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Beginning with Books: Tailoring Formats and Strategies for Infant and Toddler Reading Activities in Early Childhood Education Centers

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Title: Beginning with Books: Tailoring Formats and Strategies for Infant and Toddler Reading Activities in Early Childhood Education Centers
Language: English
Authors: Ming-Fang Hsieh (ORCID 0000-0003-4897-4886)
Source: Early Childhood Education Journal. 2025 53(7):2615-2630.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 16
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Descriptors: Developmental Stages, Infants, Toddlers, Early Childhood Education, Early Reading, Caregiver Role, Activities, Student Needs, Reading Strategies
DOI: 10.1007/s10643-024-01772-z
ISSN: 1082-3301
1573-1707
Abstract: This study examined various formats and strategies used by caregivers in early reading activities, and assessed how they were tailored to the developmental stages of infants and toddlers. Participants included three caregivers from classrooms for ages 0-12, 13-18, and 19-24 months, and the director of an early childhood education center known for emphasizing early reading experiences. Data were collected from observations of reading activities and interviews with the four participants. The findings revealed that the caregivers intentionally organized reading activities in different formats-- one-on-one, group, and free reading--each fulfilling distinct objectives and developmental needs. They employed various strategies, including contextualized linguistic, paralinguistic, social, and decontextualized linguistic approaches, which were all adapted to the children's developmental levels and reading contexts. This study resulted in a scaffolding framework that informs reading practices in early childhood education centers, offering professional training recommendations and particularly highlighting the necessity of decontextualized talk beyond the book text.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1483105
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187863984;5mx01oct.25;2025Sep12.06:13;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187863984-1">Beginning with Books: Tailoring Formats and Strategies for Infant and Toddler Reading Activities in Early Childhood Education Centers </title> <p>This study examined various formats and strategies used by caregivers in early reading activities, and assessed how they were tailored to the developmental stages of infants and toddlers. Participants included three caregivers from classrooms for ages 0–12, 13–18, and 19–24 months, and the director of an early childhood education center known for emphasizing early reading experiences. Data were collected from observations of reading activities and interviews with the four participants. The findings revealed that the caregivers intentionally organized reading activities in different formats— one-on-one, group, and free reading—each fulfilling distinct objectives and developmental needs. They employed various strategies, including contextualized linguistic, paralinguistic, social, and decontextualized linguistic approaches, which were all adapted to the children's developmental levels and reading contexts. This study resulted in a scaffolding framework that informs reading practices in early childhood education centers, offering professional training recommendations and particularly highlighting the necessity of decontextualized talk beyond the book text.</p> <p>Keywords: Strategies; Formats of reading activities; Infants and toddlers; Caregivers; Early childhood education centers; Medical and Health Sciences Public Health and Health Services</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>Early reading experiences profoundly impact the linguistic, cognitive, and emotional development of infants and toddlers. Research indicates that factors such as the frequency of reading, language diversity, and quality of interaction are closely related to children's subsequent vocabulary acquisition, verbal expressions, reading comprehension, and academic achievements (Auger et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref1">2</reflink>]; Baker et al., [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref2">3</reflink>]; Farrant & Zubrick, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref3">13</reflink>]; Liu, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref4">20</reflink>]). Through parent-child shared reading, children can gain knowledge about the world (Montag, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref5">23</reflink>]; Muhinyi & Rowe, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref6">24</reflink>]), develop an understanding of false beliefs (Ensor et al., [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref7">12</reflink>]), improve social interaction skills (Aram et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref8">1</reflink>]; Ziv et al., [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref9">44</reflink>]), and enhance social-emotional understanding (Doan & Wang, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref10">11</reflink>]; Schapira & Aram, [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref11">31</reflink>]). Parents can also reduce stress, improve positive parent-child interactions, and build closer relationships over time (Canfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref12">8</reflink>]; Dickinson, [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref13">10</reflink>]; Vanobbergen et al., [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref14">40</reflink>]). Therefore, how parents engage in shared reading with children under three has drawn significant attention from researchers and educators.</p> <p>Amid the rising trend of dual-income families and the increasing demand for institutional services, the need for high-quality early education is more pressing than ever (Wang et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref15">42</reflink>]). Early childhood education centers at the forefront of this challenge are tasked not only with providing a safe and healthy environment but also with maintaining professional standards to support the learning and development of infants and toddlers (Choi et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref16">9</reflink>]). Notably, examining how caregivers create a high-quality reading environment is crucial. This includes not only the availability and quality of books but also caregiver-child interactions during shared reading. Such environments foster language modeling, comprehension, literacy skills (Norris, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref17">26</reflink>]), promote engagement (Gardner-Neblett et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref18">15</reflink>]), and provide emotional and behavioral support (Hindman et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref19">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>The benefits of early reading experiences are well-documented, yet studies on reading practices for infants and toddlers in early childhood education centers remain relatively scarce, with most research focusing on mother-child reading. Given the diverse and continually evolving reading behaviors in this young demographic, it is crucial for caregivers to recognize these differences and tailor early reading strategies and activities to the unique developmental stages of different age groups (Gardner-Neblett et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref20">15</reflink>]). This highlights the need for further exploration of reading activities in early childhood education centers. To address this gap, this study conducted an in-depth case study at a center dedicated to enhancing reading experiences. It examined how caregivers organized activities and strategies for infants and toddlers of various ages, aiming to provide practical recommendations to improve planning and execution, thereby promoting developmental growth.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-2">Theoretical Framework</hd> <p>Torr ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref21">35</reflink>]) has delved into the complexity of reading activities within early childhood education settings, noting that caregivers must carefully blend the literary and visual elements of books to promote multisensory engagement of infants and toddlers. This involves not just looking and listening but also touching, turning pages, and handling the book. Language also plays a pivotal role in this process, serving as a key tool to enhance children's comprehension and amplify the numerous benefits of reading. Against the backdrop of this reading context, this study has chosen to ground itself in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Vygotsky ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref22">41</reflink>]) argued that children learn in the "zone of proximal development (ZPD)" with the help of a more knowledgeable other. When applying Vygotsky's theory to reading sessions in early childhood education centers, this study identifies caregivers as crucial "scaffolds." Caregivers deploy various strategies to foster interest and understanding in reading among young learners, thereby facilitating shared meanings and interactions that extend beyond the text itself.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-3">Literature Review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187863984-4">Structured Studies on Reading Practices in Early Childhood Education Centers</hd> <p>Research on mother–child shared reading has enriched our understanding of its impacts and methodologies (Liu, [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref23">20</reflink>]; Muhinyi & Rowe, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]). However, unlike the personalized reading approach used at home, early childhood education centers involve multiple caregivers and encompass a wide age range of infants and toddlers in a single classroom. Thus, since reading activities at early childhood education centers are typically group-oriented (Torr, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref25">36</reflink>]), the applicability of mother–child reading research in understanding center-based reading dynamics is limited.</p> <p>While several studies have explored reading practices in early childhood education centers, most of them have utilized interventionist or meticulously designed approaches. For example, Phillips and Twardosz ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref26">27</reflink>]) intentionally minimized group sizes to three and trained caregivers, successfully boosting infants' and toddlers' verbal participation. Similarly, Rhyner ([<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref27">29</reflink>]) mandated that each caregiver sat in a tranquil corner of the classroom, engaged with three children aged two to three years, utilized predetermined books, and analyzed sentence structures during shared reading. Towell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref28">38</reflink>]) explored the reactions and engagement levels of children aged 6–22 months during one-on-one shared reading sessions with a consistent caregiver. Their results revealed a distinctive preference among the young participants for familiar book themes and demonstrated elevated engagement levels. Additionally, Gardner-Neblett et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref29">15</reflink>]) assessed engagement across varied reading contexts for one to three-year-olds. The caregivers were instructed to modify their shared reading styles based on different contexts. The findings showed that interactive reading yielded the most engagement, with older children engaging more than the younger ones. However, the aforementioned studies do not provide insights into the genuine nature of reading practices in the context of authentic, group-based early childhood education centers.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-5">Variability in Early Reading Practices</hd> <p>Naturalistic observation studies show that early reading practices vary with caregivers, contexts, and child ages, often lacking in quality. Honig and Shin ([<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref30">19</reflink>]), in their study on four early childhood education centers, found that 63% of infants and toddlers had no reading interactions with the caregivers, who favored reading more to older children, averaging 1.5 min in one-on-one settings. The caregivers' common strategies included reading aloud, making sounds, naming, describing, and controlling attention, while elaboration and questioning were rare. Torr ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref31">35</reflink>]) noted caregivers' divergent approaches during shared reading sessions with a toddler; one utilized more mental state talk and contrast questions, while the other incorporated a higher number of "wh" questions and directives. Divergent responses from the toddler reflected these carried strategies, underscoring the existence of different perceptions and executions of shared reading among caregivers. Norris ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref32">26</reflink>]) noted that fewer than half of caregivers at typical centers used varied vocabulary or engaged toddlers in dialogue, indicating possible deficiencies in language interaction.</p> <p>Girolametto et al. ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref33">17</reflink>]) contrasted caregivers' directiveness in shared reading versus playdough play, observing more control and less toddler vocalization during reading. Torr ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref34">36</reflink>]) also found that caregivers' language frequently managed toddlers' physical interaction with books, potentially limiting autonomy and story engagement. Mesmer ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref35">22</reflink>]) reported book quality varied among 30 early childhood education centers, and that infrequent rotation led to less independent reading interest among low-income three-year-olds. However, diverse caregiver strategies, including reviewing story content, managing behavior, extending story content, and with minimal use of voice variation, were mostly positive and engaging for the toddlers during shared reading.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-6">Navigating Caregiver Struggles in Early Reading Practices</hd> <p>Recent studies have highlighted the difficulties caregivers face when conducting high-quality shared reading sessions with infants and toddlers. These difficulties often stem from the group format, which hinders individual engagement and attention retention (Honig & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref36">19</reflink>]; Philips & Twardosz, [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref37">27</reflink>]). Caregivers who are preoccupied with managing behavior miss opportunities for children's individual responses and free exploration of books, prompting Philips and Twardosz ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref38">27</reflink>]) to suggest a restructuring of reading times into more focused sessions. Additionally, caregivers seem to underestimate the importance of early shared reading. For instance, Torr ([<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref39">37</reflink>]) revealed that nearly half of the infants and toddlers observed did not engage in shared reading, possibly because caregivers underestimated its importance. Boardman ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref40">5</reflink>]) discovered that some caregivers were not involved in reading promotion projects, leading them to consider early reading as a school-based activity that was irrelevant to their practices. Furthermore, Boardman and Levy ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref41">6</reflink>]) reported that caregivers failed to recognize the deficiency created by using reading areas for sleeping, rendering them inaccessible to infants and toddlers. Boardman ([<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref42">4</reflink>]) also noted that some caregivers believe that infants and toddlers are too young to read, misinterpreting the concepts of early reading and erroneously assuming that phonics is the basis for reading aloud to this age group.</p> <p>In summary, research on early reading interactions with children under three is still developing. First, most studies focus narrowly on specific age groups, leaving a significant gap in understanding reading activities for infants under one, who are also part of early childhood education center populations. This highlights the need for further exploration in this age group. Furthermore, the existing research offers fragmented descriptions of caregivers' early reading strategies, such as reading aloud, naming objects, describing scenes, directing children's attention, and making interesting sounds (Honig & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref43">19</reflink>]; Mesmer, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref44">22</reflink>]; Torr, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref45">35</reflink>]). However, research is notably scarce on strategies such as questioning, expanding children's responses, and language modeling (Thomason & La Paro, [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref46">34</reflink>]), despite the fact that these are fundamental for language development and should be incorporated into early reading (Girolametto & Weitzman, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref47">16</reflink>]). Consequently, a comprehensive examination of the strategies caregivers use in early reading is essential to fully understand and enhance this critical developmental phase.</p> <p>Additionally, children under three display a wide range of reading behaviors (Schickedanz, [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref48">32</reflink>]), requiring caregivers to adjust their strategies based on developmental stages and to nurture early reading interest (Fletcher et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref49">14</reflink>]). However, previous studies (Boardman & Levy, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref50">6</reflink>]; Boardman, [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref51">5</reflink>]) highlight that caregivers often struggle with early reading due to misunderstandings or lack of awareness about its importance and the meaning behind infants' and toddlers' behaviors. Given these challenges, it is essential to examine how caregivers adapt their strategies to meet diverse needs, developmental stages, and the various formats of reading activities. This study specifically explored how caregivers incorporate these factors to ensure reading activities effectively support infants' and toddlers' development.</p> <p>Moreover, while group-based reading activities are well-documented, one-on-one and free reading formats are equally significant in early childhood education centers. Successfully transitioning between these formats and implementing them effectively is essential for enhancing engagement and fostering a deeper interest in reading among infants and toddlers. To address these gaps, this study focused on understanding how diverse reading strategies can be adapted and applied across different age groups and settings. By doing so, it aimed to provide practical insights that can help caregivers overcome the challenges identified in past research. The primary research questions guiding this investigation are outlined below:</p> <p></p> <ulist> <item> How do the caregivers organize daily reading activities in various formats?</item> <p></p> <item> What strategies do the caregivers employ in their reading activities?</item> <p></p> <item> How do the caregivers adapt and vary their reading strategies across the different age groups of infants and toddlers and reading activity formats?</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0187863984-7">The Present Study</hd> <p>A case study approach was employed, with an emphasis on gathering rich and diverse data within a defined, bounded system in natural settings (Mukherji & Albon, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref52">25</reflink>]). An early childhood education center recognized for its reading activities was studied to understand the dynamics of its reading initiatives. Given the context, this approach proved to be appropriate for the investigation.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-8">Setting and Participants</hd> <p>The research site was selected based on specific criteria: the early childhood education center's proper registration and evaluation by the Social Affairs Bureau, as well as the inclusion of regular reading activities in its daily schedules. The Sunshine Early Childhood Education Center not only met these criteria, but also published miniature board books that cater to the reading needs of children under the age of two years. The themes covered in these books included vegetables, fruits, and transportation, which are related to infants' and toddlers' daily life experiences. The language used in the books is concise, rhythmic, and easy to repeat, allowing the educators to effortlessly guide reading activities.</p> <p>The center is a medium-sized facility situated in an urban area of northern Taiwan. It boasts three classrooms, each dedicated to a separate age group of children: 1–12 months, 13–18 months, and 19–24 months. Each classroom can accommodate 5 to 10 children and has two dedicated caregivers. The researcher approached Sunshine's director to discuss the data collection process and subsequently invited the director and three caregivers—Chia-Chia, Jun-Jun, and Ling-Ling (names anonymized)—from different age brackets to participate in this study. The caregivers had a minimum of six years of teaching experience. The involvement of the director and caregivers in this study was entirely voluntary.</p> <p>In addition to focusing on caregivers' reading activities, this study also documented infants' and toddlers' engagement and reactions during storytime. Ethical considerations for these young participants were carefully addressed (Richardson, [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref53">30</reflink>]). Parents were informed about the study's aims and procedures, with emphasis on data anonymization, confidentiality, and secure storage. Consent forms were obtained from 19 parents, and data collection began only after securing consent. The caregivers introduced the researcher to the children to reduce unfamiliarity and ensure their comfort. The researcher prioritized the emotional well-being of the infants and toddlers, suspending data collection if a child showed distress, such as crying due to illness, to protect their rights and welfare.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-9">Data Collection</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187863984-10">Observations</hd> <p>The researcher used a passive observational method, sitting non-intrusively in a corner of the classroom to observe reading activities without directly engaging with the infants and toddlers. The observations focused on the context of various reading activities, the books and strategies the caregivers used, and the level of participation demonstrated by the infants and toddlers. Observations were conducted in accordance with the reading activity schedule of each classroom, with seven sessions for the 1–12 month classroom, 20 sessions for the 13–18 month classroom, and 16 sessions for the 19–24 month classroom, amounting to 43 sessions. Each observation session lasted around 20 to 40 min. The reading activities were documented using video recordings, and detailed notes were taken to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the observations.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-11">Interviews</hd> <p>The researcher interviewed the caregivers to gain insight into their beliefs and practices related to reading activities. These interviews aimed to further clarify and provide a deeper understanding of the study's observations. The topics covered in the interviews included the implementation of early reading practices, the design of reading environments, strategies, and the level of involvement of the infants and toddlers. Each of the three caregivers was interviewed twice, whereas the director was interviewed once. The interviews were audio recorded, and each session lasted between 90 and 120 min.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-12">Data Analysis</hd> <p>The data analysis encompassed a rigorous multistep methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches. This comprehensive process entailed the following stages: transcription of data, initial familiarization with the data, systematic classification, detailed coding, subsequent quantification, thorough interpretation, and, finally, comparative analysis (see Fig. 1). This meticulous procedure ensured a holistic understanding of the research findings. Table 1 presents examples of how the caregivers' strategies were coded, classifying these strategies into contextualized linguistic, paralinguistic, social, and decontextualized linguistic approaches, as shown in Fig. 2.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 The Process of Data Analysis</p> <p>Table 1 The coding examples of strategies used by caregivers</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Transcripts:</p><p>Jun-Jun reading the fifth spread of <italic>Where's Spot?</italic></p></th><th align="left"><p>Strategies</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>[1] Another caregiver moves a child to a seat against the wall.</p></td><td align="left"><p>Managing behavior</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[2] Jun-Jun: Oh! Is he under the stairs? Where is he? Come on, Xuan-Xuan, take a look. (Placing the book on Xuan-Xuan's feet for him to see).</p></td><td align="left"><p>Reading word by word</p><p>Questioning</p><p>Guiding visual attention</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[3] Jun-Jun: Is he there? What is it? (Pointing to the lion under the stairs). A lion (Imitating the roar of a lion).</p></td><td align="left"><p>Questioning</p><p>Labeling</p><p>Modulating intonation</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[4] Jun-Jun: No, he is not inside. Spot is not inside.</p></td><td align="left"><p>Describing and explaining</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Graph: Fig. 2 Four Categories of Strategies Used in Reading Activities</p> <p>This study utilized a triangulation approach to bolster its rigor and validity. This encompassed the integration of various data sources, which included in-depth interviews with the caregivers and the director and observations across multiple classrooms to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the reading activities conducted at the early childhood education center. Furthermore, the data analysis process involved individual analyses by different research team members. Any disparities were collaboratively discussed and revised. Finally, the preliminary analysis findings were communicated verbally with the participants to solicit their input and ensure the accuracy of data interpretation.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-13">Findings</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187863984-14">Types of Reading Activities</hd> <p>The reading activities at the Sunshine Early Childhood Education Center were classified into three categories: group reading, free reading, and one-on-one reading. The following section describes the ways in which these reading activities were conducted and the ideas behind the caregivers' planning.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-15">Group Reading</hd> <p>Two to three times a week, the caregivers conducted group reading sessions that typically lasted 10 to 20 min; the duration was adjusted to accommodate the ages and attention spans of the infants and toddlers. All children, irrespective of age, were invited to participate. The caregivers encouraged them to sit against the wall while the caregivers shared a book and narrated the story. Infants who could not sit independently were held by the caregivers to enable their engagement during storytime. To help the young ones become acquainted with the content, the caregivers read the same book several times before moving on to a new one.</p> <p>The caregivers unanimously recognized group reading as pivotal in cultivating reading interest, advancing language skills, and teaching vital life skills through stories. Additionally, the shared experience of storytime fostered an atmosphere conducive to active engagement. Ling-Ling noted, "When one child laughs, the others laugh louder; without peers, they tend to focus solely on you." During group reading, positive participation was observed. For example, most infants and toddlers were able to remain seated, with their gaze focused on the book. A few crawled toward the caregiver to pat the book, behaviors interpreted by the caregivers as signs of interest. Additionally, verbal toddlers could automatically follow along with the sentences the caregiver read in a familiar book.</p> <p>However, the caregivers also recognized the challenges inherent in group reading, particularly in addressing each child's individual needs and maintaining their attention throughout storytime. Observations revealed that a few infants and toddlers exhibited behaviors such as gazing around aimlessly, sitting in the corner playing with toys, or even running around the classroom. In such cases, the caregivers had to pause the reading and employ strategies to reengage their attention. Additionally, Jun-Jun emphasized the importance of this period for guiding infants and toddlers in language development but noted the challenge of ensuring every child can engage verbally with the books during group reading sessions.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-16">One-on-one Reading and Free Reading</hd> <p>One-on-one shared reading sessions often coincided with the free reading period, which normally occurred immediately after group readings and lasted 10 to 20 min. During this time, collaboration between the two caregivers in the classroom was essential; one caregiver oversaw the free reading activities, while the other conducted one-on-one shared reading sessions.</p> <p>In these individual sessions, a caregiver would invite a child to a quiet corner for a shared reading experience. This approach ensured that each child had the opportunity to engage in successive, personalized reading sessions. The caregivers selected age-appropriate materials to acquaint the child with the book, encourage verbal interactions, enhance language development, and deepen caregiver–child bonds.</p> <p>The caregivers highlighted several benefits of one-on-one reading sessions. Ling-Ling observed that some children who did not like reading at home became more engaged during individual sessions. Chia-Chia noted that one-on-one reading helped build close relationships with the children and allowed for tailored strategies to suit their needs. Jun-Jun believed that "one-on-one reading can strengthen a child's expressive abilities. For instance, I can provide multiple opportunities or wait for the child to practice and articulate words." Consequently, most infants and toddlers showed increased focus and were more likely to repeat words and sentences from the book. The caregivers agreed that one-on-one reading effectively mitigated the challenges of group reading activities.</p> <p>Regarding free reading, the caregivers laid books on the floor with the covers facing upward for classrooms with children under 18 months and invited them to choose and explore books at their leisure. In the classroom for 19- to 24-month-olds, a bookshelf was provided to facilitate easier access to books. The caregivers positioned themselves around the classroom's periphery, closely monitoring the toddlers' reading behaviors. They viewed this unstructured reading time as an opportunity to observe the children's natural propensity for reading and their ability to concentrate. Moreover, the caregivers hoped that this period would help children develop a passion for reading and foster an enthusiastic interest in books. Chia-Chia believed that "when children are allowed to choose the books they want to read, they become more interested in reading."</p> <p>Infants and toddlers were allowed most exploratory interactions with books as long as safety was not compromised, resulting in diverse responses that were easily observed during free reading activities. Younger infants and toddlers often treated books like toys, engaging in behaviors like flipping, squeezing, shaking, or even mouthing the book. These behaviors decreased with age. Older infants and toddlers showed more reading-related behaviors, such as making sounds, pointing to pictures, uttering vocabulary they recognized in books (such as "dog" and "fish"), describing emotions ("He is angry"), asking questions, and mimicking caregivers' reading behaviors. They often chose books previously read by caregivers for either independent reading or requesting a repeat. Thus, the freedom provided during free reading sessions allowed for a wide range of reading responses.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-17">Types of Reading Strategies</hd> <p>Based on observations, the caregivers employed various strategies. For example, in the book. <emph>Where's Spot?</emph>, the sixth spread features the line, "Is he in the wardrobe?" along with an illustration of a monkey swinging inside the wardrobe. Although the text is simple, Jun-Jun used multiple strategies to engage infants and toddlers, eliciting varied responses (see Table 2).</p> <p>Table 2 The strategies used by Jun-Jun</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Transcripts:</p><p>Jun-Jun reading the sixth spread of "Where's Spot?"</p></th><th align="left"><p>Strategies</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>[1] Jun-Jun: "Is he in the wardrobe?" (Most of the toddlers were looking at the picture book, and some toddlers responded with "Yes.")</p></td><td align="left"><p>Reading word by word</p><p>Questioning</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[2] Jun-Jun: "Is it? Ting-Ting, open the wardrobe door." (Jun-Jun leaned forward and placed the book in front of Ting-Ting's feet. Ting-Ting then opened the wardrobe door, while Yu-Yu, sitting next to her, reached out to point at the little monkey.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Guiding visual attention</p><p>Questioning</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[3] Jun-Jun: "Is he in the wardrobe?" (Jun-Jun opened the wardrobe door in the book, leaned forward, and took turns showing it to all the toddlers.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Reading word by word</p><p>Guiding visual attention</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[4] Jun-Jun: "What animal is this? This is a monkey." (Jun-Jun returned to her original sitting position.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Questioning</p><p>Describing and explaining</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[5] Jun-Jun: "A squeaky little monkey." (She raised her pitch, imitating the sound of a monkey.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Modulating intonation</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[6] Jun-Jun: "A squeaky little monkey." (She wiggled her body to mimic the little monkey, and Ting-Ting also imitated the monkey's movements.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Using body language</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[7] Jun-Jun: "The monkey is eating a banana."</p></td><td align="left"><p>Describing and explaining</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>[8] Jun-Jun: "She (Spot's mother) said, 'No.' It's not in there; the little monkey is really naughty." (Mo-Mo crawled next to Yang-Yang. Another caregiver gently moved Mo-Mo back a little bit.)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Describing and explaining</p><p>Managing behaviors</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>The observation records show that while reading just one page of the story, Jun-Jun employed at least seven different strategies across three distinct categories. This indicates that Jun-Jun used a range of strategies to convey information on a single page, helping the infants and toddlers engage with various aspects of the content, including text, images, and sounds. These strategies were not used in isolation but were integrated and dynamic, interwoven to enhance the infants' and toddlers' overall comprehension and engagement with the story. To present the caregivers' strategies more systematically, data analysis categorized them into four types: contextualized linguistic, paralinguistic, social, and decontextualized linguistic strategies. Each category encompasses specific strategies and examples, which are outlined below.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-18">Contextualized Linguistic Strategies</hd> <p>The contextualized linguistic strategies referred to all oral interactions related to the story contents to facilitate the infants' and toddlers' comprehension and provide linguistic inputs, including highlighting book attributes, reading word by word, describing and explaining, labeling, asking for vocabulary repetition, and questioning. An example of each strategy is listed in Table 3.</p> <p>The caregivers observed that using contextualized linguistic strategies helps infants and toddlers expand their vocabulary and language skills. Additionally, the diverse book topics not only guide their reading but also support their understanding of everyday life. As a result, verbal toddlers frequently responded more with language-related behaviors, like repeating common words such as "thank you" or answering questions (e.g., "What do we do after eating?" with "clean the table").</p> <p>Table 3 Examples of contextualized linguistic strategies</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Contextualized linguistic strategies</p></th><th align="left"><p>Examples</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Highlighting book attributes</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers announced the titles of the books and introduced the cover and flip pages. For example, when Jun-Jun began to read, she said, "<italic>Ten Little Ladybugs</italic>" while pointing to each Chinese character in the book title. Then she added, "Look, there are many ladybugs on this page, and they are in many colors."</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Reading word by word</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers engaged in reading books with repetitive sentence patterns and rhyming features verbatim. For instance, in "<italic>Brown Bear</italic>,<italic> Brown Bear</italic>,<italic> What Do You See</italic>?" each spread contains only two sentences with similar vocabulary, repeated throughout the book. Consequently, Ling-Ling read aloud, clearly articulating each word.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Describing and explaining</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers did more than just read the text aloud; they also meticulously described and explained the illustrations to enhance the information provided by the text. Take, for instance, the second-page spread of "Little Chicks Go Grocery Shopping." The text reads, "Let's go to the supermarket and buy some things! What should we buy today?" Accompanying this, Jun-Jun gave a detailed depiction of the illustration: "Today we are going to the supermarket. Mommy is going shopping, and she is bringing the little chicks along. Let's count them together: one, two, three, four, five (pausing for about two seconds between each number). There are five little chicks. Chicken mommy wants to buy canned food, tomatoes, and toast." At the mention of "toast," one child imitated eating with a "mum" sound, which Jun-Jun echoed. Then the narrative continued: "The first little chick says, 'I want to buy chocolate.' The second chick chooses donuts, and the third opts for popsicles."</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Labeling</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers named objects in the book; for instance, Chia-Chia pointed to a picture and said, "This is a nose. This is an ear." This strategy aims to help infants and toddlers identify and learn new vocabulary.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Asking vocabulary repetition</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers aimed to enhance the language expression abilities of infants and toddlers by encouraging them to repeat vocabulary words that appeared frequently in books or were positioned at the end of sentences. For instance, while reading the book titled "<italic>I Will Tidy Up My Toys</italic>," Ling-Ling deconstructed the sentences into individual words and pronounced them slowly—like "put," "the toys," "in the box"—and then invited the child to attempt saying these words.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Questioning</p></td><td align="left"><p>When reading "<italic>Little Chicks Go Grocery Shopping</italic>," Jun-Jun asked questions such as, "Who do the little chicks see in the supermarket?" and "What are the little chicks doing?" The caregivers believed that this strategy not only engaged infants and toddlers but also assessed their comprehension of the book's content.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0187863984-19">Paralinguistic Strategies</hd> <p>The paralinguistic strategies involved the use of intonation, body language, and visual cues to attract infants' and toddlers' attention and enhance their understanding. An example of each strategy is presented in Table 4.</p> <p>Table 4 Examples of paralinguistic strategies</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Paralinguistic strategies</p></th><th align="left"><p>Examples</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Modulating intonation</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers skillfully employed a range of vocal tones, sound effects, and adept character voice imitations to captivate the attention of infants and toddlers. For instance, while reading the book "Thank You, Little Helper," Ling-Ling mimicked the sound of a baby crying because the story described the main character in the book helping her mom to comfort a crying baby.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Using body language</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregivers used facial expressions and movements to help infants and toddlers understand the story and capture their attention. For example, when Jun-Jun read "Ten Little Ladybugs," and a bird appeared in the story, she waved her arms to simulate its flight.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Guiding visual attention</p></td><td align="left"><p>The caregiver pointed to specific illustrations when describing the story or held the book close to the infants' and toddlers' line of sight to capture their attention and encourage exploration. For example, Jun-Jun invited a child to touch each ladybug, as they were made of plastic, fashioned in a three-dimensional style, and set into holes in sturdy board pages.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Chia-Chia explained that simply reading the text can be monotonous, causing infants and toddlers to become bored and distracted. By varying tone, using gestures, and encouraging imitation, reading becomes more engaging for infants and toddlers, who may respond with non-verbal cues. For instance, when Jun-Jun read <emph>Where's Spot?</emph> and imitated the dog's barking and movements, one child responded by barking, prompting all the infants and toddlers to mimic the dog's actions and sounds.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-20">Social Strategies</hd> <p>Social strategies help infants and toddlers develop positive reading behaviors and attitudes. During group reading, the caregivers reminded children to sit properly and avoid crowding, explaining that such behaviors could cause conflicts and disrupt storytelling. In free reading, they promoted respect for books by encouraging habits like reading one book at a time, returning books to shelves, and handling books gently. For example, when a book was torn, Ling-Ling told the child, "Look, the book is torn. You need to turn the pages gently." Additionally, the caregivers guided infants and toddlers to take turns sharing a book with peers or to enjoy reading together. Under the caregivers' guidance, toddlers who could walk steadily were able to return books to the shelf, flip through them carefully, and willingly exchange books with peers. When the children achieved the above behaviors, the caregivers frequently praised appropriate actions.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-21">Decontextualized Linguistic Strategies</hd> <p>Decontextualized linguistic strategies expand oral interactions and create connections beyond the story. For example, when Chia-Chia introduced body parts using the book, <emph>My Body</emph>, [she touched a child's feet and said, "These are your feet." After reading <emph>Thank You</emph>,<emph> Little Helper</emph>, Ling-Ling discussed how the children could help their mothers at home. Jun-Jun read <emph>My Mom</emph> and asked whether their mothers had taught them to dance. These connections aimed to make the stories more meaningful to the children, though some questions required cognitive and expressive skills that not all infants and toddlers had developed, resulting in limited responses.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-22">Caregivers' Strategies for Reading Activities: Context and Age-specific Practices</hd> <p>This study reveals that the caregivers exhibited variations in the utilization of distinct strategy categories across different reading contexts. During group reading sessions, the caregivers demonstrated a notable predilection toward employing contextualized linguistic strategies (40%) and paralinguistic strategies (39%), with social strategies (23%) ranking as the subsequent prominent approach. Conversely, in one-on-one reading engagements, contextualized linguistic strategies emerged as the dominant choice, accounting for the highest proportion (53%), followed by social strategies (32%) and paralinguistic strategies (13%). In the context of independent reading, social strategies manifested as the most frequently employed category (42%), trailed by contextualized linguistic strategies (34%) and paralinguistic strategies (22%). Importantly, irrespective of the reading context, the use of decontextualized strategies remained marginal, representing less than 1% of the overall strategy usage (Fig. 3).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 3 Percentages of Caregivers' Strategies for Early Reading Across Different Contexts</p> <p>This study also reveals that the caregivers adapted the allocation of reading strategies in accordance with the developmental characteristics of the children (Fig. 4). Notably, for infants aged below one year, the caregivers demonstrated a relatively higher utilization of paralinguistic strategies (39%), followed by contextualized linguistic strategies (34%) and social strategies (27%), while decontextualized linguistic strategies were absent. For children aged 13–18 months, the caregivers primarily employed contextualized linguistic strategies (40%), followed by paralinguistic strategies (35%) and social strategies (27%), while decontextualized linguistic strategies were absent. Furthermore, in the case of children aged 1.5 to 2 years, the caregivers primarily relied on contextualized linguistic strategies (57%), followed by paralinguistic strategies (35%) and social strategies (23%), with a marginal increase in the utilization proportion of decontextualized linguistic strategies (5%).</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 4 Percentages of Caregivers' Strategies for Early Reading Across Age Groups</p> <p>The analysis revealed that the caregivers adapted their strategies during reading activities based on the context and the age of the infants and toddlers. The use of these strategies was a dynamic process, with caregivers consciously transitioning between different approaches as needed. Interviews revealed that the caregivers focused on two key factors when adjusting their reading strategies: their understanding of the developmental stages of infants' and toddlers' reading behaviors and observations of the children's responses to reading.</p> <p>First, the caregivers adopted their strategies based on their understanding of infants' and toddlers' reading behavior development. They recognized that infants and toddlers often go through an exploratory phase before engaging in active reading. Ling-Ling explained,We expect children to handle books gently, but research shows that at a certain stage, they may treat books like toys—hitting, flipping, or even chewing on them—because they do not yet understand what books are for. That's why we involve them in daily reading activities like reading aloud, turning pages, and pointing to pictures. Over time, they realize that books have content and stories, and the toy phase naturally shortens.</p> <p>With consistent guidance and repeated reading, infants and toddlers gradually develop an understanding and respect for books.</p> <p>The caregivers recognized infancy and toddlerhood as crucial periods for language development. Since infants and toddlers may not fully grasp book content initially, foundational strategies are essential, gradually progressing to more advanced approaches. Ling-Ling explained,When introducing a new book, infants and toddlers may not understand it at first, so I start by reading to them and pointing to pictures to help connect words with visuals and reinforce understanding. As they listen daily, they become familiar with it, and then I encourage them to say words or phrases and explore the book on their own. Eventually, I ask them to read the book to me.</p> <p>This repeated shared reading process increases oral participation and engagement. The caregivers adjusted strategies incrementally, beginning with listening activities (highlighting book features, reading word by word, providing explanations), and gradually encouraging spoken language through vocabulary repetition and questions.</p> <p>Secondly, observing infants' and toddlers' responses during reading activities was key in determining how caregivers adjusted their strategies, particularly focusing on the children's interest in reading. Chia-Chia explained,When children under one point to pictures or clap, it shows their interest. I pause on that page longer, letting them explore the images by looking and touching. Even though they cannot speak, they often point and make sounds like 'ah' or 'oh,' trying to recognize the illustrations, so I offer more detailed descriptions of the story and images.</p> <p>At times, infants and toddlers showed confused expressions, prompting caregivers to provide additional guidance. Jun-Jun noted, "When abstract terms like 'sad' or 'unhappy' appear in a book, the children often look puzzled. I then point to the illustrations and explain why the character is crying." Similarly, Ling-Ling found that when reading <emph>Where's the Fish</emph>? alone, the infants and toddlers might not fully understand the context. She would then point to the pictures and clarify by saying, "The fish was here, but where has it gone now?"</p> <p>Additionally, the caregivers noticed that infants and toddlers are easily distracted during reading sessions. Jun-Jun explained how she recaptures their attention,Due to their young age, distraction is common, so I use strategies like changing my tone or adding gestures to regain their attention. For example, while reading "<emph>The Very Hungry</emph><emph> Caterpillar</emph>", I mimic a caterpillar with my fingers, making it crawl towards the children, which they often imitate. Similarly, when telling a story about facial features, I encourage them to touch their noses or ears.</p> <p>Jun-Jun added that gestures also help assess comprehension: "I hope they imitate the gestures, which helps them understand the vocabulary and allows me to see if they are absorbing the content."</p> <p>The caregivers also focused on observing infants' and toddlers' language abilities to adjust their strategies and enhance expressive participation during reading sessions. They guided preverbal children to point at pictures, encouraged those in early speech development to repeat the last word of a sentence, and prompted more advanced speakers to repeat full sentences or respond to questions.</p> <p>Finally, the caregivers closely observed infants' and toddlers' reading behaviors during free reading, using strategies to guide positive habits. Ling-Ling shared, "I noticed one girl flipping through pages aimlessly, so I had her sit next to a child who could read, knowing the influence of the group is strong. When one child enjoys reading, it often encourages others to join in." However, conflicts often arise during free reading, so when children competed for books, Ling-Ling would advise, "Once you are done, let your friend have a turn. If the book is not available, either wait or choose another one," to help reduce conflicts.</p> <p>In summary, based on the observations of the researcher and caregivers, the infants and toddlers displayed varying behaviors across different reading formats. Their typical responses to reading can be categorized into five types: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>) linguistic: involving verbal responses to the caregiver's storytelling, such as making sounds, repeating words or sentences from storybooks, describing illustrations, and answering questions; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref55">2</reflink>) affective: expressing levels of enjoyment in reading activities through behaviors such as maintaining eye contact with caregivers, moving closer to books, mimicking caregivers' gestures, and displaying various facial expressions; (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>) exploratory: engaging in behaviors like flipping, closing, patting, turning, or even biting storybooks; (<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref57">4</reflink>) distracted: indicating an inability to focus on the reading activity, evident in actions such as leaving seats, fidgeting, playing with hands, or lying on the floor; and (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref58">5</reflink>) social: demonstrating adherence to the norms of book reading, such as reading with peers, taking turns with books, and returning books to the shelf.</p> <p>The infants and toddlers naturally responded differently to various reading activities. During group reading, with caregivers maintaining order, instances of distraction, social interactions, and book exploration were less frequent. In contrast, free reading revealed more individualized behaviors, while one-on-one reading highlighted infants' and toddlers' verbal expressions. As they grew older, exploratory and distracted behaviors decreased, and linguistic responses increased. They also became more focused and engaged in reading activities. As Chia-Chia noted, "Developing a reading habit takes time. Newly enrolled children often got distracted or grabbed other objects, but after a few months, they became interested, could sit and listen to me, and even focused on the book in my hand. The change was remarkable." Therefore, caregivers needed to closely monitor infants' and toddlers' reactions, adjusting strategies based on their early reading development. Each category of strategies had its distinct function, yet they were regarded as complementary, ensuring that infants and toddlers had meaningful reading experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-23">Discussion</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187863984-24">Diverse Reading Activity Formats in the Early Childhood Education Center</hd> <p>This study highlighted the different reading formats in the early childhood education center—group, one-on-one, and free reading—each with distinct benefits and limitations. Previous research has typically focused on a single reading format and seldom examined the reading behaviors of infants and toddlers aged 0–2 in early childhood education centers, especially their responses across various formats. However, the caregivers in this study demonstrated a deep understanding of these diverse formats, shaped by their knowledge of early reading development and careful observation of infants' and toddlers' reactions to stories.</p> <p>The caregivers recognized that, while beneficial, group reading presents attention challenges (Torr, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref59">36</reflink>]). Infants' and toddlers' focus and language abilities varied—some responded with gestures or verbal answers, while others remained silent, making it difficult to address individual needs. As a result, group reading requires caregivers to manage infants' and toddlers' participation, which can potentially diminish the depth of dialogue and overlook individual needs (Torr, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref60">36</reflink>]). This may explain the preference for one-on-one reading in existing literature (Honig & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref61">19</reflink>]). However, group reading also introduces foundational concepts through books and can foster shared enjoyment as enthusiasm spreads among infants and toddlers (Montag, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref62">23</reflink>]). Despite its advantages, group reading remains underexplored in current research.</p> <p>One-on-one reading was found to significantly enhance infants' and toddlers' engagement and comprehension, aligning with the findings of Towell et al. ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref63">38</reflink>]). The child, receiving full attention from the caregiver, typically exhibited increased focus and had numerous opportunities to practice verbal interactions. This setting also fosters the development of a strong caregiver-child relationship, much like that of parent-child shared reading (Canfield et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref64">8</reflink>]). However, one-on-one reading necessitates the involvement of two caregivers: one to read with the child and another to supervise the remaining group. This dynamic, which is heavily dependent on mutual trust and collaboration, has been seldom examined in previous research.</p> <p>Current studies have largely overlooked the impact of free reading in early childhood education centers. This study, however, found it crucial for sparking curiosity and fostering reading independence, even in infants under one year old, challenging Boardman's ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref65">6</reflink>]) claim that children of this age are too young to benefit from reading. During free reading sessions, infants and toddlers displayed a wide range of individualized behaviors—linguistic, affective, exploratory, social, and distracted—reflecting their developmental stages. For example, some infants and toddlers simply explored books, while others focused intently, turning pages one by one. Some spontaneously produced words or sentences, and a few even engaged in peer reading. Although disputes occasionally arose among peers, some infants and toddlers demonstrated the ability to adhere to reading routines. Contrary to Phillips and Twardosz's ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref66">27</reflink>]) findings in older children aged 24 to 35 months, this study revealed that emergent reading behaviors has begun in children under two when given autonomy.</p> <p>In conclusion, since each format of reading activities offers its own unique benefits, this study emphasizes that reading activities in early childhood education centers should not be limited to just one format. Instead, diverse formats of reading activities can be effectively utilized to engage infants and toddlers in meaningful reading experiences.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-25">Caregivers Tailoring Reading Activity Strategies Based on Age and Context</hd> <p>This study demonstrated that the caregivers skillfully adapted their strategies to different reading contexts based on the ages of infants and toddlers, highlighting the importance of diverse approach applications. The utilization of contextualized linguistic strategies was consistently high across reading context and age groups, with percentages increasing as children's ages advanced. The caregivers focused on preserving the narrative continuity and facilitating language learning by introducing the titles and authors of books, thereby integrating fundamental textual elements (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref67">7</reflink>]). They engaged in descriptive and explanatory narrations or read text verbatim, which helped infants and toddlers to interact with sophisticated written language (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref68">39</reflink>]). Employing tactics like naming (Vallotton et al., [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref69">39</reflink>]), encouraging repetition of vocabulary (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref70">7</reflink>]), and questioning to assess story comprehension (Muhinyi & Rowe, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref71">24</reflink>]) proved to be essential. The caregivers effectively applied these strategies, which were significant for fostering language and cognitive development in infants and toddlers.</p> <p>Paralinguistic strategies prevailed in group readings but less in one-on-one sessions, increasing for infants under one and decreasing for older children. This reflects infants' shorter attention spans and challenges in group engagement. The caregivers had to use varied intonations and movements or adjust book images to captivate the attention of both infants and groups. Observations and interviews revealed that these strategies captured infants' attention and encouraged them to mimic caregivers' actions. Although these methods align with Vallotton et al. ([<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref72">39</reflink>]), this study distinctively shows variations in their application by age and setting.</p> <p>Torr ([<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref73">36</reflink>]) critiqued the potential overuse of social strategies for controlling infants' and toddlers' behaviors. However, this study found these strategies encompassed more than behavior management, including respect for books and praise. While social strategies were used sparingly in group settings and with children under 18 months, they became more frequent during free reading sessions, particularly for children aged 19 to 24 months. This reflects toddlers' increased mobility, prompting caregivers to guide proper book handling, sitting, and transitions between books to prevent disputes or injuries. In Taiwanese early childhood education centers, caregivers act as "regulators," maintaining order while encouraging free book exploration, consistent with traditional Chinese cultural values (Su & Chung, [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref74">33</reflink>]). Contrary to Torr's view, the social strategies here are not seen as negative or controlling. Instead, they balance free exploration with fostering appropriate attitudes toward books. As infants and toddlers matured, they exhibited better social interactions and care for books, aligning with Aram et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref75">1</reflink>]) findings, which caregivers acknowledged and appreciated.</p> <p>Decontextualized linguistic strategies, which link book content to real-life experiences, enhance reading enjoyment and support development across domains (Cabell et al., [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref76">7</reflink>]; Wasik et al., [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref77">43</reflink>]). These strategies are crucial even for infants and toddlers (Towell et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref78">38</reflink>]). While Ling-Ling, the caregiver for toddlers aged 19–24 months, provided examples of using these strategies, the other caregivers rarely mentioned them. Observations confirmed that these strategies were infrequently used but increased with age, aligning with Gardner-Neblett et al. ([<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref79">15</reflink>]), as more advanced toddlers may prompt greater discussions. Toddlers' expressive abilities seem to influence the use of these strategies, and infants under 18 months may require other forms of support during reading, explaining the lower frequency of these strategies with younger children.</p> <p>After the preliminary data analysis, the researcher shared the findings with the director, who acknowledged the importance of emphasizing decontextualized linguistic strategies in caregiver training, even for very young children. She emphasized that caregivers should extend book content by discussing topics from infants' and toddlers' lives to enrich their language exposure. Expressing gratitude for the researcher's insights, she mentioned considering an emphasis on using decontextualized linguistic strategies in future training. As previous research shows, these advanced strategies require a comprehensive professional development plan with practice and specific feedback (Lorio & Woods, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref80">21</reflink>]; Rezzonico et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref81">28</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-26">A Scaffolding Framework for Enhancing Reading Practices in Early Childhood Education Centers</hd> <p>Research suggests that caregivers may underestimate the importance of reading with infants and toddlers (Boardman & Levy, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref82">6</reflink>]; Boardman, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref83">6</reflink>]) and often describe these activities within a single context (Towell et al., [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref84">38</reflink>]). While caregivers' strategies during reading have been explored (Honig & Shin, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref85">19</reflink>]; Mesmer, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref86">22</reflink>]), they are typically presented in fragments, lacking a comprehensive view. Drawing on the complex reading environments in early childhood education centers (Torr, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref87">35</reflink>]), Vygotsky's ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref88">41</reflink>]) scaffolding theory, and empirical data from this research, this study develops a framework to help caregivers better organize and implement reading practices. The framework provides a more holistic approach to scaffolding infants and toddlers in reading activities (Fig. 5), addressing gaps in the current literature.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 5 A Scaffolding Framework for Enhancing Reading Practices in Early Childhood Education Centers</p> <p>The framework developed in this study emphasizes that reading activities in early childhood education centers can take various formats, including group, one-on-one, and free reading sessions, each offering unique benefits for infants' and toddlers' development. Group sessions foster a shared reading environment, promote interest in books, provide language exposure, enhance narrative comprehension, and broaden perspectives through books. One-on-one reading strengthens caregiver-child relationships, increases oral interactions, and allows for pacing tailored to each child. Free reading encourages autonomy, appropriate reading behaviors, and peer interactions. By using these formats flexibly, caregivers can support language, social, and cognitive development, enriching infants' and toddlers' overall reading experiences.</p> <p>The strategies in this framework are adaptable to the specific contexts and needs of infants and toddlers. Contextualized linguistic strategies help infants and toddlers by linking the text to illustrations, enriching comprehension. Paralinguistic strategies—such as tone variation and gestures—can be employed to animate the narrative, making the reading more engaging for infants and toddlers.</p> <p>Social strategies are crucial for developing appropriate reading behaviors like turn-taking, active listening, and a love for books. Although decontextualized linguistic strategies (e.g., discussing topics beyond the text) were rarely observed, research (Muhinyi & Rowe, [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref89">24</reflink>]) shows their value for cognitive and linguistic development. Caregivers are encouraged to use these strategies more often and adapt them for infants and toddlers based on developmental stages.</p> <p>Finally, it is crucial to recognize that the three reading formats and the strategies used within them are not isolated but deeply interconnected. As shown in the transcript of reading activities (see Table 2), a single page often involved the integration of multiple strategies. Each strategy was purposefully selected and adapted to the reading context and the developmental needs of infants and toddlers. For example, in group sessions, caregivers used more contextualized linguistic and paralinguistic strategies. As infants and toddlers matured, the use of contextualized strategies increased, while reliance on paralinguistic ones decreased. This intentional adjustment reflects caregivers' understanding of child development and their close observation of each child's behaviors—such as interest, distraction, language abilities, and social interactions. Thus, these strategies are not only responsive to context and development but also dynamically interwoven and alternated throughout reading sessions.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-27">Implications</hd> <p>The "Scaffolding Framework for Enhancing Reading Practices in Early Childhood Education Centers" (Fig. 5) is designed to improve caregivers' competencies in conducting reading activities. The proposed training program provides an in-depth understanding of the benefits and limitations of various reading formats, supported by case studies. It also encourages collaborative approaches to seamlessly integrate reading activities into daily practices. The training should encompass key concepts, such as fostering literary understanding through words and illustrations, connecting texts to real-life experiences, modeling appropriate reading behaviors, and analyzing infants' and toddlers' responses to reading. To this end, caregivers should learn to analyze the functions of four categories of reading strategies, practice these skills regularly, and receive feedback. Given the underuse of decontextualized strategies in this study, the program should emphasize these with more examples and practice opportunities. Future research should explore the impact of this framework on caregivers' training effectiveness.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-28">Limitations</hd> <p>This study was conducted in an early childhood education center with a strong emphasis on early reading, which may limit the generalizability of its findings to other settings. Another limitation is that, while the findings indicated that caregivers adjusted their early reading practices based on the age of infants and toddlers and the formats of reading activities, these results were derived from observations of different caregivers working with various age groups. It is important to acknowledge that individual differences may exist. Future research could extend observation periods to track the same caregivers over time and explore how their practices change as infants and toddlers grow. Additionally, observations revealed individual differences in infants' and toddlers' responses to reading activities within the same group. It would be valuable to investigate how caregivers address these individual needs and consider typical or atypical development when planning reading activities.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-29">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study explores the implementation of reading activities in a Taiwanese early childhood education center, addressing gaps in the existing literature on early reading practices. The findings highlight that caregivers within institutional early childhood education settings can initiate reading activities from infancy when they acknowledge the importance of early reading experiences. Through these reading activities, the infants and toddlers exhibited a range of responses aligned with their developmental stages, including linguistic engagement, emotional reactions, exploratory behaviors, distraction, and interactions. As the infants and toddlers in the early childhood education center gradually accumulated various reading experiences, their reading behaviors became increasingly positive and stable. Consequently, this study developed a scaffolding framework to improve reading practices in early childhood education centers, focusing on diverse formats and strategies tailored to the developmental and contextual needs of infants and toddlers for a more comprehensive reading experience.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-30">Funding</hd> <p>This study was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-31">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187863984-32">Competing interests</hd> <p>There are no conflicts of interest to declare.</p> <hd id="AN0187863984-33">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0187863984-34"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref8" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aram D, Deitcher DB, Shoshan TS, Ziv M. 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  Data: Beginning with Books: Tailoring Formats and Strategies for Infant and Toddler Reading Activities in Early Childhood Education Centers
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ming-Fang+Hsieh%22">Ming-Fang Hsieh</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4897-4886">0000-0003-4897-4886</externalLink>)
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  Data: This study examined various formats and strategies used by caregivers in early reading activities, and assessed how they were tailored to the developmental stages of infants and toddlers. Participants included three caregivers from classrooms for ages 0-12, 13-18, and 19-24 months, and the director of an early childhood education center known for emphasizing early reading experiences. Data were collected from observations of reading activities and interviews with the four participants. The findings revealed that the caregivers intentionally organized reading activities in different formats-- one-on-one, group, and free reading--each fulfilling distinct objectives and developmental needs. They employed various strategies, including contextualized linguistic, paralinguistic, social, and decontextualized linguistic approaches, which were all adapted to the children's developmental levels and reading contexts. This study resulted in a scaffolding framework that informs reading practices in early childhood education centers, offering professional training recommendations and particularly highlighting the necessity of decontextualized talk beyond the book text.
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