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Changes in Parental Involvement and Parental Expectations during High School for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

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Title: Changes in Parental Involvement and Parental Expectations during High School for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
Language: English
Authors: Kristin Duppong Hurley (ORCID 0000-0002-9440-9637), Stacy-Ann A. January (ORCID 0000-0001-9483-4214), Matthew C. Lambert, Jacqueline Huscroft D'Angelo, Alexandra Hamilton
Source: Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 2025 33(3):175-185.
Availability: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 11
Publication Date: 2025
Sponsoring Agency: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
Contract Number: R324A190055
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Grade 9
Junior High Schools
Middle Schools
Grade 11
Descriptors: Parent Participation, Parent Attitudes, Expectation, High School Students, Emotional Problems, Behavior Problems, Correlation, Grade Point Average, Grade 9, Student Characteristics, Grade 11, Parent Role, Academic Achievement
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (NCES)
DOI: 10.1177/10634266241301374
ISSN: 1063-4266
1538-4799
Abstract: Home-based parental involvement and parental expectations in school are strong predictors of academic outcomes for high school students. Given this, we explored whether changes in parental involvement and parental expectations during high school were correlated with academic functioning for students with emotional or behavioral difficulties (n = 888) compared with their peers (n = 4,148). We found that home-based parental involvement was stable during high school for both groups of students. There was a decrease in parental educational expectations during high school that was equivalent between both groups. Students with elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties had significant correlations between increases in home-based involvement and increases in both parental expectations and grade point average, whereas the peer group had significant, yet trivial correlations among the constructs.
Abstractor: As Provided
IES Funded: Yes
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1482546
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187593450;ebd01sep.25;2025Sep01.02:07;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187593450-1">Changes in Parental Involvement and Parental Expectations During High School for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties </title> <p>Home-based parental involvement and parental expectations in school are strong predictors of academic outcomes for high school students. Given this, we explored whether changes in parental involvement and parental expectations during high school were correlated with academic functioning for students with emotional or behavioral difficulties (n = 888) compared with their peers (n = 4,148). We found that home-based parental involvement was stable during high school for both groups of students. There was a decrease in parental educational expectations during high school that was equivalent between both groups. Students with elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties had significant correlations between increases in home-based involvement and increases in both parental expectations and grade point average, whereas the peer group had significant, yet trivial correlations among the constructs.</p> <p>Keywords: parental involvement; adolescents; emotional and behavioral difficulties; parental expectations</p> <p>Parental involvement in education is important for improving students' academic performance in school ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref1">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref2">18</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref3">23</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref4">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref5">25</reflink>]). Although much of the research has been conducted with elementary students ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref6">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref7">23</reflink>]), parental involvement remains important throughout the transition to secondary school settings ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref8">24</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref9">42</reflink>]). Given the increased autonomy of adolescents as they age, one might expect decreases in parental involvement over time ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref10">35</reflink>]). Despite this, some studies have found support for the ongoing importance of parental involvement in high school, especially in areas of parent–child communication and activities ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref11">42</reflink>]). However, research is limited regarding the trends of parental involvement over time for high school students. Moreover, students with emotional or behavioral difficulties are at much higher risk of experiencing poor educational and career outcomes such as lower grades, increased suspensions and expulsions, and increased rates of not completing high school ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref12">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref13">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref14">38</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref15">40</reflink>]). A study of ninth-grade students with emotional and behavioral difficulties found lower levels of parental involvement in home-based and parental expectations than for their peers without disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref16">29</reflink>]). Given the importance of parental involvement in predicting student academic outcomes, it is important to explore how changes in parental involvement during high school might be related to students' emotional or behavioral difficulties and ultimately predictive of academic outcomes.</p> <p>There are different types of parental involvement in education (e.g., parent–teacher communication, providing homework support, and attending school functions) which may change or produce varied levels of engagement in secondary school settings. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref17">18</reflink>] conceptualized parental involvement in secondary education into three content domains including home-based, school-based, and academic socialization. Recent studies with secondary students ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref18">12</reflink>]) and secondary students with emotional and behavioral difficulties ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref19">11</reflink>]) found support for the psychometric properties of the three-domain model as well as a more refined six-factor model that included two types of school-based involvement (parent–school communication and parental involvement in school activities), two types of home-based involvement (homework support and home-based activities), and two types of academic socialization (parent–child conversations about education and parental expectations for their child's education). One or more of these six content domains are typically the focus of most parental involvement research. In particular, home-based parental involvement and parental expectations may be particularly salient for high school students.</p> <p>Home-based educational activities, like providing enrichment activities at home or taking a child to experiences such as a museum, have been associated with academic outcomes for middle ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref20">18</reflink>]) and high school students ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref21">42</reflink>]). Home-based parental involvement activities such as encouragement, monitoring, and support are associated with ninth-grade students' positive beliefs about school which in turn influences their intent to complete high school ([<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref22">31</reflink>]). Similarly, home-based involvement in eighth grade is associated with higher educational expectations several years later ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref23">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Parental expectations or aspirations for their child's academic career are a strong predictor of academic achievement ([<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref24">13</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref25">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref26">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref27">34</reflink>]). Research has found that parental expectations for their child's academic career are a stronger predictor of educational performance in comparison with other aspects of parental involvement, such as school communication or supervising homework ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref28">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref30">16</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref31">44</reflink>]). Furthermore, research indicates that parents' expectations for high school students' postsecondary career or education are associated with improved outcomes for youth ([<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref32">7</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref33">14</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref34">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref35">44</reflink>]). Yet other studies have found that parental aspirations for their child did not significantly predict academic outcomes after including covariates in the analyses ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref36">6</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref37">20</reflink>]). A recent meta-analysis of parental expectations and academic achievement from kindergarten thru twelfth grade found that that the role of parental expectations in academic achievement was just as important for the high school years as elementary years ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref38">26</reflink>]), suggesting that parental expectations play an important role for secondary students.</p> <p>One important gap in knowledge is that it is uncertain if the parental involvement in school constructs that are promising for the general population behave similarly for high school students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Research has demonstrated that the quality of parent–adolescent relationships, especially related to conflict, is related to an increased risk of externalizing and internalizing problems ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref40">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref41">36</reflink>]). Research specifically exploring parental involvement in education for students with emotional and behavioral risk has mixed findings. For example, a study using a national, longitudinal data set found that families of students with emotional and behavioral disorders had lower levels of parental involvement in school activities, less volunteering for school service, and lower parental satisfaction with school services compared with families of students with other disabilities ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref42">39</reflink>]). Yet Wagner et al. reported a higher rate of participation in conversations with teachers and higher rates of helping with homework for families of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. A recent study of high school students with elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties found significantly lower levels of home-based activities and academic expectations compared with high school students without those difficulties, with no significant differences in school communication or confidence assisting with homework ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref43">29</reflink>]). This study also found that home-based activities and parental expectations significantly predicted academic outcomes, with parental academic expectations accounting for nearly 41% of the explained variance when predicting grade point average (GPA).</p> <p>Few studies have examined potential changes or stability in home-based involvement and parental expectations during the high school years. It is thought that parental involvement may decrease as students get older due to normative increases in adolescent autonomy ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref44">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref45">9</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref46">22</reflink>]) and that students move into larger schools with fewer opportunities for parental engagement with teachers ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref47">22</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref48">41</reflink>]). However, as there are many facets to parental involvement ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref49">18</reflink>]), it is possible that while some aspects decrease, others may remain stable or increase ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref50">22</reflink>]). [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref51">2</reflink>] examined stability from seventh to eleventh grades in (a) school–parent communication and volunteerism, (b) home-based involvement (i.e., checking for homework), and (c) academic socialization focused on planning for the future and courses planning. They found decreases in school-based and home-based parental involvement, fitting with expected increases in student autonomy. Alternatively, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref52">41</reflink>] found increases from seventh to eleventh grades in the home-based activities of providing structure in the home for completing school activities and linking education to the future. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref53">2</reflink>] found a statistically significant increase in parental conversations about courses and their child's future, suggesting that academic socialization is less likely to decline during secondary school than other aspects of parental involvement. Furthermore, a meta-analysis by [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref54">34</reflink>] found correlational evidence that parental expectations for their child's educational outcomes were stable over time.</p> <p>A few studies of the general high school population have examined how changes in parental involvement during secondary school are related to student outcomes. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref55">41</reflink>] found that while overall GPA declined from seventh to eleventh grades, improvements in the frequency of preventive communication between parents and teachers, communication quality between parents and teachers, providing structure at home, scaffolding independence by encouraging child's autonomy, and linking educational activities to future success were all associated with improvements in GPA from middle school to high school. Moreover, increased parental involvement in the areas of providing structure to complete schoolwork, linking education to future success, and preventive communication with teachers were associated with a decrease in student problem behavior. Alternatively, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref56">32</reflink>] found little evidence that mothers' educational expectations for their child across two time points were related to their child's academic achievement. While minimal research has been conducted on the role of the stability of parent expectations and home-based activities on high school students' success, the importance of these two constructs for predicting academic outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref57">1</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref58">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref59">34</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref60">41</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref61">42</reflink>]) suggests that better understanding how these constructs change during high school may be informative for developing and timing family-level interventions. This may be especially relevant for the families of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties who might encounter more barriers to parental involvement in school ([<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref62">28</reflink>]) and have demonstrated lower levels of parental involvement regarding their child's home-based activities ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref63">29</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-2">This Study</hd> <p>Given the increased potential for negative outcomes for students experiencing emotional and behavioral challenges and generally lower levels of parental involvement in school, it is important to investigate potential changes in parental educational expectations and home-based involvement during the high school years. Studies with the general population of high school students have shown mixed trends (increasing, decreasing, stable) for parental expectations ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref64">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref65">32</reflink>]) and homework-related activities ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref66">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref67">41</reflink>]). We are not aware of any studies to date that have examined the trends in home-based activities not related to homework, such as parents and adolescents jointly participating in educational activities in the community and at home. The purpose of this explorative study was twofold: (a) to examine whether home-based parental involvement and parental educational expectations change over time between ninth and eleventh grades for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties in comparison with peers in the general population, and (b) to examine whether changes in home-based parental involvement and parental educational expectations were related to academic performance in school. Related to the second purpose of this study, we investigated the inter- and intra-individual change in parental involvement and expectations.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-3">Method</hd> <p>Data for this study were compiled from the publicly available High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09; https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/hsls09/), which is a nationally representative study of all students in the United States who were enrolled in ninth grade during the fall of 2009. As we used a secondary data set, the authors were not involved in research subject or informed consent procedures for this data. Details regarding the total sample of students and their families who completed any survey data including the sampling process used are described elsewhere ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref68">21</reflink>]). To highlight the HSLS:09 recruitment process described by [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref69">21</reflink>], a stratified random sample was used to identify 1,889 public and private high schools that were eligible to participate; of these, 944 schools participated. For each school, all students capable of completing a questionnaire (<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref70">24</reflink>,<reflink idref="bib658" id="ref71">658</reflink>) were invited. Of those, about 85% completed the student questionnaire at baseline, and 82% completed the student assessments. About 67% of the eligible parents completed the parent questionnaire. School administrators had the highest completion rate at baseline, about 94%. Depending on the requirements of the school or district, parental consent for their child was either collected implicitly (about 80%) or explicitly (about 20%) and was provided in English on one side and Spanish on the other. The HSLS:09 research team translated consent forms into other languages as requested. If the reader is interested in more details about how the HSLS:09 study was conducted, please consult the study's technical documentation ([<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref72">21</reflink>]). This study used data from Wave 1 (ninth-grade assessment), Wave 2 (eleventh-grade assessment), and Wave 3 (high school transcript).</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-4">Participants</hd> <p>Participants consisted of ninth-grade high school students and their families. Students were included in the study if: (a) there were sufficient data to determine whether or not the student had experienced emotional and behavioral difficulties in ninth grade (defined below) and (b) the student and their family were selected as part of the second wave of HSLS:09 data collection (which was collected when students were in eleventh grade). Students identified with learning disabilities, autism, hearing or visual impairments, or intellectual disabilities were excluded from this study, given evidence indicating that families of students with these disabilities have their own unique perspectives and challenges related to parental involvement in school ([<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref73">33</reflink>]). Applying these inclusion criteria resulted in a sample of 5,036 students and their families.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-5">Students With Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties</hd> <p>We replicated an approach used in prior research ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref74">11</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref75">29</reflink>]) to identify the group of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties using a two-part inclusion strategy. Replicating this approach, we used the following four parent-report variables related to student emotional or behavioral difficulties: (a) whether the student had been suspended or expelled from school, (b) the extent to which the student felt anxious or depressed, (c) whether the school contacted the parent about the student's behavior, and (d) the extent to which the student had behavior problems in school. First, we considered a student to have elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties if two or more variables were endorsed by the parent, resulting in identifying 702 students. Second, students were also included if previously diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, which resulted in an additional 186 students identified, for a total of 888 (of the 5,036) students. It is important to note that we originally hoped to also identify students receiving special education services for an emotional or behavioral disorder, but this was not possible due to large amounts of missing Individualized Education Program data from schools.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-6">Analytic Sample</hd> <p>The analytic sample included 5,036 high school students and their families. In terms of student participants, 17.6% met inclusion criteria for emotional and behavioral difficulties (<emph>n</emph> = 888) with the remaining 4,148 students comprising the general population of peers without identified disabilities. As shown in Table 1, the group identification process resulted in differences between the groups consistent with prior research on students with emotional and behavioral difficulties ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref76">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref77">38</reflink>]). Students identified in the group with emotional or behavioral difficulties were more likely to be male, Black or African American, or multiracial, had a lower Socioeconomic Status (SES), were more likely to repeat a grade, and more likely to have received a call from school regarding academic problems.</p> <p>Table 1. Demographics by Group for High School Students in Study.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Characteristic</th><th align="center">Students w/ emotional & behavioral difficulties (<italic>n</italic> = 888)</th><th align="center">Comparison group (<italic>n</italic> = 4,148)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Female</td><td>36.4% (<italic>n</italic> = 323)</td><td>54.7% (<italic>n</italic> = 2,268)</td></tr><tr><td>White</td><td>53.0% (<italic>n</italic> = 471)</td><td>58.0% (<italic>n</italic> = 2,404)</td></tr><tr><td>Black or African American</td><td>15.1% (<italic>n</italic> = 134)</td><td>8.7% (<italic>n</italic> = 360)</td></tr><tr><td>Hispanic or Latine</td><td>16.4% (<italic>n</italic> = 146)</td><td>14.9% (<italic>n</italic> = 617)</td></tr><tr><td>Asian or Pacific Islander</td><td>3.4% (<italic>n</italic> = 30)</td><td>9.6% (<italic>n</italic> = 398)</td></tr><tr><td>Multiracial</td><td>12.1% (<italic>n</italic> = 107)</td><td>8.9% (<italic>n</italic> = 369)</td></tr><tr><td>Socioeconomic Status (SES) Score (adjusted for locality)</td><td><italic>M</italic> = 0.09 (<italic>SD</italic> = 0.71)</td><td><italic>M</italic> = 0.34 (<italic>SD</italic> = 0.77)</td></tr><tr><td>School contacted home regarding poor academic performance</td><td>48.1% (<italic>n</italic> = 427)</td><td>11.7% (<italic>n</italic> = 485)</td></tr><tr><td>Student repeated a grade in school</td><td>17.3% (<italic>n</italic> = 154)</td><td>4.9% (<italic>n</italic> = 204)</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note.</emph> SES data were missing for 501 families.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-7">Variables</hd> <p>Home-based parental involvement was a composite variable consisting of five items that were collected in both Waves 1 and 2: (a) worked on or played with a computer with teen (p1computer/p2computer); (b) helped teen with a school science fair project (p1scifair/p2sciproj); (c) discussed a STEM project or article with teen (p1stemdisc/p2stemdisc); (d) went to a play, concert, or live show with teen (p1show/p2show); and (e) visited a science-related destination with teen (e.g., natural history museum) (p1museum/p2museum). Scores on the home-based parental involvement measure could range from zero (if parents reported engaging in none of the activities) to five (if parents reported engaging in all activities). Change scores were computed as the difference between the eleventh-grade variable and the ninth-grade variable.</p> <p>Parental expectations were represented by a single HSLS:09 item phrased in Wave 1 as <emph>How far in school do you think [he or she] will actually get</emph>? (p1eduexpect) and in Wave 2 as <emph>As things stand now, how far in school do you think [he or she] will actually get?</emph> (p2eduexp). At Wave 1, this item was measured using 10 response options (1 = less than high school, 6 = complete a bachelor's degree, 10 = complete a PhD/MD/Law degree). At Wave 2, this variable was measured using 11 response options—the same 10 options as Wave 1 with the addition of the option "start or complete a certificate from school providing occupational training." Given low frequencies for some of the response categories and that the change units between categories are not qualitatively equivalent to one another, we dichotomized response options into 0 = less than complete bachelor's degree and 1 = complete a Bachelor's degree or higher.</p> <p>GPA for ninth grade (x3tagpa09) and eleventh grade (x3tagpa11) represented the average GPA across academic courses as recorded on the high school transcripts collected as part of Wave 3 of the HSLS:09 study. For our study, ninth- and eleventh-grade GPAs ranged from 0.25 to 4.00.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-8">Covariates</hd> <p>Demographic covariates included student sex, student race and ethnicity, and family SES, as these variables have served as important covariates in prior research ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref78">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref79">10</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref80">42</reflink>]). Student sex was dummy-coded where male students, as the reference group (coded as 0), were contrasted with female students as the focal group (coded as 1). Note that only binary options were available to respondents. Student race and ethnicity were dummy-coded where White/Not Hispanic or Latine students, as the reference group (coded as 0), were contrasted with Black/Not Hispanic or Latine, Asian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic or Latine, and multiracial and racial background not captured with the aforementioned groups (e.g., Indigenous). We recognize that individuals with Hispanic or Latine ethnicities are also a heterogeneous racial group; however, these were the racial and ethnic categories used by the HSLS-09.</p> <p>Family SES (xises_u) was a HSLS:09-created composite variable consisting of five inputs while accounting for school urbanicity: (a) highest education level in a two-parent family or the education level in a single-parent family, (b) the education level of the second parent (if applicable), (c) highest occupation prestige score for a two-parent family or the occupation prestige score for the single-parent family, (d) the occupation prestige score for the second parent in a two-parent family (if applicable), and (e) family annual income. The resulting composite score was scaled as a <emph>z</emph>-score with a mean of 0 and standard deviation of 1 for the entire HSLS:09 sample. Higher scores represent higher SES.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-9">Weights</hd> <p>Because the HSLS:09 used a complex survey design, analytic and replicate weights were needed to account for the complex design when analyzing the data. We used the weights developed for the combined Wave 1 and Wave 2 parent-supplied family and home contextual data (w1w2par) because most of the variables included in the analysis were collected from parents. The analytic weights (i.e., sampling weights) were used to adjust for the conditional probability of selection and nonresponse. Whenever possible, balanced repeated replication (BRR) weights were used for variance estimation (i.e., calculating standard errors). BRR is a resampling method used to calculate standard errors while accounting for the complex design of the study (e.g., two-stage sampling and nonindependence of observations). It should be noted that BRR weights were not always used because some analyses (described below) did not allow for BRR weights. In these cases, design effects ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref81">27</reflink>]) were used to adjust standard errors to account for the complex survey design.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-10">Data Analysis</hd> <p>The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine whether home-based parental involvement and parental educational expectations change over time between ninth and eleventh grades for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties in comparison with peers in the general population, and (b) to examine whether changes in home-based parental involvement and parental educational expectations were related to academic performance in school. To this end, we used STATA v17 to evaluate both the interindividual change (i.e., change in the relative position of individuals within the sample over time) and intra-individual change (i.e., change in the "amount" of the construct for individuals over time). To evaluate interindividual change over time, we computed correlations between the constructs at ninth and eleventh grades separately for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and students in the general population. These correlations revealed the extent to which parent standing on the constructs changed over time <emph>relative to their peers</emph>. In other words, did parental involvement change relatively consistently for families in the sample or did it change differentially between families? Higher correlations indicate <emph>less</emph> interindividual change (greater stability) between ninth and eleventh grades.</p> <p>While correlations provide valuable information about differential change between individuals across time, the correlations did not provide information about how individuals changed over time <emph>relative to themselves</emph>—did parental involvement or expectations <emph>increase or decrease</emph> over time, and by how much? To address this question, we computed the difference between eleventh-grade and ninth-grade scores for each construct and used linear regression to analyze the change scores.[<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref82">7</reflink>] While the analysis of change scores presents certain limitations given that the assumptions of the analysis are not easily established (see [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref83">30</reflink>]), we choose this framework because the assumptions are more tenable than alternative models (e.g., analysis of covariance [ANCOVA]) and the results of the analysis are easily interpreted by readers familiar with linear regression. First, we compared intra-individual change separately for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and their peers in the general population. To evaluate this, we analyzed change scores in a constant-only regression model (e.g., without any predictors). The constant term in such a regression model represents the mean change score, which, if statistically significant, indicates significant change over time for that group. Second, we compared intra-individual changes between students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and their peers in the general population to examine whether the change over time was differential between the groups. To evaluate this, we ran an unconditional model where only group membership (emotional and behavioral difficulties vs. peers) was entered as a predictor, and we also ran a conditional model where a set of covariates was included to account for differences between the groups in terms of student sex, student race or ethnicity, and family SES. A significant regression coefficient for group membership indicates that individuals in the two groups exhibited differential changes over time. To examine the extent to which changes in parental involvement and educational expectations were related to academic performance, we computed correlations between change scores for home-based parental involvement, parental educational expectations, and student GPA.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-11">Results</hd> <p>Unconditional means and standard errors (estimated using BRR weights) are reported in Table 2 separately for students with elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties and peers in the general population. For students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, the mean home-based parental involvement scores were 2.62 and 2.55 (on a scale of 0 to 5) for ninth and eleventh grades, respectively. The mean parental educational expectation scores were.70 and.59 in ninth and eleventh grades, respectively, indicating that, in ninth grade, 70% of parents of a student with emotional and behavioral difficulties believed that their child would graduate with a bachelor's degree or higher—that percentage dropped to 59% of parents in eleventh grade.</p> <p>Table 2. Unconditional Means and Balanced Repeated Replication Standard Errors.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Variable</th><th align="center">Ninth grade</th><th align="center">Eleventh grade</th><th align="center">Difference</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td colspan="4"><bold>Home-based parental involvement</bold></td></tr><tr><td> Students w/ emotional & behavioral difficulties</td><td>2.62 (0.08)</td><td>2.55 (0.08)</td><td>−0.07 (0.11)</td></tr><tr><td> General population</td><td>2.89 (0.03)</td><td>2.86 (0.04)</td><td>−0.03 (0.04)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"><bold>Parental expectations</bold></td></tr><tr><td> Students w/ emotional & behavioral difficulties</td><td>0.70 (0.03)</td><td>0.59 (0.03)</td><td>−0.11 (0.04)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">**</xref></td></tr><tr><td> General population</td><td>0.90 (0.01)</td><td>0.85 (0.01)</td><td>−0.05 (0.01)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn3">***</xref></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>2 <emph>Note</emph>. Difference scores represent the change from Grades 9 to 11. Significant difference scores represent statistical change from Grades 9 to 11.</item> <item>3 <emph>p</emph> <.01; ***<emph>p</emph> <.001.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0187593450-12">Correlations Over Time</hd> <p>For students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, correlations between ninth-grade and eleventh-grade home-based parental involvement (<emph>r</emph> =.33) and parental educational expectations (<emph>r</emph> =.46) were all positive in direction and medium in magnitude. For peers in the general population, correlations between ninth-grade and eleventh-grade home-based parental involvement (<emph>r</emph> =.45) and parental educational expectations (<emph>r</emph> =.47) were also all positive in direction and medium in magnitude.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-13">Mean Changes Over Time</hd> <p>For students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, parental educational expectations significantly decreased between ninth and eleventh grades (<emph>b</emph> = −0.11, <emph>p</emph> <.01, <emph>d</emph> = −0.13), but the magnitude of the difference was trivial when evaluated using [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref84">8</reflink>] general guidelines. Home-based parental involvement did not demonstrate statistically significant change over time for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties (see Table 2). For peers in the general population, parental educational expectations (<emph>b</emph> = −0.05, <emph>p</emph> <.001, <emph>d</emph> = −0.10) significantly decreased between ninth and eleventh grades, but the magnitude of change over time was also trivial. Home-based parental involvement did not demonstrate statistically significant change over time for students in the general population. When comparing change over time between students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and peers in the general population, there were no statistically significant differences (see Table 3). In other words, the trends over time were statistically equivalent between the two groups of students even after controlling for important demographic covariates (see Table 3 for the regression model results).</p> <p>Table 3. Regression Results for Comparing Difference Scores Between Students With Emotional and Behavior Difficulties and Peers.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="left" rowspan="2">Predictor</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Home-based parental involvement</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Parental expectations<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn5">a</xref></th></tr><tr><th align="center">Unconditional</th><th align="center">Conditional</th><th align="center">Unconditional</th><th align="center">Conditional</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Students w/ emotional & behavioral difficulties</td><td>−0.039</td><td>−0.014</td><td>−0.060</td><td>−0.038</td></tr><tr><td>Black or African American</td><td align="center">—</td><td>−0.044</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.042</td></tr><tr><td>Hispanic or Latine</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.068</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.030</td></tr><tr><td>Asian</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.217</td><td align="center">—</td><td>−0.009</td></tr><tr><td>Multiracial</td><td align="center">—</td><td>−0.098</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.023</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.024</td><td align="center">—</td><td>−0.007</td></tr><tr><td>SES</td><td align="center">—</td><td>−0.107<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn6">*</xref></td><td align="center">—</td><td>0.035<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn6">**</xref></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note</emph>. The unconditional model did not include covariates.</item> <item>5 Linear probability model.</item> <item>6 <emph>p</emph> <.05; **<emph>p</emph> <.01.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0187593450-14">Comparing Changes to Academic Performance</hd> <p>Table 4 reports the correlations between change scores for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and peers in the general population. For both groups of students, correlations indicated that (a) parents who demonstrated larger increases in parental involvement in home-based activities demonstrated larger increases in educational expectations (or vice-versa), and that (b) students of parents who demonstrated increases in either involvement or educational expectations demonstrated greater improvement in GPA between ninth and eleventh grades. However, the magnitude of the correlations qualitatively differed between the two groups of students. For students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, correlations were <emph>small</emph> in magnitude, while for peers in the general population, all correlations were <emph>trivial</emph> in magnitude.</p> <p>Table 4. Correlations Between Difference Scores.</p> <p>Graph</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><colgroup><col align="left" /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /><col align="char" char="." /></colgroup><thead><tr><th align="center">Difference Score</th><th align="center">Home-based parental involvement</th><th align="center">Parental expectations</th><th align="center">Grade point average</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Home-based parental involvement</td><td align="center">—</td><td>.02</td><td>.04</td></tr><tr><td>Parental expectations</td><td>.22</td><td align="center">—</td><td>.12</td></tr><tr><td>Grade point average</td><td>.21</td><td>.12</td><td align="center">—</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>7 <emph>Note</emph>. Correlations for students without disabilities are in the upper triangular matrix. Correlations for students with emotional and behavior difficulties are in the lower triangular matrix.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-15">Discussion</hd> <p>Students with emotional and behavioral difficulties continue to experience concerning secondary educational outcomes ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref85">17</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref86">40</reflink>]). There are several aspects to consider for improving educational outcomes among this specific student population, one of which is parental involvement. Higher levels of parental involvement in education are often associated with increased academic performance for high school students, especially for home-based and academic socialization domains of parental involvement ([<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref87">24</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref88">26</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref89">29</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref90">42</reflink>]). Yet, little is known about the change during high school in parental involvement for the families of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. The purpose of this study was to examine the ninth to eleventh grade change in parents' educational expectations and home-based parental involvement for 888 high school students with emotional and behavioral difficulties compared with 4,148 peers, and to examine how changes were associated with academic performance.</p> <p>When examining correlations over time, the correlations between ninth and eleventh grades were medium in magnitude for home-based parental involvement and parental expectations, and quite similar for both groups of students. When examining intra-individual changes over time, both groups demonstrated similar changes for parental involvement and parental expectations from ninth to eleventh grades. Interestingly, the decline in parental expectations from ninth to eleventh grades was significant for both students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and peers, even though the amount of decline was fairly trivial. This contrasts with other studies that found stability or an increase in parental expectations during the high school years for the general population ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref91">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref92">34</reflink>]). Studies that assessed academic socialization with questions about parents having conversations with their child about planning for the educational courses and occupational career demonstrated an increase in these types of conversations as the child aged ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref93">2</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref94">41</reflink>]). However, this study was focused on a slightly different aspect of academic socialization, the parental expectation of their child attaining a bachelor's degree. While both are considered aspects of the academic socialization domain ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref95">18</reflink>]), they may operate differently. A few meta-analyses looked at the role of parental expectations or aspirations specifically. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref96">26</reflink>] meta-analyses showed similar importance of parental expectations between elementary and high school years, but the studies were not longitudinal so could not speak directly to the issue of stability. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref97">34</reflink>] found strong correlations of parental expectations over time, as well as strong correlations of child achievement, but did not specifically explore if parental expectations were increasing, stable, or decreasing. Interesting, the Pinquart and Ebeling review of K–12 longitudinal studies about parental expectations found that while parental expectations predicted child outcomes, child achievement also predicted parental expectations. Perhaps parental expectations for their child in both of our groups became more aligned with student interests, aptitudes, and achievement as they progressed through high school, compared with more vague hopes and expectations parents have when students begin high school. Our finding that parental expectations had a significant, yet trivial, decline between ninth and eleventh grades for both groups is an intriguing finding that needs to be further explored with longitudinal studies that specifically examine the stability of parental involvement during high school.</p> <p>The trend in home-based parental involvement over time was similar between the two groups with neither reporting significant changes. Other studies examining home-based parental involvement related to supporting homework completion found decreases during high school ([<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref98">2</reflink>]) while others found increases ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref99">41</reflink>]). This study examined home-based parental involvement outside of homework, such as visiting museums or other educational activities and found stability over time for both students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and peers. It is promising that home-based parental involvement levels are being maintained in high school even during a developmental phase of increased autonomy ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref100">4</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref101">9</reflink>]). While the level of home-based activities is lower for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties compared with the general population ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref102">29</reflink>]), it is encouraging that these parents report that they are able to connect with their child in shared activities in a consistent manner from ninth grades. This is especially relevant for the families of adolescents with emotional and behavioral difficulties that may have increased parent–child relationship difficulties ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref103">5</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref104">19</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref105">36</reflink>]).</p> <p>It is intriguing that students with emotional and behavioral difficulties had a correlation of.22 between change in home-based parental involvement and change in parental expectations and a correlation of.21 between change in home-based involvement and change in GPA, whereas correlations for students in the general population were only.02 and.04, respectively. This is similar to previous research which documented other home-based activities, like providing structure in the home, were associated with positive trends in GPA ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref106">41</reflink>]). It is surprising that increases in home-based parental involvement resulting in academic improvements had stronger correlations for the students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and not for the peer group. This suggests that it may be especially beneficial to develop strategies and approaches to increase parental involvement via home-based activities during the high school years for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. These home-based enrichment activities could take many forms, such as parents providing educational opportunities with their adolescent at home, visiting museums together, attending shows and concerts in the arts, building or making things at home, or watching and discussing educational programming as a family. These activities could also have a connection to the child's school, such as supporting a child's work on a science project to show at a school-sponsored fair. While the parental involvement domains are conceptualized as distinct, there is inherent complexity and overlap in the conceptualizations, demonstrated by correlations between the different domains ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref107">12</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref108">11</reflink>]). It would be beneficial if future research could continue to explore the assessment and conceptualization of the different parental involvement domains, especially during the secondary years. Nonetheless, students who do not experience home-based parental involvement activities may be at further risk of poorer educational outcomes. Future research is needed to explore the potential influence of home-based educational activities on academic performance for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and how these parent–child activities can be maintained during adolescent years of increased child autonomy.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-16">Limitations</hd> <p>This study was not without limitations. First, measurement of the parental involvement and expectations constructs was limited to the questions available in the extant data set, and we were not able to explore additional parental involvement domains due to changes in how the variables were assessed over time. For example, some of the questions about home-based activities are fairly specific (e.g., helped teen with a school science fair project) which would not even be offered at schools that do not sponsor science fairs. Future research would benefit from the development of national, longitudinal data sets with more depth and generalizability on the assessment of multiple parental involvement constructs. Second, there was limited information available about the students with school-identified emotional and behavioral difficulties. Given the differences between groups in Table 1, the students identified as having emotional or behavioral difficulties were more likely to be male, Black or African American, multiracial, have a lower SES, repeat a grade, or be contacted at home regarding academic problems, consistent with research on the characteristics of students with emotional disturbance ([<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref109">3</reflink>]; [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref110">38</reflink>]). Nonetheless, information, such as whether students were receiving special education services under the eligibility category of emotional disturbance/emotional or behavioral disorder or a diagnosed mental health condition (e.g., depression and anxiety), or completed an emotional or behavioral problem screener, would have been useful to better contextualizing and generalizing the findings from this study. It also would have been helpful to have information on emotional and behavioral difficulties at both points in time to know whether these concerns persisted across the years. Yet it is still useful to consider students with emotional and behavioral difficulties during the ninth grade, regardless of their continuing occurrence into eleventh grade. Issues with limitations of the data are commonplace for research utilizing secondary data sources. While additional information is needed in future research, these insights into high school students with emotional and behavioral difficulties provide important guidance on potential avenues to explore next.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-17">Implications and Future Research</hd> <p>This longitudinal study with a nationally representative sample is an important step to better understand how parental involvement changes in high school for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Our findings that home-based parental involvement was stable and that there was a slight decrease in parental expectations but that the trajectory was similar for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties and their peers is important for future research. Perhaps qualitative studies could help elucidate how and why parental expectations for some students with emotional and behavioral difficulties decline during high school.</p> <p>Based on our study, it seems that fruitful avenues of exploration for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties might focus on strategies to encourage and sustain home-based educational activities by assisting parents to better understand the opportunities that exist in their community, helping families network with others with similar educational interests and hobbies (e.g., astronomy group, gardening, and rebuilding cars), or improving parental confidence in supporting their adolescent educational activities at home. This study also only examined parental report of involvement and not the perspective of the adolescent. It is important that additional studies examine if the findings are replicable with other samples and when including the perspectives of adolescents. Furthermore, it is uncertain who is initiating the home-based activities; there are implicit assumptions that these are parent-led activities, but they might be initiated by the adolescent, part of a family activity, or even connected to a school activity. This is an important area for future research, as [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref111">43</reflink>] found that adolescent invitations for parental involvement with homework assistance and academic socialization accounted for the decrease in parental involvement from middle school to high school. We need to better understand the context of these home-based activities, such as who is initiating the activities and how often, to inform their potential application to families of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties. Future research would also benefit from longitudinal studies that can look beyond just the snapshot of parental involvement during the high school years but also examine how involvement in the elementary years might influence parental engagement in high school. This could be especially true for families of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties who may be involved with schools throughout their child's academic career in different ways than the general population such as attending Individualized Education Program meetings or frequent discussions on student behavior such as office referrals or suspensions.</p> <hd id="AN0187593450-18">Conclusion</hd> <p>In summary, this study found that although the families of high school students with emotional and behavioral difficulties had lower levels of parent involvement scores, they demonstrated similar change from ninth to eleventh grades when compared with students in the general population for home-based parental involvement and parental expectations for their child's future. Further research is needed to replicate and extend these findings. Additional studies are needed to see whether interventions to support parental involvement in the general population of high school students are equally applicable to the families of students with emotional and behavioral difficulties, given the similar patterns of stability between the two groups. The possibility of improvements in home-based parental involvement being related to gains in GPA and parental expectations is encouraging for future research involving high school students with emotional and behavioral difficulties.</p> <p>The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R324A190055 to the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.</p> <ref id="AN0187593450-19"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref57" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Benner A. D., Fernandez C. 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Parent involvement and mathematics achievement: Contrast across racial and ethnic groups. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(2), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.99.2.116</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0187593450-20"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Kristin Duppong Hurley co-wrote the introduction, method, and discussion; edited the entire document; and obtained funding. Stacy-Ann A. January co-wrote the introduction, method, and discussion; edited the entire document. Matthew C. Lambert analyzed the data; wrote the method and results; obtained funding; and reviewed the document. Jacqueline Huscroft D'Angelo and Alexandra Hamilton reviewed and edited drafts of the document.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R324A190055 to University of Nebraska, Lincoln. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Documentation from the original study indicates that participants consented to participate.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> This was a secondary data analysis, so informed consent was not applicable.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kristin Duppong Hurley</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9440-9637 Stacy-Ann A. January</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext>Graph https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9483-4214</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> For the parental educational expectations change score, we used a linear probability model, so the resulting regression coefficient is interpreted as the percentage point difference between the two groups.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Kristin Duppong Hurley; Stacy-Ann A. January; Matthew C. Lambert; Jacqueline Huscroft D'Angelo and Alexandra Hamilton</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref2"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref6"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref9"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref22"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref23"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref25"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref26"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref31"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref46"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref48"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref68"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib658" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref73"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref79"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref81"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref83"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref111"></nolink>
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  Data: Changes in Parental Involvement and Parental Expectations during High School for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
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  Data: English
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kristin+Duppong+Hurley%22">Kristin Duppong Hurley</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9440-9637">0000-0002-9440-9637</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Stacy-Ann+A%2E+January%22">Stacy-Ann A. January</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9483-4214">0000-0001-9483-4214</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Matthew+C%2E+Lambert%22">Matthew C. Lambert</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Jacqueline+Huscroft+D'Angelo%22">Jacqueline Huscroft D'Angelo</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Alexandra+Hamilton%22">Alexandra Hamilton</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Journal+of+Emotional+and+Behavioral+Disorders%22"><i>Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders</i></searchLink>. 2025 33(3):175-185.
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  Data: SAGE Publications and Hammill Institute on Disabilities. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: https://sagepub.com
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  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 11
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  Label: Publication Date
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: Institute of Education Sciences (ED)
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  Data: R324A190055
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Label: Education Level
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+9%22">Grade 9</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Junior+High+Schools%22">Junior High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Middle+Schools%22">Middle Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Grade+11%22">Grade 11</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Participation%22">Parent Participation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Attitudes%22">Parent Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Expectation%22">Expectation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Problems%22">Emotional Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Behavior+Problems%22">Behavior Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+Point+Average%22">Grade Point Average</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+9%22">Grade 9</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Characteristics%22">Student Characteristics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Grade+11%22">Grade 11</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Role%22">Parent Role</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink>
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  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22High+School+Longitudinal+Study+of+2009+%28NCES%29%22">High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (NCES)</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1177/10634266241301374
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  Data: 1063-4266<br />1538-4799
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Home-based parental involvement and parental expectations in school are strong predictors of academic outcomes for high school students. Given this, we explored whether changes in parental involvement and parental expectations during high school were correlated with academic functioning for students with emotional or behavioral difficulties (n = 888) compared with their peers (n = 4,148). We found that home-based parental involvement was stable during high school for both groups of students. There was a decrease in parental educational expectations during high school that was equivalent between both groups. Students with elevated emotional and behavioral difficulties had significant correlations between increases in home-based involvement and increases in both parental expectations and grade point average, whereas the peer group had significant, yet trivial correlations among the constructs.
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  Data: As Provided
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  Data: 2025
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  Label: Accession Number
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  Data: EJ1482546
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    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1177/10634266241301374
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 11
        StartPage: 175
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parent Participation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Expectation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Emotional Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Behavior Problems
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade Point Average
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 9
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 11
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Role
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (NCES)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Changes in Parental Involvement and Parental Expectations during High School for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
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            NameFull: Jacqueline Huscroft D'Angelo
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            NameFull: Alexandra Hamilton
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            – D: 01
              M: 09
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1063-4266
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