divided into three main categories: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>) essential science education knowledge points, (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref75">2</reflink>) scientific knowledge inference questions, and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref76">3</reflink>) popular science knowledge memory questions. In summary, the following analysis will focus on the difficulty level of each group of questions and the student's learning effectiveness.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Basic Science Education Knowledge Points</item> </ulist> <p>The researchers designed these questions to ensure simplicity and clarity while avoiding misleading options. The questions were categorized as essential science knowledge points. They could be answered quickly and correctly if the participants had basic knowledge of sciences or received relevant daily information through family, school, or media. For instance, in the pretest, the accuracy rates for questions 1 and 6 were 84.6% and 92.3%, respectively. There are two questions in this question type, and the data are analyzed in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 4 Basic science education knowledge point</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Question number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Question</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pretest</p></th><th align="left"><p>Post-test</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>pretest</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>post-test</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 1</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. What chemical element makes hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>82%</p></td><td align="left"><p>91%</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>23.36</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>15.08</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p> − 1.000</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 6</p></td><td align="left"><p>6. Why is hydrogen called green energy?</p></td><td align="left"><p>91%</p></td><td align="left"><p>100%</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 4 displays the results of the pretest and posttest on basic science knowledge related to hydrogen energy. For the question "What chemical element makes hydrogen gas?", the percentage of correct responses increased from 82% in the pretest to 91% in the post-test. Although there was a noticeable improvement, the standard deviation decreased from 23.36 to 15.08, indicating a reduction in variability among student responses, but the <emph>t</emph>-value of − 1.000 suggests that this change was not statistically significant.</p> <p>For the question "Why is hydrogen called green energy?", the results show a notable improvement, with the percentage of correct responses rising from 91% in the pretest to 100% in the post-test. This indicates that the educational intervention was highly effective in enhancing students' understanding of hydrogen's environmental benefits. The standard deviations are not provided for this question, as all students answered correctly in both assessments, highlighting a complete understanding achieved after the intervention.</p> <p>Overall, the data indicate that the educational intervention successfully increased students' knowledge, particularly in understanding the environmental significance of hydrogen energy, though the impact on basic chemical knowledge was less pronounced.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Scientific Knowledge Inference Questions</item> </ulist> <p>The second category of questions requires extended thinking through one's science knowledge. These questions also deal with the properties of hydrogen and hydrogen energy, but the answers are not obvious and may not be directly mentioned in textbooks. These questions are categorized as scientific inference questions. Therefore, this question type had no significant difference between pretest and post-test scores. The analysis is presented in Table 5.</p> <p>Table 5 Scientific knowledge inference questions</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Question number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Question</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pretest</p></th><th align="left"><p>Post-test</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>pretest</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>post-test</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Which of the following materials can be used to produce hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>55%</p></td><td align="left"><p>55%</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>23.36</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p>26.97</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><p> − 0.803</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 4</p></td><td align="left"><p>How does the energy produced from hydrogen compare to other fuels (coal, petroleum)?</p></td><td align="left"><p>18%</p></td><td align="left"><p>36%</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Table 5 presents the results of the pretest and posttest on scientific knowledge inference related to hydrogen energy. For the question "Which of the following materials can be used to produce hydrogen gas?", the percentage of correct responses remained unchanged at 55% from pretest to post-test. The standard deviation increased from 23.36 in the pretest to 26.97 in the post-test, reflecting greater variability in student responses following the intervention. The <emph>t</emph>-value of − 0.803 suggests that this change was not statistically significant, indicating that the educational intervention did not impact students' knowledge about hydrogen production materials.</p> <p>For the question "How does the energy produced from hydrogen compare to other fuels (coal, petroleum)?", the percentage of correct responses increased from 18% in the pretest to 36% in the post-test. This improvement demonstrates that the intervention was somewhat effective in enhancing students' understanding of hydrogen's energy efficiency compared to traditional fuels. However, the absence of standard deviation data for this question limits the ability to assess the consistency of responses, and the <emph>t</emph>-value is not provided, which prevents a statistical evaluation of this result's significance.</p> <p>In summary, while the intervention did not significantly affect students' knowledge about hydrogen production materials, it did lead to a modest improvement in their understanding of hydrogen's comparative energy value.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Popular Science Knowledge Memory Questions</item> </ulist> <p>The popular science knowledge memory questions assessed participants' understanding of the key concepts in the picture book's popular science content. These questions may have posed some difficulty for participants who had not studied hydrogen energy before. The researchers intentionally provided seemingly reasonable but misleading options to distract participants. Since the relevant information for these questions was directly mentioned in the picture book, participants who received and memorized the knowledge presented could respond correctly in the post-test. Questions 2, 7, and 8 showed an increase in accuracy of over 30% in the post-test compared to the pretest. This result was because the picture book and instruction emphasized transmitting accurate knowledge. The analysis of this part is presented in Table 6.</p> <p>Table 6 Popular science knowledge memory questions</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Question number</p></th><th align="left"><p>Question</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pretest</p></th><th align="left"><p>Post-test</p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>pretest</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>SD<sub>post-test</sub></p></th><th align="left"><p>t</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 2</p></td><td align="left"><p>What are the emissions from hydrogen vehicles?</p></td><td align="left"><p>36%</p></td><td align="left"><p>64%</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p>27.4</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p>22.4</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="5"><p> − 3.180 *</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 5</p></td><td align="left"><p>Which of the following industrial methods is for the production of hydrogen gas?</p></td><td align="left"><p>45%</p></td><td align="left"><p>64%</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 7</p></td><td align="left"><p>The colors represent different hydrogen production options. What is the difference between green, black, and gray hydrogen?</p></td><td align="left"><p>73%</p></td><td align="left"><p>100%</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 8</p></td><td align="left"><p>How is electricity generated from hydrogen fuel cells?</p></td><td align="left"><p>45%</p></td><td align="left"><p>82%</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Question 9</p></td><td align="left"><p>Why is hydrogen used for energy storage?</p></td><td align="left"><p>55%</p></td><td align="left"><p>64%</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>One asterisk (*) denotes a significance level of <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, indicating that the result is statistically significant and unlikely to have occurred by chance</p> <p>Table 6 displays the results for the popular science knowledge memory questions, comparing pretest and posttest performances.</p> <p>For the question "What are the emissions from hydrogen vehicles?", there was a notable increase in correct responses from 36% in the pretest to 64% in the post-test. This change is statistically significant, as indicated by the asterisk, with a <emph>t</emph>-value of − 3.180, suggesting that the educational intervention effectively improved students' understanding of the emissions from hydrogen vehicles.</p> <p>The percentage of correct answers for the question "Which of the following industrial methods is for the production of hydrogen gas?" increased from 45% in the pretest to 64% in the post-test. This indicates an improvement in students' knowledge of industrial hydrogen production methods, though the lack of significance testing means we cannot confirm the statistical reliability of this result.</p> <p>Regarding the question "The colors represent different hydrogen production options. What is the difference between green, black, and gray hydrogen?", the percentage of correct responses rose dramatically from 73% in the pretest to 100% in the post-test. This significant improvement highlights the effectiveness of the intervention in enhancing students' knowledge of different hydrogen production types.</p> <p>For the question "How is electricity generated from hydrogen fuel cells?", the percentage of correct answers increased from 45% in the pretest to 82% in the post-test, reflecting a substantial gain in understanding. Although the <emph>t</emph>-value is not provided, this improvement indicates a positive impact of the intervention.</p> <p>Finally, the question "Why is hydrogen used for energy storage?" saw an increase from 55 to 64% in correct responses. While this represents a gain in knowledge, the increase is not large enough to assess its statistical significance without further analysis.</p> <p>In summary, the table demonstrates that the educational intervention was particularly successful in enhancing students' knowledge about hydrogen vehicle emissions, hydrogen production colors, and the generation of electricity from hydrogen fuel cells. Other areas showed improvements but lacked statistical significance in the absence of further details.</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> Analysis of All Pretest and Post-test Comparisons</item> </ulist> <p>The researchers conducted paired-sample <emph>t</emph>-tests to analyze the pretest and post-test scores of the participants. Since 13 participants completed the pretest and 11 for the post-test, analysis was performed using a sample of 11 participants, as shown in Table 7 below. The mean difference between pretest and post-test scores for the content related to the picture book was − 25.46, with a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.005 (less than 0.05), indicating a significant difference in knowledge acquisition after participants read the scientific picture book "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen." As for the primary and inference questions, the mean differences between pretest and post-test scores were both − 9.09, with a <emph>p</emph>-value greater than 0.05, suggesting no significant improvement was observed in basic and inference questions after reading the picture book. Table 7 shows the paired sample statistics.</p> <p>Table 7 Paired sample statistics</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><tbody><tr><td align="left" colspan="4"><p>Paired sample</p></td><td align="left" colspan="3" /></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2" /><td align="left"><p>M</p></td><td align="left"><p>N</p></td><td align="left"><p>SD</p></td><td align="left" colspan="2"><p>t</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Basic questions pretest score</p></td><td align="left"><p>86.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.36</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><p> − 1.000</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Basic questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p>95.45</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>15.08</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Inference questions pretest score</p></td><td align="left"><p>36.36</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.36</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><p> − 0.803</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Inference questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p>45.45</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>26.97</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Picture book content related questions pretest score</p></td><td align="left"><p>49.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>27.37</p></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><p> − 3.180 *</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><p> Picture book content related questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p>72.73</p></td><td align="left"><p>11</p></td><td align="left"><p>22.4</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" colspan="7"><p>Paired sample <italic>t</italic>-test</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left" /><td align="left"><p>M</p></td><td align="left"><p>SD</p></td><td align="left"><p>SE</p></td><td align="left"><p>t</p></td><td align="left"><p>df</p></td><td align="left"><p>p</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Basic questions pretest score-basic questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 9.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>30.15</p></td><td align="left"><p>9.09</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 1</p></td><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.341</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Inference questions pretest score—inference questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 9.09</p></td><td align="left"><p>37.54</p></td><td align="left"><p>11.32</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 0.8</p></td><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.441</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p> Picture book content related questions pretest score- picture book content related questions post-test score</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 25.46</p></td><td align="left"><p>23.82</p></td><td align="left"><p>7.18</p></td><td align="left"><p> − 3.55</p></td><td align="left"><p>10</p></td><td align="left"><p>0.005</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>One asterisk (*) denotes a significance level of <emph>p</emph> < 0.05, indicating that the result is statistically significant and unlikely to have occurred by chance</p> <p>Table 7 presents the paired sample statistics and <emph>t</emph>-test results for the pretest and posttest scores across different question categories.</p> <p>For basic questions, the pretest average score was 86.36 with a standard deviation of 23.36, while the posttest average score increased to 95.45 with a reduced standard deviation of 15.08. However, the paired sample <emph>t</emph>-test result for basic questions shows a <emph>t</emph>-value of − 1.000 and a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.341, indicating that this increase is not statistically significant. This suggests that the intervention did not produce a significant improvement in students' understanding of basic science concepts as measured by these questions.</p> <p>Regarding inference questions, the average score improved from 36.36 in the pretest to 45.45 in the post-test, with standard deviations of 23.36 and 26.97, respectively. The paired sample <emph>t</emph>-test result for inference questions has a <emph>t</emph>-value of − 0.803 and a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.441. This indicates that the observed improvement in scores is not statistically significant, suggesting that the intervention had limited impact on enhancing students' ability to make inferences based on scientific knowledge.</p> <p>In contrast, the results for questions related to the picture book content show a notable change. The pretest average score was 49.09 with a standard deviation of 27.37, while the post-test average score increased significantly to 72.73 with a reduced standard deviation of 22.4. The paired sample <emph>t</emph>-test for these questions reveals a <emph>t</emph>-value of − 3.55 and a <emph>p</emph>-value of 0.005, which is statistically significant. This indicates a meaningful improvement in students' understanding of content related to the picture book, demonstrating the effectiveness of the intervention in this specific area.</p> <p>In summary, while improvements were observed in basic and inference questions, these changes were not statistically significant. However, the significant increase in scores for questions related to the picture book content underscores the intervention's success in enhancing students' comprehension of the material associated with the picture book.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-23">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study investigates the learning outcomes of high school to university-level students after engaging with the digital picture book "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen" and studying hydrogen energy. The findings reveal that the picture book significantly improved participants' knowledge about hydrogen energy, demonstrating its effectiveness as a tool for science education.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-24">Implications for Theory</hd> <p>The study's results reinforce the theoretical framework of using picture books in science education, as proposed by Kiefer ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref77">24</reflink>]) and further supported by Buxton and Austin ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref78">4</reflink>]). The successful integration of picture books into science instruction aligns with the theories on visual learning and cross-disciplinary education. The positive impact observed in the participants highlights the value of combining visual storytelling with scientific content to enhance learning outcomes. This aligns with the growing body of literature that supports the use of picture books to engage and educate learners in various scientific domains (Yang, [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref79">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-25">Implications for Practice</hd> <p>In practice, this study underscores the importance of incorporating digital picture books into science curricula. The significant improvement in participants' knowledge post-intervention suggests that such tools can effectively foster interest and understanding in scientific topics. This is consistent with the findings of Lu, Lin, and Tsai ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref80">29</reflink>]), who demonstrated that digital picture books can stimulate children's interest in science. The recommendations include creating more interdisciplinary picture books and transforming complex scientific concepts into accessible formats, as supported by the instructional models referenced in this study (Tsai & Wu, [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref81">44</reflink>]; Eisenberg & Berkowitz, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref82">12</reflink>]). These practices can be integrated into existing educational frameworks to enhance student engagement and comprehension.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-26">Implications for Climate Change Discourse</hd> <p>The study also contributes to the discourse on climate change by highlighting hydrogen energy's role in sustainable development. Given the global emphasis on reducing carbon emissions and transitioning to cleaner energy sources (Jain, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref83">21</reflink>]; Kovač et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref84">27</reflink>]), educating students about hydrogen energy is crucial. This aligns with broader educational goals of preparing students to understand and address climate change challenges. The findings suggest that increasing awareness and knowledge about alternative energy sources through innovative educational methods can play a significant role in shaping informed future citizens.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-27">Implications for Future Research</hd> <p>Future research should explore the long-term effects of using digital picture books on students' attitudes towards science and their understanding of complex scientific concepts. Further studies could examine how different formats and content types influence learning outcomes and engagement. Additionally, expanding research to include diverse educational settings and age groups could provide deeper insights into the effectiveness of these educational tools across various contexts. Investigating the integration of picture books into other areas of STEM education could also yield valuable information on their broader applicability.</p> <p>In summary, the study demonstrates that "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen" effectively enhances students' knowledge of hydrogen energy and supports the theoretical and practical applications of picture books in science education. By addressing educational needs and contributing to climate change discourse, this study offers valuable insights and recommendations for future educational practices and research.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-28">Data Availability</hd> <p>Data available on request from the authors.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-29">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187498046-30">Ethics approval</hd> <p>This research conformed to the ethical standards approved by the institutional review board.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-31">Informed Consent</hd> <p>This research informed consent to the ethical standards approved by the institutional review board.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-32">Consent for Publication</hd> <p>The participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-33">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0187498046-34">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0187498046-35"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref43" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abe JO, Popoola API, Ajenifuja E, Popoola OM. 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Integrating Science Education through Cross-Disciplinary Digital Picture Books: 'My Helpful Friend Hydrogen'
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Joni+Tzuchen+Tang%22">Joni Tzuchen Tang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0887-7715">0000-0003-0887-7715</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Meng-Hua+Lin%22">Meng-Hua Lin</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8758-0970">0000-0002-8758-0970</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yan-Yu+Jau%22">Yan-Yu Jau</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Wen+Chun+Lan%22">Wen Chun Lan</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hung-Lung+Chou%22">Hung-Lung Chou</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9257-0494">0000-0002-9257-0494</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Science+%26+Education%22"><i>Science & Education</i></searchLink>. 2025 34(4):2525-2551.
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  Label: Availability
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  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 27
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interdisciplinary+Approach%22">Interdisciplinary Approach</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Science+Education%22">Science Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Books%22">Electronic Books</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Picture+Books%22">Picture Books</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Freshmen%22">College Freshmen</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Instructional+Effectiveness%22">Instructional Effectiveness</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11191-024-00567-3
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0926-7220<br />1573-1901
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Cross-disciplinary learning aims to teach students to integrate and make connections between ideas and concepts across different fields. It helps with real-world problem-solving skills. The research adopts a cross-disciplinary perspective and creates a digital picture book titled "My Helpful Friend: Hydrogen," with a thematic focus on hydrogen energy. The research successfully developed the picture book through cross-disciplinary collaboration and invited 11 first-year college students to participate in testing. The results show that using digital picture books for learning in science improves student learning outcomes and stimulates a positive response to learning. The study not only provides empirical support but also provides practical tools and methods for cross-disciplinary learning. Future research could explore different themes and subjects to enrich student's learning experiences and promote creativity and collaborative skills in solving real-world problems.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
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  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1482147
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1482147
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      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11191-024-00567-3
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 27
        StartPage: 2525
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Interdisciplinary Approach
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Science Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Electronic Books
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Picture Books
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Freshmen
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Instructional Effectiveness
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Integrating Science Education through Cross-Disciplinary Digital Picture Books: 'My Helpful Friend Hydrogen'
        Type: main
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            NameFull: Joni Tzuchen Tang
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            NameFull: Yan-Yu Jau
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            NameFull: Wen Chun Lan
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            NameFull: Hung-Lung Chou
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              M: 08
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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