View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Prospective Association between Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in High School Adolescents: Analysis of the Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Prospective Association between Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in High School Adolescents: Analysis of the Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy
Language: English
Authors: Gabriela Campeau (ORCID 0000-0002-6644-972X), Gabrielle Yale-Soulière (ORCID 0000-0002-9018-8435), Julie Goulet (ORCID 0000-0002-6157-3609), Kassandra Berniqué, Lyse Turgeon, Natalie Castellanos Ryan (ORCID 0000-0002-7077-1340)
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(10):4236-4250.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 15
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: High Schools
Secondary Education
Descriptors: Depression (Psychology), Personality Traits, At Risk Persons, Self Efficacy, High School Students, Correlation, Foreign Countries, Individual Characteristics
Geographic Terms: Canada (Montreal)
Assessment and Survey Identifiers: Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales
DOI: 10.1002/pits.70001
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: Depression is still not fully understood when it comes to its risk factors. The association with perfectionism is increasingly under scrutiny. Moreover, this link could be elucidated by intermediary variables. This contributes to the fact that the risk factors for depression are not yet fully understood. This study sought to address this gap by examining the role of academic self-efficacy as a potential mediator of the relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses were conducted using data collected at three time-points among 527 high school students (72.9% girls) aged 14-17 years (mean age = 14.9 years, SD = 0.91). Findings suggest that after controlling for baseline levels of depressive symptoms and academic self-efficacy, there were no prospective associations between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. However, certain findings emerging from this study highlight the role of academic self-efficacy in perfectionism. These results stress the need for methodological considerations such as controlling for baseline levels of the dependent variables, as well as the need for prevention or early intervention aimed at reducing the onset or continuation of subsequent mental health issues.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1483461
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwF3fdDaQ6jCO4c-JTbogHY4AAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDERRt_ObDJ9sR5J7CgIBEICBm0U8o1InchcwTbBJvMDiRcHrZdEAk88-U10VwREQsveYonlgXzPtT36--4468yVUviZuYn0JzX3kFw9kxf411nLajDrJ78jRsTqOayHJt67hgpPlvvm3CenkQ0yiubGf9FlQSYFcPikpzdqAWMSnp_sKoI0f1hr-0JwFk0WUa-OzxZf_ukT5bivMikw3DjB8oo4uRyvsX6YGmOfK
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: <anid>AN0187949529;pis01oct.25;2025Sep16.03:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187949529-1">Prospective Association Between Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in High School Adolescents: Analysis of the Mediating Role of Academic Self‐Efficacy </title> <p>Depression is still not fully understood when it comes to its risk factors. The association with perfectionism is increasingly under scrutiny. Moreover, this link could be elucidated by intermediary variables. This contributes to the fact that the risk factors for depression are not yet fully understood. This study sought to address this gap by examining the role of academic self‐efficacy as a potential mediator of the relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses were conducted using data collected at three time‐points among 527 high school students (72.9% girls) aged 14–17 years (mean age = 14.9 years, SD = 0.91). Findings suggest that after controlling for baseline levels of depressive symptoms and academic self‐efficacy, there were no prospective associations between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. However, certain findings emerging from this study highlight the role of academic self‐efficacy in perfectionism. These results stress the need for methodological considerations such as controlling for baseline levels of the dependent variables, as well as the need for prevention or early intervention aimed at reducing the onset or continuation of subsequent mental health issues.</p> <p>Summary: Depressive symptoms are not linked to changes in perfectionism over time.Academic self‐efficacy predicts increased self‐oriented and decreased socially prescribed perfectionism.The mediating role of academic self‐efficacy was not significant after adjusting for baseline levels.</p> <p>Keywords: academic self‐efficacy; adolescence; depressive symptoms; mediation; perfectionism</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Depression is one of the most common mental health problems during adolescence (Merikangas et al. [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref1">66</reflink>]). Depression is characterized by a significant alteration in an individual's emotional state, thinking patterns, and more vegetative symptoms, which include a persistently low mood, heightened irritability, loss of interest or pleasure, feelings of guilt, disruptions in sleep and appetite, either restlessness or slowed movements, diminished energy levels and increased fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and even thoughts of suicide, all of which significantly impair daily functioning (American Psychiatric Association [APA] [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>]). Recent results show its widespread occurrence among adolescents (Keyes et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref3">49</reflink>]; Kovacs et al. [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref4">53</reflink>]; Shorey et al. [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref5">82</reflink>]). A recent meta‐analysis of 72 studies conducted by Shorey et al. ([<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref6">82</reflink>]) revealed that the prevalence rates for major depressive disorder and dysthymia (now called persistent depressive disorder in DSM‐V‐TR; APA 2022) were 8% and 4%, respectively. Furthermore, 34% of adolescents mentioned experiencing elevated depressive symptoms. Prevalence rates were higher among females (Shorey et al. [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref7">82</reflink>]) and immigrants (Miszkurka et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref8">67</reflink>]). Globally, there has been a rise in depressive symptom rates of ~5%–15% among adolescents over the past two decades (Keyes et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref9">49</reflink>]; Lu et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref10">62</reflink>]; Twenge et al. [<reflink idref="bib93" id="ref11">93</reflink>]).</p> <p>On an individual level, depressive symptoms have significant short‐term and long‐term consequences, including academic difficulties, substance abuse, and an increased risk of suicidal ideation (Canadian Mental Health Association [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref12">13</reflink>]). Additionally, these symptoms are associated with co‐occurring conditions such as anxiety disorders, obsessive‐compulsive disorder, and eating disorders (APA 2022).</p> <p>Depression is a multifactorial disorder involving genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and social factors (Peterson [<reflink idref="bib75" id="ref13">75</reflink>]; Remes et al. [<reflink idref="bib77" id="ref14">77</reflink>]; Turner [<reflink idref="bib92" id="ref15">92</reflink>]). Among psychological contributors, perfectionism has emerged as an important predictor of depressive symptoms. Perfectionism encompasses the persistent pursuit of exceptionally high standards combined with a tendency for critical self‐evaluation of one's accomplishments (Frost et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref16">37</reflink>]). Although there is no universally agreed‐upon definition, the multidimensional nature of perfectionism is well‐established (Frost et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref17">37</reflink>]; Gaudreau and Thompson [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref18">39</reflink>]; Hewitt and Flett [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref19">41</reflink>]; Stoeber and Otto [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref20">88</reflink>]). Among the widely used definitions, Hewitt and Flett's ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref21">41</reflink>]) model distinguished three perfectionism dimensions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref22">1</reflink>) self‐oriented perfectionism, which relates to setting high personal standards; (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref23">2</reflink>) other‐oriented perfectionism, in which high expectations are directed toward others; and (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref24">3</reflink>) socially prescribed perfectionism, where the individual strives to perform based on the perceived perfectionistic expectations others have toward them (Hewitt and Flett [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref25">41</reflink>]). The decision to employ Hewitt and Flett's ([<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref26">41</reflink>]) model was based on its extensive recognition and utilization in the literature, offering a thorough framework for understanding the different dimensions of perfectionism. These different dimensions of perfectionism often coexist within individuals (Finn [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref27">29</reflink>]) and, considering that they are not entirely distinct constructs, can overlap (Stoeber et al. [<reflink idref="bib87" id="ref28">87</reflink>]). The present study focuses solely on self‐oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism since these are the two dimensions for which a clear link with depression has been established (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref29">43</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, other representations of perfectionism are also considered in current literature. Perfectionist concerns and perfectionist strivings (Stoeber and Otto [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref30">88</reflink>]; Gaudreau and Thompson [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref31">39</reflink>]) are among these representations. These components are also presented, considering that some studies cited in this article rely on this framework. Perfectionist concerns are defined by an individual's tendency to harshly evaluate themselves, fear not possessing the abilities to meet the high standards set and perceive high expectations from their surroundings (Gaudreau and Thompson [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref32">39</reflink>]). Perfectionist strivings, on the other hand, refer to an individual's tendency to set high performance goals and the efforts made to achieve them.</p> <p>Perfectionism can have both positive and negative effects. For instance, it can promote perseverance and success (Fernández‐García et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref33">28</reflink>]), especially self‐oriented perfectionism, which correlates with intrinsic motivation, academic achievements, self‐confidence, and effective learning strategies (Finn and Guay [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref34">30</reflink>]). However, perfectionism becomes problematic when individuals pursue their goals relentlessly despite adverse consequences, primarily due to excessive concerns about outcomes (Finn [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref35">29</reflink>]). Research has shown that perfectionism, especially self‐oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism, has been associated with psychopathology (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref36">45</reflink>]; Limburg et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref37">58</reflink>]), such as eating disorders, substance abuse, obsessive‐compulsive disorder, anxiety disorders, and mainly, depression (Flett et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref38">31</reflink>]; Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref39">83</reflink>]).</p> <p>Several theoretical models are proposed by different authors to explain the links between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Among these theories, the vulnerability model and the complication model are in opposition. Hewitt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref40">42</reflink>]) proposed the vulnerability model to explain the relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. This model suggests that perfectionism is a stable personality trait that prompts individuals to think, feel, and behave in ways that contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. From this perspective, it is only perfectionism that is a vulnerability factor for later depressive symptoms, and not the inverse (McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref41">64</reflink>]). In the complication model, perfectionism is considered as a complication arising from, rather than a vulnerability factor for, depressive symptoms (McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref42">64</reflink>]). Consequently, personality traits, including perfectionism (Bagby et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref43">4</reflink>]), are viewed as outcomes of depressive symptoms rather than predisposing factors for them. Thus, depressive symptoms could also lead to transient or permanent changes in personality‐related behaviors and cognitions, such as perfectionism (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref44">83</reflink>]).</p> <p>A meta‐analysis conducted by Lunn et al. ([<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref45">63</reflink>]) of 95 studies, mostly (94%) cross‐sectional in nature, found that perfectionistic concerns were moderately correlated with depression on individuals aged 6–24, whereas perfectionistic strivings were not linked to depression. Another meta‐analysis including 67 longitudinal studies conducted with children, adolescents, and adults in academic, community, and hospital settings (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref46">83</reflink>]) showed that while bidirectional associations between perfectionistic concerns and depressive symptoms was supported, only unidirectional associations between perfectionistic strivings and depressive symptoms were found.</p> <p>Numerous researchers have sought to elucidate the relationship between perfectionism and depression by exploring potential mediators, which could help clarify the mixed results reported in the literature. Academic self‐efficacy is a mediator that has been relatively underexplored, especially in adolescent populations. First defined by Bandura ([<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref47">5</reflink>]), self‐efficacy (including academic self‐efficacy) refers to students' confidence in their capacity to effectively execute learning tasks, which in turn influences their behaviors, motivation, and emotional well‐being. According to the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref48">5</reflink>]), perceived self‐efficacy impacts emotional functioning by shaping how individuals appraise challenges and cope with setbacks. Similarly, the Self‐Determination Theory (Ryan and Deci [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref49">78</reflink>]) highlights that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, including the need for competence, is essential to psychological well‐being. Academic self‐efficacy, as a specific form of competence belief, thus plays a dual role: it enhances academic motivation and serves as a protective factor against emotional distress.</p> <p>From this perspective, academic self‐efficacy is particularly relevant to the experience of depression. Unhelpful thoughts can alter a person's perception of their academic abilities, thereby reducing their sense of self‐efficacy. In his theoretical conceptualization of perfectionism, Burns ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref50">11</reflink>]) suggests that individuals presenting perfectionism are prone to experiencing a sudden decrease in self‐esteem when faced with perceptions of failure or inadequacy, which can subsequently trigger depressive symptoms. This perception of failure is closely related to the sense of self‐efficacy in various contexts, including the academic context (Chuang et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref51">17</reflink>]). Similarly, Perfectionist Cognition Theory (Flett et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref52">34</reflink>]) posits that individuals with perfectionist tendencies engage in persistent self‐critical thoughts, especially in response to mistakes, leading to emotional distress and low self‐perceived competence. In such cases, academic self‐efficacy may act as a cognitive mechanism linking perfectionism to depression. The relevance of academic self‐efficacy in this mediating role is further supported by evidence that perfectionistic youth often place substantial emphasis on the academic sphere, and negative beliefs regarding their ability to excel in this context may have implications for their mental well‐being (Kljajic et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref53">51</reflink>]). Individuals who derive their self‐esteem primarily from performance in specific domains (e.g., academics) may become particularly vulnerable to depression in the face of academic struggles, especially if those experiences erode their perceived competence (Fairburn et al. [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref54">26</reflink>]; Shafran et al. [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref55">79</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although studies specifically testing academic self‐efficacy as a mediator between perfectionism and depression are rare, related research on general self‐efficacy offers preliminary empirical support. Notably, Shaheen ([<reflink idref="bib80" id="ref56">80</reflink>]) examined the links between perfectionism, general self‐efficacy, and psychological distress. His results showed that low general self‐efficacy and a high level of perfectionism are significant predictors of psychological distress in adolescents. Similarly, although no mediation was tested, Zhang and Cai ([<reflink idref="bib97" id="ref57">97</reflink>]) conducted one of the few studies on the moderation effects between perfectionism, depression, and general self‐efficacy. They found that perfectionism was more strongly linked to depression when individuals felt less effective. Flett et al. ([<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref58">35</reflink>]) pointed out that depressive symptoms in adolescents were partially predicted by the direct effects of a low sense of general self‐efficacy and a high level of self‐oriented perfectionism, respectively. However, no interaction between general self‐efficacy and self‐oriented perfectionism was found. Even though these studies have established a link between perfectionism, depression, and general self‐efficacy, none have considered academic self‐efficacy as a mediating variable. However, general self‐efficacy and academic self‐efficacy have a positive significant relationship according to Döş ([<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref59">22</reflink>]). Moreover, no study has examined academic self‐efficacy in school contexts.</p> <p>Yet, academic self‐efficacy appears to be particularly relevant during adolescence, a developmental stage in which school performance plays a central role in identity formation and self‐worth (Eccles and Roeser [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref60">24</reflink>]). There is growing empirical evidence linking perfectionism and academic self‐efficacy among adults (DeDonno and Torres [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref61">21</reflink>]), and adolescents (Ford et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref62">36</reflink>]). These results support the hypothesis of Kristensen et al. ([<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref63">54</reflink>]), who argue that a person encountering negative experiences in a given context could see their sense of self‐efficacy decrease in the same context. This suggests that people having negative experiences in school (e.g., fear of failure, pressure to be perfect) might experience a decrease in their sense of academic self‐efficacy. Moreover, a low sense of academic self‐efficacy has been identified as a predictor of psychological distress, both in cross‐sectional studies (Karademas and Kalantzi‐Azizi [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref64">48</reflink>]; Loton and Waters [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref65">60</reflink>]) and longitudinal studies (Bandura et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref66">6</reflink>]; Wuthrich et al. [<reflink idref="bib96" id="ref67">96</reflink>]). More specifically, studies have corroborated the relationship between the sense of academic self‐efficacy and depression (Bandura et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref68">6</reflink>]; Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib95" id="ref69">95</reflink>]), including in adolescents (Tahmassian and Jalali Moghadam [<reflink idref="bib90" id="ref70">90</reflink>]; Tak et al. [<reflink idref="bib91" id="ref71">91</reflink>]). Given its connections to both perfectionism and depressive symptoms, academic self‐efficacy emerges as a promising mediator of the association between perfectionism and depressive symptoms (Nakano [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref72">71</reflink>]).</p> <p>Taken together, these theoretical perspectives offer a coherent conceptual background. The vulnerability and complication models provide important insight into the temporal direction of the relationship between perfectionism and depression (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref73">42</reflink>]; McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref74">64</reflink>]). Cognitive models clarify the psychological mechanisms through which perfectionism may contribute to emotional distress, specifically by undermining individuals' perceived competence through self‐critical and performance‐contingent thinking (Shafran et al. [<reflink idref="bib79" id="ref75">79</reflink>]). Finally, Social Cognitive Theory and Self‐Determination Theory highlight the motivational and emotional significance of self‐efficacy, particularly in academic settings (Flett et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref76">34</reflink>]; Ryan and Deci [<reflink idref="bib78" id="ref77">78</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite this theoretical and empirical foundation, studies examining the link between perfectionism and depression have some limitations. First, most of these studies relied on samples of university students (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref78">83</reflink>]), which limits the generalizability of the results to other populations, such as adolescents. Moreover, a rather limited number of studies have considered baseline levels of depressive symptoms when examining the relationship between perfectionism and later depression in a longitudinal design (Asseraf and Vaillancourt [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref79">3</reflink>]; Levine et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref80">57</reflink>]). Finally, to our knowledge, no study has specifically tested the prospective and mediated associations between perfectionism, academic self‐efficacy, and depression.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-3">Objective of the Study</hd> <p>To address these limitations, this three‐wave longitudinal study pursued two objectives: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref81">1</reflink>) to analyze the longitudinal associations between self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms among adolescents, and (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref82">2</reflink>) to examine the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy in the relationship between these two dimensions of perfectionism and depressive symptoms. It was postulated that self‐oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism would lead to increased depressive symptoms. These hypotheses were put forward considering the literature concerning the relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref83">83</reflink>]). Drawing on Social Cognitive Theory and Self‐Determination Theory and based on empirical evidence linking self‐efficacy to both perfectionism and depression, it was also expected that academic self‐efficacy would mediate the relationship between perfectionism and subsequent depressive symptoms. Furthermore, in an exploratory aim, the reverse longitudinal relationship between depressive symptoms and self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism was also examined in a second step, as well as the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy on this relationship, although it was not the focus of the article. It was postulated, in line with existing literature, that depressive symptoms would lead to increased levels of both self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref84">83</reflink>]). It was also hypothesized that the strength of these associations would decrease when controlling for the alternate form of perfectionism, academic self‐efficacy and depression at baseline or the initial assessment time.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-4">Methodology</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949529-5">Sample</hd> <p>This sample included a total of 527 participants (72.9% females, 23.9% males, and 3.2% nonbinary) in Grades 9 and 10 (mean age = 14.9 years, SD = 0.91) at Time 1 (T1). Students were recruited in two French‐speaking public schools (43.8%) and three private schools (56.2%) in Montreal, Canada. Among these students, 77.4% were born in Canada, 9.1% in Asia, 9% in North America (USA), 5.1% in Europe, 4.2% in Africa and 3.3% in South or Central America.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-6">Design and Procedures</hd> <p>This predictive correlational study included three data collection waves: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref85">1</reflink>) during the 2020–2021 academic year (October 2020–June 2021; Time 1; T1), (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref86">2</reflink>) at the beginning of the following school year (September–October 2021; Time 2; T2), and at the end of the same school year (May–June 2022; Time 3; T3). Students were recruited through an email presentation of the project sent by their school principals. Participants were offered a small compensation for their participation. At each participating school, we conducted a draw where three individuals could win a $25 gift card to a bookstore. Participating students and their parents were required to sign a consent form explaining the study's procedures as well as potential risks and benefits. Students completed online questionnaires during class time, where each construct was measured at each time point, except for the sociodemographic questions, which were only administered at T1 to simplify subsequent data collections (see Section 3.3). Two research assistants and a school teacher or other school personnel (e.g., psychosocial worker) supervised the data collection process. The research project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Montreal and the Ethics Committee of the Marguerite‐Bourgeoys school board.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-7">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949529-8">Perfectionism</hd> <p>The <emph>Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale</emph> (MPS; Hewitt and Flett [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref87">41</reflink>]) was used to measure two dimensions of perfectionism: self‐oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism at T1 and T3. The self‐oriented perfectionism scale (e.g., "One of my goals is to be perfect in everything I do") and the socially prescribed perfectionism scale (e.g., "I find it difficult to meet others' expectations of me") each consists of 15 self‐reported items, measured on a 7‐point Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>strongly disagree</emph>) to 7 (<emph>strongly agree</emph>). An average scale was calculated, with higher scores signifying the presence of more perfectionistic traits (minimum = 1; maximum = 7). These subscales have shown adequate levels of reliability and validity (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref88">44</reflink>]). This measurement instrument was translated and validated in French by Labrecque et al. ([<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref89">55</reflink>]). In the present study, both scales demonstrated excellent internal consistency at both time points, with Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> of 0.91 (T1) and 0.90 (T3) for self‐oriented perfectionism and 0.88 (T1) and 0.92 (T3) for socially prescribed perfectionism.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-9">Academic Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>Academic self‐efficacy was measured at T1 and T2 using the <emph>Self‐Efficacy Questionnaire for Children</emph> (SEQ‐C) developed by Muris ([<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref90">69</reflink>]). It consists of eight self‐reported items (e.g., "How well do you succeed in finishing all your homework every day?") measured on a 5‐point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 5 (<emph>very well</emph>). The score was calculated as the average of the items, with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of academic self‐efficacy (minimum = 1; maximum = 5). This subscale has shown good psychometric properties, including satisfactory internal consistency and construct validity (Muris [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref91">69</reflink>]). It was translated into French by our research team. In the present study, at T1, the Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> for the scale was 0.80 and at T2, the Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> for the scale was 0.82.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-10">Depressive Symptoms</hd> <p>Depressive symptoms were assessed at T1 and T3 using the Depression subscale of the <emph>Depression Anxiety Stress Scale‐21</emph> (DASS; Lovibond and Lovibond [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref92">61</reflink>]). This questionnaire has demonstrated strong psychometric properties, including good internal consistency and construct validity (Ciobanu et al. [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref93">18</reflink>]). It consists of seven items rated on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (<emph>did not apply to me at all</emph>) to 4 (<emph>applied to me very much or most of the time</emph>). An example of an item indicating depressive symptoms is: "I couldn't seem to experience any positive feeling at all." A mean score was calculated for each participant based on their responses to the items (minimum = 1; maximum = 4). DASS has been translated into French and validated by Ciobanu et al. ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref94">18</reflink>]). In the present study, the Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> coefficients was 0.91 at both T1 and T3, indicating excellent reliability.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-11">Potential Confounder Variables</hd> <p>To gather information on age, gender, and country of birth, a sociodemographic questionnaire developed by the research team was utilized at T1. Recognizing the heightened vulnerability of females to depressive symptoms (Shorey et al. [<reflink idref="bib82" id="ref95">82</reflink>]), gender was included as a controlled variable. Gender was treated as a trichotomous variable, for which dummy variables were created to assign a numerical value to each gender identity, with female serving as the reference category. Additionally, we controlled for country of birth, acknowledging that immigrants may exhibit more depressive symptoms (Miszkurka et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref96">67</reflink>]). Participants self‐reported their country of birth, indicating whether they were born in Canada (0) or abroad (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref97">1</reflink>), and if the latter, specifying the country.</p> <p>Finally, we controlled for COVID‐related anxiety, considering its influence on the psychological functioning of adolescents during the pandemic (Barbieri et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref98">7</reflink>]). This control was deemed essential as the pandemic's impact could confound the relationships being examined in our study. COVID‐related anxiety was assessed using a self‐developed questionnaire, originally authored by Barzilay et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref99">8</reflink>]). This instrument, comprising five items, was specifically designed to capture the unique anxieties associated with the pandemic. An example of an item is "How worried are you about...? 1. Catching COVID‐19? 2. A family member catching COVID‐19?," rated on a Likert scale of 1 (<emph>not at all</emph>) to 5 (<emph>extremely</emph>). The scale demonstrated good reliability with an <emph>α</emph> of 0.81 at T1. By including this measure, we aimed to account for the potential influence of pandemic‐related stressors on the mental health outcomes of adolescents (Chavira et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref100">16</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-12">Data Analysis</hd> <p>Descriptive and correlational analyses were initially performed to describe the variables and explore their associations. Pearson's correlations were also used to examine the bivariate prospective associations between perfectionism and depression at T1 and T3. Correlations were interpreted based on these criteria: weak ≥ 0.10–0.30, moderate ≥ 0.30–0.50, strong ≥ 0.50 (Cohen [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref101">19</reflink>]).</p> <p>Next, we conducted preliminary regression analysis in which covariates were regressed on mediators (T2) and dependent variables (T3). Those that were nonsignificant (at <emph>p</emph> > 0.10) were subsequently removed from the final models. The decision to retain data with non‐normal distribution (depressive symptoms) and extreme points was made as the extreme data points represent clinically significant cases, essential for maintaining the study's external validity. We used the Maximum Likehood (ML) with Robust standard errors estimator to estimate the preliminary models which is well‐suited for handling non‐normal data. The models were estimated using the "Type = complex" in Mplus to consider the nonindependence of observations due to the nesting of participants within schools (<emph>n schools</emph> = 5).</p> <p>Subsequently, mediation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between perfectionism dimensions (socially prescribed perfectionism and self‐oriented perfectionism; T1), academic self‐efficacy (T2), and depressive symptoms (T3), from one measurement point to another using Mplus software (version 8.5; Muthén and Muthén [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref102">70</reflink>]). In these analyses, academic self‐efficacy is treated as a potential mediating variable. Two models were tested. In Model 1a, along with significant covariates, depression at T3 was regressed on both dimensions of perfectionism (T1) and the mediator, self‐efficacy (T2). In Model 1b, baseline levels of depressive symptoms and self‐efficacy at T1 were added to the mediation model.</p> <p>Thereafter, two other models were tested to explore the reverse associations and clarify the directionality between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. In Model 2a, including significant covariates, both dimensions of perfectionism at T3 were regressed on depression at T1, with self‐efficacy at T2 as mediator. Similar to the initial models, model 2b introduced two additional controls: the baseline levels of perfectionism (T1) and self‐efficacy (T1).</p> <p>Mediation analyses were conducted by testing indirect effects via the bias‐corrected bootstrap method, available in Mplus. Specifically, indirect effects were tested with 95% confidence intervals (CI) based on a probabilistic sample of 10,000 bootstrap iterations. This nonparametric resampling approach does not rely on the assumption of normality in the sampling distribution of the indirect effect and is widely recommended for obtaining robust and reliable estimated in mediation analysis (Preacher and Hayes [<reflink idref="bib76" id="ref103">76</reflink>]). Since MLR is not available with the bootstrapping approach, ML was used in these analyses. Statistical power was estimated using Monte Carlo simulations in Mplus with 5000 replications and an <emph>α</emph> level of 0.05 for a model with two independent variables, a mediator, and a dependent variable. With a sample size of 527, the study is underpowered (18%) to detect mediational effects when the paths are of small effect size (<emph>b</emph> = 0.10). However, the study achieves 100% power to detect mediation effects when the paths have medium (<emph>b</emph> = 0.30) or large (<emph>b</emph> = 0.50) effect sizes.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-13">Missing Data</hd> <p>As certain data collection disruptions were caused by the pandemic situation, the sample size varied across measurement time points. That is, although the total sample consists of 527 participants, only 435 (82.6%), 413 (78.4%), and 396 (74.4%) participants were assessed at T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Thus, the range of missing data in this sample varied from 18.41% to 25.62%. The rates of missing data on covariates varied between 17.46% and 22.20%. A detailed breakdown of missingness by variable is presented in the Supporting Material (Table S1). To examine the missing data mechanism, Little's Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test was conducted. The result was not statistically significant, <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref104">54</reflink>) = 69.689, <emph>p</emph> = 0.074, suggesting that the data were likely MCAR. This implies that participants with missing data did not systematically differ from those with complete data on the observed variables. Given this and the proportion of missingness, Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) was employed to handle missing data. FIML provides unbiased parameter estimates under MCAR assumptions (Enders [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref105">25</reflink>]) and is well suited for addressing missing data by using all available data points to estimate model parameters. This approach helps mitigate potential bias due to attrition and enhances the efficiency of the estimates (Lee and Shi [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref106">56</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-14">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949529-15">Correlational Analysis</hd> <p>Descriptive data and correlations are provided as Supporting Material (Table S2). The data confirmed the expected positive correlations between the variables. Self‐oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism at T1 showed a small (<emph>r</emph> = 0.30) to moderate (<emph>r</emph> = 0.50) positive correlation with depressive symptoms at T3. In the other direction, depressive symptoms at T1 demonstrated a moderate (<emph>r</emph> = 0.44) positive correlation with socially prescribed perfectionism at T3, whereas no significant correlation was observed with self‐oriented perfectionism at T3. Thus, correlations supported bidirectional associations between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression, but not between self‐oriented perfectionism and depression, with only prospective associations from T1 self‐oriented perfectionism and T3 depression being supported. Both perfectionism dimensions correlated with academic self‐efficacy concurrently and prospectively, but in different directions: self‐oriented perfectionism at T1 was associated with higher academic self‐efficacy at T1 and T2, while socially prescribed perfectionism at T1 related to lower academic self‐efficacy at T1 and T2. Finally, an adolescent's stronger sense of academic self‐efficacy was prospectively associated with fewer depressive symptoms.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-16">Prospective Association and Mediation Model of Perfectionism Predicting Later Depressive Symp...</hd> <p>The main analyses focused on examining the prospective associations between self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms, with academic self‐efficacy as a potential mediator. The results from models predicting depression at T3 (Models 1a and 1b) are presented in Table 1. To determine the appropriate control variables for the model, T2 academic self‐efficacy and T3 depressive symptoms were regressed on gender, COVID‐19 anxiety, and country of birth. The analysis indicated that gender was significantly linked to depressive symptoms at T3, girls displayed higher levels than boys, and COVID anxiety was associated positively with T3 depressive symptoms. However, neither gender nor COVID anxiety showed a significant association with T2 academic self‐efficacy. Furthermore, country of birth was not significantly related to either academic self‐efficacy at T2 or depressive symptoms at T3 and was therefore not included in Models 1a and 1b.</p> <p>1 Table Summary of path coefficients for the mediation model of depressive symptoms (T3).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th align="center">Outcomes</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th>Predictors</th><th><p><italic>M</italic> </p><p>Academic Self‐Efficacy (T2)</p></th><th><p><italic>X</italic> </p><p>Depression (T3)</p></th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th><italic>B</italic> (SE)</th><th>95% CI</th><th><italic>B</italic> (SE)</th><th>95% CI</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Model 1a</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—B<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.102 (0.055)</td><td>[−0.265, 0.005]</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—NB<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.052 (0.033)</td><td>[−0.007, 0.115]</td></tr><tr><td>Covid anxiety</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.110 (0.069)</td><td>[−0.029, 0.230]</td></tr><tr><td>X (SSP—T1)</td><td>−0.451 (0.042)</td><td>[−0.522, −0.390]</td><td>0.268 (0.072)</td><td>[0.124, 0.380]</td></tr><tr><td>X (SOP—T1)</td><td>0.471 (0.015)</td><td>[0.425, 0.485]</td><td>0.014 (0.095)</td><td>[−0.109, 0.329]</td></tr><tr><td>M (ASE—T2)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.107 (0.074)</td><td>[−0.254, −0.010]</td></tr><tr><td align="center">SSP: Indirect effect = 0.048, 95% CI [0.002, 0.132]SOP: Indirect effect = −0.050, 95% CI [−0.123, −0.004]</td></tr><tr><td /><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.246 (0.015), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.143 (0.039), p < 0.001</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Model 1b</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—B<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.048 (0.042)</td><td>[−0.126, 0.038]</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—NB<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.037 (0.042)</td><td>[−0.029, 0.136]</td></tr><tr><td>Covid anxiety</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.091 (0.058)</td><td>[−0.011, 0.197]</td></tr><tr><td>ASE (T1)</td><td>0.667 (0.056)</td><td>[0.559, 0.830]</td><td /><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Y (Dep—T1)</td><td>−0.003 (0.081)</td><td>[−0.112, 0.175]</td><td>0.4770 (0.079)</td><td>[0.329, 0.629]</td></tr><tr><td>X (SPP—T1)</td><td>−0.081 (0.064)</td><td>[−0.281, −0.012]</td><td>0.0340 (0.062)</td><td>[−0.095, 0.145]</td></tr><tr><td>X (SOP—T1)</td><td>0.146 (0.053)</td><td>[0.041, 0.235]</td><td>0.0240 (0.073)</td><td>[−0.088, 0.189]</td></tr><tr><td>M (ASE—T2)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.0090 (0.064)</td><td>[−0.163, 0.086]</td></tr><tr><td align="center">SSP: Indirect effect = 0.001, 95% CI [−0.003, 0.046]SOP: Indirect effect = −0.001, 95% CI [−0.038, 0.012]</td></tr><tr><td /><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.560 (0.034), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.294 (0.067), p < 0.001</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note:</emph> Models were estimated using 10,000 bootstraps. Fit indices were estimated without the bootstraps; Model 1a: CFI = 0.944; TLI = 0.847; RMSEA = 0.061; <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref107">4</reflink>) = 11.71, <emph>p</emph> = 0.020. Model 1b: CFI = 1.00; TLI = 1.00; RMSEA = 0.000; χ<sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref108">4</reflink>) = 0.56, <emph>p</emph> = 0.967.</p> <ulist> <item>2 Abbreviations: ASE = academic self‐efficacy, B = boys, Dep = depressive symptoms, NB = nonbinary, SOP = self‐oriented perfectionism, SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism,</item> <item>3 a Reference group: girls coded 0.</item> </ulist> <p>In predicting T3 depressive symptoms, Model 1a included T2 academic self‐efficacy as a mediator, socially prescribed and self‐oriented perfectionism as exogenous variables along with significant control variables (gender and Covid anxiety → T3 depressive symptoms). This model explained 24.8% of the variance of T2 academic self‐efficacy and 14.3% of the variance in T3 depressive symptoms. Covid anxiety and gender were no longer significant. A significant positive association between T1 socially prescribed perfectionism and T3 depressive symptoms whereas T1 self‐oriented perfectionism was not associated with later T3 depressive symptoms. Additionally, both types of perfectionism at T1 were positively associated with higher academic self‐efficacy at T2. T2 academic self‐efficacy was negatively associated with T3 depressive symptoms.</p> <p>The results from Model 1a showed a significant indirect effect from self‐oriented perfectionism to depressive symptoms through academic self‐efficacy (<emph>ab</emph> = −0.050, 95% CI [−0.123, −0.004]). This suggests that higher self‐oriented perfectionism may lead to increased academic self‐efficacy, which in turn, could reduce depressive symptoms. Similarly, results showed a significant indirect effect from socially prescribed perfectionism (<emph>ab</emph> = 0.048, 95% CI [0.002, 0.132]), suggesting that higher socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with decreased academic self‐efficacy, potentially increasing depressive symptoms.</p> <p>In order Model 1b, which controlled for baseline (T1) academic self‐efficacy and depressive symptoms, the direct effect of self‐oriented perfectionism at T1 on academic self‐ efficacy (T2) continued to be significant, while its association with depressive symptoms (T3) was nonsignificant. Socially prescribed perfectionism at T1 did not significantly predict depressive symptoms (T3) but was associated negatively to T2 academic self‐efficacy. Notably, baseline academic self‐efficacy and initial depressive symptoms were strong predictors of subsequent self‐efficacy and depressive symptoms, respectively.</p> <p>The results from Model 1b indicated no indirect effect for either socially prescribed perfectionism (<emph>ab</emph> = 0.001 95% CI [−0.003, 0.046]) or self‐oriented perfectionism (<emph>ab</emph> = −0.001 95% CI [−0.038, 0.012]) on depressive symptoms. Consequently, academic self‐efficacy did not mediate the link between perfectionism and change in depressive symptoms from T1 to T3. This model explained a substantial 56.0% of the variance in academic self‐efficacy and 29.4% of the variance in depressive symptoms.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-17">Exploratory Analyses: Prospective Association and Mediation Model for Depressive Symptoms Pre...</hd> <p>As a secondary analysis, exploratory models were conducted to examine the reverse association, whether depressive symptoms predict changes in perfectionism over time. The outcomes of models predicting perfectionism (Models 2a and 2b) are detailed in Table 2. Preliminary analysis of the control variables, gender, COVID‐19 anxiety and country of birth—revealed that gender was significantly associated with both self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, with girls reporting higher levels for both types. COVID‐19 anxiety was positively associated only with self‐oriented perfectionism and country of birth was not linked to either form of perfectionism. There was no association between any control variables and T2 self‐efficacy. Only significant associations were included in subsequent models.</p> <p>2 Table Summary of path coefficients for mediation models on perfectionism (T3).</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th align="center">Outcomes</th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th>Predictors</th><th><p><italic>M</italic></p><p>Academic Self‐Efficacy (T2)</p></th><th><p><italic>X</italic> </p><p>SOP (T3)</p></th><th><p><italic>X</italic> </p><p>SPP (T3)</p></th></tr><tr valign="bottom"><th><italic>b</italic> (SE)</th><th>95% CI</th><th><italic>b</italic> (SE)</th><th>95% CI</th><th><italic>b</italic> (SE)</th><th>95% CI</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td align="left">Model 2a</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—B<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.169 (0.062)</td><td>[−0.228, −0.066]</td><td>−0.105 (0.066)</td><td>[−0.202, 0.116]</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—NB<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.103 (0.059)</td><td>[0.007, 0.221]</td><td>0.100 (0.038)</td><td>[0.050, 0.192]</td></tr><tr><td>Covid anxiety</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.042 (0.065)</td><td>[−0.076, 0.159]</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SSP (T1)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>SOP (T1)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>X (Dep—T1)</td><td>−0.335 (0.047)</td><td>[−0.424, −0.245]</td><td>0.171 (0.047)</td><td>[0.098, 0.289]</td><td>0.361 (0.043)</td><td>[0.276, 0.426]</td></tr><tr><td>M (ASE—T2)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.326 (0.011)</td><td>[0.303, 0.346]</td><td>−0.153 (0.035)</td><td>[−0.234, −0.121]</td></tr><tr><td align="center">SSP: Indirect effect = 0.054, 95% CI [0.034, 0.082]SOP: Indirect effect = −0.116, 95% CI [−0.144, −0.075]</td></tr><tr><td /><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.126 (0.032), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.149 (0.025), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.243 (0.039), p < 0.001</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Model 2b</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—B<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>−0.111 (0.064)</td><td>[−0.224, −0.017]</td><td>−0.104 (0.046)</td><td>[−0.154, −0.030]</td></tr><tr><td>Gender—NB<ext-link href="a" /></td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.097 (0.040)</td><td>[−0.016, 0.165]</td><td>0.054 (0.026)</td><td>[0.024, 0.114]</td></tr><tr><td>Covid anxiety</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.003 (0.045)</td><td>[−0.102, 0.055]</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>ASE (T1)</td><td>0.667 (0.057)</td><td>[0.557, 0.843]</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Y (SPP—T1)</td><td>−0.079 (0.061)</td><td>[−0.263, −0.016]</td><td>0.029 (0.075)</td><td>[−0.126, 0.145]</td><td>0.531 (0.041)</td><td>[0.461, 0.632]</td></tr><tr><td>Y (SOP—T1)</td><td>0.140 (0.058)</td><td>[0.003, 0.229]</td><td>0.545 (0.072)</td><td>[0.338, 0.665]</td><td>0.094 (0.042)</td><td>[0.034, 0.182]</td></tr><tr><td>X (Dep—T1)</td><td>−0.014 (0.058)</td><td>[−0.121, 0.178]</td><td>0.024 (0.036)</td><td>[−0.054, 0.086]</td><td>0.052 (0.037)</td><td>[−0.063, 0.098]</td></tr><tr><td>M (ASE—T2)</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>0.157 (0.025)</td><td>[0139, 0.206]</td><td>−0.123 (0.035)</td><td>[−0.205, −0.072]</td></tr><tr><td align="center">SSP: Indirect effect = 0.002, 95% CI [−0.025, 0.021]SOP: Indirect effect = −0.002, 95% CI [−0.021, 0.033]</td></tr><tr><td /><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.562 (0.033), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.432 (0.039), p < 0.001</td><td>R<sup>2</sup> = 0.436 (0.064), p < 0.001</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note:</emph> Models were estimated using 10,000 bootstraps. Fit indices were estimated without the bootstraps; Model 2a: CFI = 0.539; TLI = 0.000; RMSEA = 0.335; <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref109">4</reflink>) = 232.08, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001. Model 2b: CFI = 0.996; TLI = 0.984; RMSEA = 0.038; <emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups>(<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref110">6</reflink>) = 10.66, <emph>p</emph> = 0.100.</item> <item>5 Abbreviations: ASE = academic self‐efficacy, B = boys, Dep = depressive symptoms, NB = nonbinary, SOP = self‐oriented perfectionism, SPP = socially prescribed perfectionism.</item> <item>6 a Reference group: girls coded 0.</item> </ulist> <p>In Model 2a, T1 depressive symptoms were now regressed on T3 socially prescribed perfectionism and self‐oriented perfectionism, keeping self‐efficacy as the mediator. Along with significant control variables (gender and Covid anxiety → T3 self‐oriented perfectionism, and gender → T3 socially prescribed perfectionism), the model accounted for 12.6% of the variance in academic self‐efficacy, 14.9% of the variance in self‐oriented perfectionism, and 24.3% of the variance in socially prescribed perfectionism. Among the control variables, gender was associated with both self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, with girls reporting higher levels of self‐oriented perfectionism compared to boys, while nonbinary students reported higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism than girls. Notably, depressive symptoms at T1 were found to be negatively associated with academic self‐efficacy at T2 and positively associated with both self‐oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism at T3. Furthermore, academic self‐efficacy at T2 was positively associated with self‐oriented perfectionism at T3 and negatively associated with socially prescribed perfectionism at T3.</p> <p>Results also indicated significant indirect effects from depression at T1 to both, self‐oriented perfectionism (<emph>ab</emph> = 0.054, 95% CI [0.034, 0.082]) and socially prescribed perfectionism (<emph>ab</emph> = −0.116, 95% CI [−0.144, −0.075]) at T3, through T2 academic self‐efficacy.</p> <p>In Model 2b, among the control variables, gender remained significant. Next, when baseline academic self‐efficacy and initial depressive symptoms were included as controls, depressive symptoms at T1 did not significantly predict self‐oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, nor academic self‐efficacy from T1 to T2. In turn, academic self‐efficacy at T2 significantly predicted lower levels of both types of perfectionism across time. Finally, no indirect effect was identified for socially prescribed perfectionism (indirect effect = 0.002, 95% CI [−0.025, 0.021]) or self‐oriented perfectionism (indirect effect = −0.002, 95% CI [−0.021, 0.033]). This model explained 56.2% of the variance in academic self‐efficacy, 43.2% of the variance in self‐oriented perfectionism, and 43.6% of the variance in socially prescribed perfectionism.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-18">Discussion</hd> <p>In this study, we prospectively examined the association between both self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms in adolescents, using models that either included or excluded baseline controls for depressive symptoms and academic self‐efficacy. Additionally, as a part of an exploratory aim, the reverse relationship was also tested to investigate the extent to which depressive symptoms could lead to both forms of perfectionism. We also assessed the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy on these relationships. It was hypothesized that self‐oriented perfectionism would be positively linked to later depressive symptoms in a unidirectional manner (vulnerability model), while socially prescribed perfectionism would exhibit a positive relationship with depressive symptoms (vulnerability model) in the same way depressive symptoms would lead to socially prescribed perfectionism (complication model). Furthermore, we hypothesized that academic self‐efficacy would act as a mediator between perfectionism and the emergence of depressive symptoms.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-19">Main Analysis</hd> <p>Regarding the relationship between the two types of perfectionism and subsequent depressive symptoms, the results suggest, consistent with our hypothesis, that youth experiencing higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism tend to feel less academically effective and are more likely to develop depressive symptoms. Thus, it appears that this form of perfectionism may heighten vulnerability to depressive symptoms in adolescents through lower academic self‐efficacy. Such findings align with prior studies highlighting the adverse impact of socially prescribed perfectionism on the emotional well‐being of adolescents (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref111">45</reflink>]; Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib98" id="ref112">98</reflink>]). Conversely, findings suggest that youth experiencing higher levels of self‐oriented perfectionism may feel more academically effective. However, contrary to our hypothesis, this type of perfectionism is not associated with subsequent depressive manifestations. This could be explained by the fact that socially prescribed perfectionism is more strongly associated with depressive symptoms, and once one accounts for socially prescribed perfectionism, the small association between self‐oriented perfectionism and later depression disappears. Another possible explanation is that self‐oriented perfectionism, unlike its socially prescribed counterpart, may be associated with adaptive striving and a sense of personal accomplishment, which could buffer against depressive symptoms (Stoeber and Otto [<reflink idref="bib88" id="ref113">88</reflink>]). Furthermore, individuals with high self‐oriented perfectionism may possess better coping mechanisms, which lessen the adverse effects typically associated with perfectionism (Stoeber and Janssen [<reflink idref="bib86" id="ref114">86</reflink>]). This emphasizes the essential need to systematically control for this form of perfectionism when investigating the association between perfectionism and depression.</p> <p>However, the interpretation of the results requires nuance, especially concerning the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy. In Model 1a, we found significant indirect effects. Specifically, socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with lower academic self‐efficacy, which in turn predicted higher depressive symptoms. This finding supports the idea that academic self‐efficacy partially mediates the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Similarly, self‐oriented perfectionism was tied to higher academic self‐efficacy, which was linked with reduced depressive symptoms. These indirect pathways indicate that academic self‐efficacy plays a critical role in linking perfectionism to depressive outcomes in adolescents.</p> <p>In Model 1b, once baseline levels of the dependent variable and academic self‐efficacy were considered, the previously observed indirect effects became nonsignificant for both types of perfectionism. This implies that the associations observed in Model 1a may primarily reflect preexisting characteristics or stability in these traits over time, rather than causal pathways. This aligns with the notion that academic self‐efficacy and depressive symptoms may be influenced more significantly by baseline characteristics than by the dynamic interplay of perfectionism over time. Thus, findings challenge the vulnerability model, highlighting the importance of controlling for baseline levels when studying these relationships (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref115">45</reflink>]; McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref116">64</reflink>]). This prompts further exploration into psychological processes that might explain how perfectionism relates to depressive symptoms. For instance, constructs such as self‐compassion or coping strategies may influence how perfectionistic individuals manage emotional distress, potentially moderating or mediating the impact of perfectionism on mental health (Dunkley et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref117">23</reflink>]; Mehr and Adams [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref118">65</reflink>]; Neff [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref119">72</reflink>]). These perspectives are more in line with self‐regulation models, which focus on emotional and cognitive regulation as key mechanisms in the development of internalizing symptoms (Koole [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref120">52</reflink>]). Moreover, these findings also highlight the complex interaction of personality factors involved in the development of depression. It may indicate that while perfectionism may covary or maintain depression symptoms across time, the development or increase of depression symptoms could be explained by other personality traits. For example, neuroticism could influence the development of depression by intensifying emotional responses to stress, magnifying negative interpretations of events, and fostering persistent negative thought patterns (Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref121">59</reflink>]). Likewise, individuals with low conscientiousness may be more susceptible to developing depression, as they often experience lower academic success (Nudelman et al. [<reflink idref="bib73" id="ref122">73</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-20">Exploratory Analysis</hd> <p>Regarding the reverse pathway between depressive symptoms and the development of subsequent perfectionism (Model 2), findings reveal a complex relationship. Specifically, an individual experiencing more depressive symptoms may report a decrease in subsequent academic self‐efficacy, which in turn, is associated with a decrease in self‐oriented perfectionism and an increase in socially prescribed perfectionism. This discrepancy could be understood considering the cognitive theory of depression (Beck [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref123">9</reflink>]), which suggests that as depressive symptoms increase, confidence in one's academic abilities tends to decrease. This drop in confidence may lower the motivation to set high personal goals, potentially accounting for the decline in self‐oriented perfectionism. In contrast, socially prescribed perfectionism may become more prominent due to validation‐seeking behaviors and heightened rejection sensitivity commonly experienced by individuals with depressive symptoms (Flett et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref124">31</reflink>]). These tendencies may stem from self‐deprecating thoughts and behaviors (APA 2022), which lead individuals to rely more on external validation, thus amplifying socially prescribed perfectionism.</p> <p>However, after controlling for baseline perfectionism, the associations in Model 2 were no longer significant, thereby failing to fully support the complication model (McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref125">64</reflink>]). The shift from significant to nonsignificant associations when controlling for baseline levels highlights the stability of perfectionism traits and the importance of accounting for individual differences over time. This stability further underscores the possibility that perfectionism may be shaped by broader influences beyond depressive symptoms alone, such as social or environmental pressures. For instance, the development or change in perfectionism may stem from additional factors, as highlighted by Flett and Hewitt's ([<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref126">32</reflink>]) Overvaluation Model. This model suggests that significant pressure is exerted on young individuals through parental figures, for instance, who may excessively praise their child's achievements and view them as flawless. This external overvaluation could contribute to the development of narcissistic perfectionism, wherein the individual harbors the belief of being perfect and feels compelled to continuously excel in all aspects of life, carrying the burden of external pressure.</p> <p>Beyond immediate social influences, it is also important to consider the broader cultural context in which perfectionism develops. The motivational meanings and emotional consequences of perfectionism may vary across cultures. In collectivist societies, where academic success and social expectations are highly emphasized, socially prescribed perfectionism may be more strongly associated to psychological distress (Flett & Hewitt [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref127">32</reflink>]). Coping responses to perfectionism‐related distress may also differ depending on cultural background (E. Chang et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref128">15</reflink>]). Previous findings suggest that perfectionism tends to take on more self‐critical or parent‐driven forms in eastern contexts, while western settings may promote more self‐enhancing or achievement‐oriented expressions (Y. Chang [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref129">14</reflink>]; Walton et al. [<reflink idref="bib94" id="ref130">94</reflink>]). These observations underscore the importance of interpreting perfectionism within its sociocultural and relational context.</p> <p>Nonetheless, current literature on the relationship between perfectionism and depression does not reach consensus (Smith et al. [<reflink idref="bib83" id="ref131">83</reflink>]). It thus seems conceivable that other psychological factors might act as moderators, potentially weakening or modifying the direct association between—self‐oriented and socially prescribed—perfectionism and depression. For instance, Hewitt et al. ([<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref132">45</reflink>]) proposed the potential impact of stress, suggesting that individuals with perfectionism may encounter more frequent and heightened reactions to stressful events and perceived failures, predisposing them to depression. They outlined three mechanisms through which individuals with perfectionism may experience increased frequency and reactivity to stressful events and perceived failures: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref133">1</reflink>) stress generation (where perfectionistic individuals contribute to creating stressful failure events by maintaining a discrepancy between their actual and ideal selves); (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref134">2</reflink>) stress enhancement (where perfectionistic individuals react more negatively when failures occur in domains particularly relevant to their self‐concept); (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref135">3</reflink>) stress perpetuation (where perfectionistic individuals engage in behaviors such as self‐blame, thus extending their response to stressful events). Additionally, it is important to consider the role of academic demands in this relationship. Recent research suggests that the level of demand of the academic program moderates the relationship between perfectionism and well‐being. In less demanding programs, higher levels of perfectionism are associated with good psychological well‐being, while in higher‐demanding programs, the well‐being levels are lower when perfectionism increases (Fernández‐García et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref136">28</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-21">Mediating Role of Academic Self‐Efficacy</hd> <p>Furthermore, although our predictions regarding the mediating role of academic self‐efficacy seem to have been validated in Model 1a, these associations are no longer significant after adjusting for baseline levels and confounding factors in Model 1b. This suggests that the correlation between perfectionism and depressive symptoms might primarily reflect preexisting characteristics in adolescents, especially their initial maladaptive traits or symptomatology. The fact that the current study considered baseline levels and confounding factors might explain the differences in findings observed in our study compared to others reporting perfectionism as a significant predictor of later depressive symptoms (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref137">45</reflink>]; McGrath et al. [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref138">64</reflink>]; Sherry et al. [<reflink idref="bib81" id="ref139">81</reflink>]). These findings also raise the possibility that the impact of perfectionism on depressive symptoms may be context‐dependent (Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref140">45</reflink>]). The absence of a significant mediation effect after controlling for baseline depressive symptoms suggests that perfectionism may not act as a causal vulnerability factor in all situations, but rather exert its effects under certain psychological, developmental, or situational conditions. This interpretation matches with recent research highlighting the role of contextual moderators such as stress exposure, school environment or self‐regulatory capacities (Flett & Hewitt [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref141">32</reflink>]; Hewitt et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref142">45</reflink>]).</p> <p>Interestingly, self‐oriented perfectionism was associated with subsequent academic self‐efficacy even when controlling for baseline levels of academic self‐efficacy and for the other type of perfectionism. That is, those who maintain high self‐imposed standards tend to foster enhanced confidence in their academic skills. Although the literature is divided on this matter, this is consistent with a previous study that found that a sense of self‐efficacy can act as a buffer against the negative impact of perfectionism (Kim and Kim [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref143">50</reflink>]). Moreover, the model of excellencism and perfectionism provides additional insight into these findings (Gaudreau et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref144">38</reflink>]). Specifically, excellencism, defined as striving toward high flexible and realistic standards, may be associated with self‐efficacy in ways that differ from perfectionism, defined as the pursuit of unattainable goals. Gaudreau et al. ([<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref145">38</reflink>]) found that excellencism correlates with higher goal progress, greater life satisfaction, and improved academic achievement compared to perfectionism. In this context, it is therefore also possible that our findings regarding the role of perfectionism on subsequent academic self‐efficacy are influenced by the concept of excellencism (Gaudreau et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref146">38</reflink>]). Furthermore, the sense of academic self‐efficacy is linked to an increase in self‐oriented perfectionism and a decrease in socially prescribed perfectionism at subsequent time points even after controlling for baseline levels of academic self‐efficacy and for their baseline level. In this context, an individual with a strong sense of academic self‐efficacy may be more inclined to set high personal standards (self‐oriented perfectionism) due to their belief in their capability to meet these standards (Bandura [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref147">5</reflink>]). Conversely, this suggests that they could experience less external or social pressure to achieve perfection (reduced socially prescribed perfectionism) as they feel sufficiently competent in their field of study and are less reliant on external validation.</p> <p>Finally, our results show that the relationship between perfectionism, academic self‐efficacy, and depression is a complex one, with the type of perfectionism (self‐oriented vs. socially prescribed) playing a critical role in shaping adolescents' confidence in their academic abilities and, potentially, their susceptibility to depressive symptoms. Our research indicates that it is necessary to continue studying the role of academic self‐efficacy and its relationship with perfectionism and depression. However, it also highlights that other mechanisms may potentially be present to explain how different forms of perfectionism influence the development of depressive symptoms in adolescents within the school context.</p> <p>These results highlight the importance of controlling for baseline levels of the dependent variables. Research in psychology, especially on trait and psychopathology, is particularly susceptible to issues arising from poor treatment in terms of the control of the dependent variable due to the stability and persistence of it (Morken et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref148">68</reflink>]; Ståhlberg et al. [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref149">84</reflink>]). More precisely, Hoertel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref150">46</reflink>]) have developed a conceptual model explaining the persistence and recurrence of depression over time. This model involves four crucial predictor categories that shed light on the multifaceted factors influencing depression's stability: severity of depressive illness and comorbidity, treatment seeking, and sociodemographic context. Regarding perfectionism, it is understood as a personality disposition (Stoeber et al. [<reflink idref="bib85" id="ref151">85</reflink>]). In essence, personality traits are sufficiently broad and stable (Ståhlberg et al. [<reflink idref="bib84" id="ref152">84</reflink>]), allowing them to predict a wide array of significant life outcomes. At the same time, they are malleable enough to potentially act as powerful, yet often overlooked, targets for interventions (Hudson [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref153">47</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-22">Strengths and Limitations</hd> <p>This study possesses several key strengths. The first pertains to the sample size, which provided sufficient statistical power to conduct mediation analyses (Pan et al. [<reflink idref="bib74" id="ref154">74</reflink>]). A second strength lies in the use of a longitudinal design. Furthermore, this study allowed for exploring the link between perfectionism and depressive symptoms while controlling for the other type of perfectionism at the baseline. Moreover, all employed measures exhibited excellent psychometric qualities. Lastly, the inclusion of depression symptoms as a control variable proved to be crucial.</p> <p>The current study also possesses several limitations. Among these, the proportion of missing data was non‐negligible. While imputation techniques were used to handle missing data, their existence remains a methodological concern. A second limitation pertains to the representativeness of the sample. Although the participants were selected to reflect a diverse population of students from public and private urban high schools, the findings are not generalizable to all populations. Notably, the sample was predominantly female, which limits the generalizability of results to male adolescents. Prior research suggests that perfectionism may manifest and impact psychological outcomes differently across gEnders, with socially prescribed perfectionism potentially exerting a stronger influence on depressive symptoms among girls (Flett & Hewitt [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref155">25</reflink>]). Additionally, the pandemic context has had an influence on a variety of psychological and academic outcomes among youth and may have had a broad impact on this study, including at the level of recruitment. Similarly, the inconsistent timing of data collection was also influenced by the pandemic situation and may have had an impact on the outcomes. Nevertheless, we were able to control for Covid‐related anxiety. Another limitation is the use of the MPS instead of the Child‐Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (CAPS; Flett et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref156">33</reflink>]). While both are credible and valid measures of perfectionism, the MPS is geared toward adults whereas the CAPS is specifically tailored for research involving youth. Similarly, the version of the DASS used in this study was originally validated in adult populations. Although it has been applied to adolescent samples, a youth version of the DASS exists and may have been more developmentally appropriate (Szabo and Lovibond [<reflink idref="bib89" id="ref157">89</reflink>]). Another limitation is the decision not to adopt a cross‐lagged model. While this approach could have tested the possibility of reciprocal relations between socially prescribed perfectionism and depressive symptoms, the exploratory nature of our secondary objective led to the choice of testing separate models. Finally, it would also be relevant to conduct more mediation studies utilizing various potentially explanatory factors (e.g., cognitive flexibility; Akkuş Çutuk [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref158">1</reflink>], procrastination; Besharat et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref159">10</reflink>]) of the link between perfectionism and depressive symptoms to achieve an enhanced comprehension of the relationship between these two variables.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-23">Implications and Future Directions</hd> <p>In terms of clinical implications, results highlight the need for interventions targeting younger adolescents. It reinforces the idea that early signs of depression play a pivotal role in predicting future depressive symptoms among adolescents, thereby corroborating the model proposed by Hoertel et al. ([<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref160">46</reflink>]). Considering these findings, the study advocates for the implementation of preventive programs. Early prevention, prior to the exacerbation of symptoms, may be vital to ensure the psychological well‐being of adolescents (Colizzi et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref161">20</reflink>]). Indeed, research indicates that several school‐based programs aiming to prevent depression, and those targeting temperamental traits, have been tested among adolescents, underscoring the effectiveness of targeted interventions, whether selective or indicated (Feiss et al. [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref162">27</reflink>]; Hetrick et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref163">40</reflink>]). Among these programs, those rooted in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) are some of the most extensively researched and have shown some of the most favorable outcomes to date (Hetrick et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref164">40</reflink>]).</p> <p>Our study also suggests implementing strategies to prevent perfectionism. Although our research does not directly support the link between perfectionism and depression, it does highlight the complex interplay between perfectionism, academic self‐efficacy, and psychological well‐being. Given the empirical literature documenting the wide range of negative consequences for young people with high levels of perfectionism (Flett & Hewitt [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref165">32</reflink>]), we believe that interventions aimed at reducing perfectionist traits and promoting healthier achievement standards are still valuable. Our study highlights the need to implement these interventions as early as possible, particularly in educational contexts. In this regard, Campeau et al. ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref166">12</reflink>]) have identified school‐based interventions to be implemented in high schools, predominantly based on cognitive‐behavioral approaches, that appear to yield promising results.</p> <p>In terms of future directions, it would be valuable to move toward integrating the models presented to explore the potential presence of a bidirectional relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms using a random‐intercept cross‐lagged panel model in future research. Furthermore, it would be pertinent to parse the variance attributed to between‐person differences and within‐person change to observe changes in the variables of interest across time.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-24">Conclusion</hd> <p>In this study, we examined the associations between both self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism and the emergence of depressive symptoms in adolescents, highlighting the intermediary role of academic self‐efficacy, even when accounting for initial symptomatology. Contrary to our hypothesis, the results did not support a direct mediating effect of academic self‐efficacy between perfectionism and depression, suggesting that preexisting traits or characteristics may obscure these relationships. Nevertheless, our results suggest that academic self‐efficacy plays a role in the subsequent development of perfectionism, particularly in promoting self‐oriented perfectionism and reducing socially prescribed perfectionism. Our results also emphasize the necessity of controlling for baseline levels of perfectionism and depressive symptoms to precisely represent these associations. This approach highlights the complex nature of the relationship between perfectionism and depression, pointing to the possibility that other factors may better explain the onset of depressive symptoms. The findings underscore the necessity of considering the wider context of adolescents' personality traits and environmental influences. Therefore, this study strongly advocates for proactive strategies in educational settings to mitigate depressive indicators.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-25">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>Gabriela Campeau was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC). Special thanks to the late Frédéric Nault‐Brière, as well as the research assistants involved in the project and the participants who made this study possible.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-26">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>The research project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Montreal and the Ethics Committee of the Marguerite‐Bourgeoys school board.</p> <hd id="AN0187949529-27">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <p>GRAPH: 4th Submission ‐ Supplementary Material.docx.</p> <ref id="AN0187949529-28"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref22" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Akkuş Çutuk, Z. 2020. " Relationship Between Multidimensional Perfectionism and Cognitive Flexibility in University Students." Journal of Human Sciences 17, no. 4 : PDF. https://doi.org/10.14687/jhs.v17i4.6090.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> American Psychiatric Association [APA]. 2022. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed., text rev. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref24" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> Asseraf, M., and T. Vaillancourt. 2015. " Longitudinal Links Between Perfectionism and Depression in Children." Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43 : 895 – 908. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9947-9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref43" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> Bagby, R. M., C. Psych, L. C. Quilty, and A. C. Ryder. 2008. " Personality and Depression." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 53, no. 1 : 14 – 25. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370805300104.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib5" idref="ref47" type="bt">5</bibl> <bibtext> Bandura, A. 1997. Self‐Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Freeman.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib6" idref="ref66" type="bt">6</bibl> <bibtext> Bandura, A., C. Pastorelli, C. Barbaranelli, and G. V. Caprara. 1999. " Self‐Efficacy Pathways to Childhood Depression." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, no. 2 : 258 – 269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.258.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib7" idref="ref98" type="bt">7</bibl> <bibtext> Barbieri, V., G. Piccoliori, A. Mahlknecht, et al. 2023. " Adolescent Mental Health During the COVID‐19 Pandemic: The Interplay of Age, Gender, and Mental Health Outcomes in Two Consecutive Cross‐Sectional Surveys in Northern Italy." Behavioral Sciences 13, no. 8 : 643. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13080643.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib8" idref="ref99" type="bt">8</bibl> <bibtext> Barzilay, R., T. M. Moore, D. M. Greenberg, et al. 2020. " Resilience, COVID‐19‐Related Stress, Anxiety and Depression During the Pandemic in a Large Population Enriched for Healthcare Providers." Translational Psychiatry 10, no. 1 : 291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-00982-4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib9" idref="ref123" type="bt">9</bibl> <bibtext> Beck, A. T. 1976. Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. International Universities Press.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Besharat, M. A., H. Farahmand, and M. Gholamali Lavasani. 2018. " The Mediating Role of Procrastination in the Relationship Between Perfectionism Pathologies and Depression/Anxiety Symptoms." Journal of Iranian Psychologists 14, no. 55 : 235 – 247.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Burns, D. 1980. " The Perfectionist Script for Self‐Defeat." Psychology Today 14 : 34 – 52.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Campeau, G., G. Yale‐Soulière, C. Gauthier, and L. Turgeon. 2023. " Le perfectionnisme en milieu scolaire : Une revue systématique des programmes d'intervention de groupe [Perfectionism in Schools: A Systematic Review of Group Intervention Programs]." Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne 64, no. 2 : 118 – 131. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000337.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Canadian Mental Health Association. 2021. Info générale sur la santé mentale: faits saillants [General Information on Mental Health: Highlights]. CMHA. https://cmha.ca/fr/trouver-de-linfo/sante-mentale/info-generale/faits-saillants/#_edn8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chang, Y. 2012. " The Relationship Between Maladaptive Perfectionism With Burnout: Testing Mediating Effect of Emotion‐Focused Coping." Personality and Individual Differences 53, no. 5 : 635 – 639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.002.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chang, E. C., R. Chang, and L. J. Sanna. 2012. " A Test of the Usefulness of Perfectionism Theory Across Cultures: Does Perfectionism in the US and Japan Predict Depressive Symptoms Across Time? " Cognitive Therapy and Research 36 : 1 – 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9376-9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chavira, D. A., C. Ponting, and G. Ramos. 2022. " The Impact of COVID‐19 on Child and Adolescent Mental Health and Treatment Considerations." Behaviour Research and Therapy 157 : 104169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2022.104169.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Chuang, Y. T., T. H. Huang, S. Y. Lin, and B. C. Chen. 2022. " The Influence of Motivation, Self‐ Efficacy, and Fear of Failure on the Career Adaptability of Vocational School Students: Moderated by Meaning in Life." Frontiers in Psychology 13 : 958334. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.958334.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ciobanu, T., F. Brodard, J.‐P. Antonietti, P. A. Genoud, and C. Brandner. 2018. " Screening Negative Affectivity in Young Adults: Validation and Psychometric Evaluation of the French Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 50, no. 4 : 238 – 247. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000110.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Colizzi, M., A. Lasalvia, and M. Ruggeri. 2020. " Prevention and Early Intervention in Youth Mental Health: Is It Time for a Multidisciplinary and Trans‐Diagnostic Model for Care? " International Journal of Mental Health Systems 14, no. 1 : 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-020-00356-9.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> DeDonno, M. A., and K. R. Torres. 2018. " The Influence of Perfectionism on Academic Self‐Concept." International Journal of Education and Practice 6, no. 4 : 192 – 199.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Döş, İ. 2023. " Relationship Between Happy School, General Self‐Efficacy, Academic Self‐Efficacy and Life Satisfaction." European Journal of Educational Management 6, no. 1 : 31 – 43. https://doi.org/10.12973/eujem.6.1.31.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Dunkley, D. M., K. R. Blankstein, J. Halsall, M. Williams, and G. Winkworth. 2000. " The Relation Between Perfectionism and Distress: Hassles, Coping, and Perceived Social Support as Mediators and Moderators." Journal of Counseling Psychology 47, no. 4 : 437 – 453. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.4.437.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Eccles, J. S., and R. W. Roeser. 2011. " Schools as Developmental Contexts During Adolescence." Journal of Research on Adolescence 21, no. 1 : 225 – 241. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00725.x.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Enders, C. K. 2022. Applied Missing Data Analysis. Guilford Publications.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fairburn, C. G., Z. Cooper, and R. Shafran. 2003. " Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Eating Disorders: A ʻTransdiagnosticʼ Theory and Treatment." Behaviour Research and Therapy 41, no. 5 : 509 – 528. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(02)00088-8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Feiss, R., S. B. Dolinger, M. Merritt, et al. 2019. " A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of School‐Based Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Prevention Programs for Adolescents." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48, no. 9 : 1668 – 1685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01085-0.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Fernández‐García, O., M. D. Gil‐Llario, J. Castro‐Calvo, V. Morell‐Mengual, R. Ballester‐Arnal, and V. Estruch‐García. 2022. " Academic Perfectionism, Psychological Well‐Being, and Suicidal Ideation in College Students." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1 : 85. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010085.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Finn, K. 2016. " Modèle hypothétique du perfectionnisme des étudiants universitaires [Hypothetical Model of Perfectionism in University Students]." Revue de psychoéducation, 45, no. 1 : 87 – 112. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039159ar.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Finn, K., and M.‐C. Guay. 2013. " Perfectionnisme et anxiété de performance chez les étudiants universitaires [Perfectionism and Performance Anxiety in University Students]." Revue de psychoéducation, 42, no. 1 : 1 – 23. https://doi.org/10.7202/1061721ar.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flett, G. L., A. Besser, and P. L. Hewitt. 2014. " Perfectionism and Interpersonal Orientations in Depression: An Analysis of Validation Seeking and Rejection Sensitivity in a Community Sample of Young Adults." Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 77, no. 1 : 67 – 85. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2014.77.1.67.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flett, G. L., and P. L. Hewitt. 2022. " The Development of Perfectionism." In Perfectionism in Childhood and Adolescence: A Developmental Approach, edited by G. L. Flett and P. L. Hewitt, 131 – 172. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000289-008.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flett, G. L., P. L. Hewitt, A. Besser, et al. 2016. " The Child‐Adolescent Perfectionism Scale: Development, Psychometric Properties, and Associations With Stress, Distress, and Psychiatric Symptoms." Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 34, no. 7 : 634 – 652. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916651381.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flett, G. L., T. Nepon, and P. L. Hewitt. 2015. " Perfectionism, Worry, and Rumination in Health and Mental Health: A Review and a Conceptual Framework for a Cognitive Theory of Perfectionism." In Perfectionism, Health, and Well‐Being, edited by F. M. Sirois and D. S. Molnar, 121 – 156. Springer.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Flett, G. L., T. Panico, and P. L. Hewitt. 2011. " Perfectionism, Type A Behavior, and Self‐Efficacy in Depression and Health Symptoms Among Adolescents." Current Psychology 30 : 105 – 116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-011-9103-4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ford, C. J., E. L. Usher, V. L. Scott, and X. Y. Chen. 2023. " The 'Perfect' Lens: Perfectionism and Early Adolescents' Math Self‐Efficacy Development." British Journal of Educational Psychology 93, no. 1 : 211 – 228. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12550.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Frost, R. O., P. Marten, C. Lahart, and R. Rosenblate. 1990. " The Dimensions of Perfectionism." Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, no. 5 : 449 – 468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gaudreau, P., B. J. I. Schellenberg, A. Gareau, K. Kljajic, and S. Manoni‐Millar. 2022. " Because Excellencism Is More Than Good Enough: On the Need to Distinguish the Pursuit of Excellence From the Pursuit of Perfection." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 122, no. 6 : 1117 – 1145. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000411.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Gaudreau, P., and A. Thompson. 2010. " Testing a 2 × 2 Model of Dispositional Perfectionism." Personality and Individual Differences 48, no. 5 : 532 – 537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.031.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hetrick, S. E., G. R. Cox, K. G. Witt, J. J. Bir, and S. N. Merry. 2016. " Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Third‐Wave CBT and Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) Based Interventions for Preventing Depression in Children and Adolescents." Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, no. 8 : CD003380. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003380.pub4.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hewitt, P. L., and G. L. Flett. 1991. " Perfectionism in the Self and Social Contexts: Conceptualization, Assessment, and Association With Psychopathology." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 3 : 456 – 470. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hewitt, P. L., G. L. Flett, and E. Ediger. 1996. " Perfectionism and Depression: Longitudinal Assessment of a Specific Vulnerability Hypothesis." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105, no. 2 : 276 – 280. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.276.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hewitt, P. L., G. L. Flett, and S. F. Mikail. 2017. Perfectionism: A Relational Approach to Conceptualization, Assessment, and Treatment. Guilford.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hewitt, P. L., G. L. Flett, W. Turnbull‐Donovan, and S. F. Mikail. 1991. " The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Reliability, Validity, and Psychometric Properties in Psychiatric Samples." Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 3, no. 3 : 464 – 468. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.3.3.464.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hewitt, P. L., M. M. Smith, S. Y. J. Ge, M. Mössler, and G. L. Flett. 2022. " Perfectionism and Its Role in Depressive Disorders." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 54, no. 2 : 121 – 131. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000306.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hoertel, N., C. Blanco, M. A. Oquendo, et al. 2017. " A Comprehensive Model of Predictors of Persistence and Recurrence in Adults With Major Depression: Results From a National 3‐Year Prospective Study." Journal of Psychiatric Research, 95 : 19 – 27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.022.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Hudson, N. W. 2021. " Does Successfully Changing Personality Traits via Intervention Require That Participants be Autonomously Motivated to Change? " Journal of Research in Personality 95 : 104160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104160.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Karademas, E. C., and A. Kalantzi‐Azizi. 2004. " The Stress Process, Self‐Efficacy Expectations, and Psychological Health." Personality and Individual Differences 37, no. 5 : 1033 – 1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.11.012.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Keyes, K. M., D. Gary, P. M. O'Malley, A. Hamilton, and J. Schulenberg. 2019. " Recent Increases in Depressive Symptoms Among US Adolescents: Trends From 1991 to 2018." Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 54, no. 8 : 987 – 996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01697-8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kim, B. S., and M. Kim. 2022. " Self‐Efficacy Mediates the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Life Satisfaction in South Korean Adults." Social Behavior and Personality 50, no. 4 : 1 – 10. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.11226.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kljajic, K., P. Gaudreau, and V. Franche. 2017. " An Investigation of the 2 × 2 Model of Perfectionism With Burnout, Engagement, Self‐Regulation, and Academic Achievement." Learning and Individual Differences, 57 : 103 – 113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.06.004.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Koole, S. L. 2009. " The Psychology of Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review." Cognition & Emotion 23, no. 1 : 4 – 41. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802619031.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kovacs, M., S. Obrosky, and C. George. 2016. " The Course of Major Depressive Disorder From Childhood to Young Adulthood: Recovery and Recurrence in a Longitudinal Observational Study." Journal of Affective Disorders 203 : 374 – 381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.042.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Kristensen, S. M., T. M. B. Larsen, H. B. Urke, and A. G. Danielsen. 2023. " Academic Stress, Academic Self‐Efficacy, and Psychological Distress: A Moderated Mediation of Within‐Person Effects." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 52, no. 7 : 1512 – 1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01770-1.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Labrecque, J. P., R. Stephenson, I. Boivin, and A. Marchand. 1998. " Validation de l'Échelle multidimensionnelle du perfectionnisme auprès de la francophone du Québec [Validation of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale With Francophones in Québec]." Revue Francophone de Clinique Comportementale et Cognitive, 3, no. 4 : 1 – 14.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lee, T., and D. Shi. 2021. " A Comparison of Full Information Maximum Likelihood and Multiple Imputation in Structural Equation Modeling With Missing Data." Psychological Methods 26, no. 4 : 466 – 485. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000381.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Levine, S. L., I. Green‐Demers, K. M. Werner, and M. Milyavskaya. 2019. " Perfectionism in Adolescents: Self‐Critical Perfectionism as a Predictor of Depressive Symptoms Across the School Year." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 38, no. 1 : 70 – 86. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2019.38.1.70.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Limburg, K., H. J. Watson, M. S. Hagger, and S. J. Egan. 2017. " The Relationship Between Perfectionism and Psychopathology: A Meta‐Analysis." Journal of Clinical Psychology 73, no. 10 : 1301 – 1326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22435.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Liu, C., L. Chen, and S. Chen. 2020. " Influence of Neuroticism on Depressive Symptoms Among Chinese Adolescents: The Mediation Effects of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies." Frontiers in Psychiatry 11 : 420. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00420.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Loton, D. J., and L. E. Waters. 2017. " The Mediating Effect of Self‐Efficacy in the Connections Between Strength‐Based Parenting, Happiness and Psychological Distress in Teens." Frontiers in Psychology 8 : 1707. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01707.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lovibond, S. H., and P. F. Lovibond. 1995. Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS‐‐21, DASS‐‐ 42) [Database Record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t01004-000.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lu, B., L. Lin, and X. Su. 2024. " Global Burden of Depression or Depressive Symptoms in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis." Journal of Affective Disorders 354 : 553 – 562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.03.074.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Lunn, J., D. Greene, T. Callaghan, and S. J. Egan. 2023. " Associations Between Perfectionism and Symptoms of Anxiety, Obsessive‐Compulsive Disorder and Depression in Young People: A Meta‐Analysis." Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 52, no. 5 : 460 – 487. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2023.2211736.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> McGrath, D. S., S. B. Sherry, S. H. Stewart, et al. 2012. " Reciprocal Relations Between Self‐Critical Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms: Evidence From a Short‐Term, Four‐Wave Longitudinal Study." Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 44, no. 3 : 169 – 181. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027764.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Mehr, K. E., and A. C. Adams. 2016. " Self‐Compassion as a Mediator of Maladaptive Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in College Students." Journal of College Student Psychotherapy 30, no. 2 : 132 – 145. https://doi.org/10.1080/87568225.2016.1140991.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Merikangas, K. R., J. He, M. Burstein, et al. 2010. " Lifetime Prevalence of Mental Disorders in U.S. Adolescents: Results From the National Comorbidity Survey Replication—Adolescent Supplement (NCS‐A)." Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 49, no. 10 : 980 – 989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Miszkurka, M., L. Goulet, and M. V. Zunzunegui. 2010. " Contributions of Immigration to Depressive Symptoms Among Pregnant Women īn Canada." Canadian Journal of Public Health, 101, no. 5 : 358 – 364. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03404853.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Morken, I. S., K. R. Viddal, B. Ranum, and L. Wichstrøm. 2021. " Depression From Preschool to Adolescence – Five Faces of Stability." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 62, no. 8 : 1000 – 1009. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13362.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Muris, P. 2001. " A Brief Questionnaire for Measuring Self‐Efficacy in Youths." Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, no. 3 : 145 – 149. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010961119608.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Muthén, L. K., and B. O. Muthén. 2017. Mplus User's Guide, 8th ed. Muthén & Muthén.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nakano, K. 2009. " Perfectionism, Self‐Efficacy, and Depression: Preliminary Analysis of the Japanese Version of the Almost Perfect Scale‐Revised." Psychological Reports 104, no. 3 : 896 – 898. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.104.3.896-908.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Neff, K. D. 2011. " Self‐Compassion, Self‐Esteem, and Well‐Being." Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5, no. 1 : 1 – 12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Nudelman, G., S. V. Kamble, and K. Otto. 2021. " Can Personality Traits Predict Depression During the COVID‐19 Pandemic? " Social Justice Research 34, no. 2 : 218 – 234.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Pan, H., S. Liu, D. Miao, and Y. Yuan. 2018. " Sample Size Determination for Mediation Analysis of Longitudinal Data." BMC Medical Research Methodology 18, no. 1 : 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0473-2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Peterson, R. E. 2021. " The Genetics of Major Depression: Perspectives on the State of Research and Opportunities for Precision Medicine." Psychiatric Annals 51, no. 4 : 165 – 169. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20210315-01.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Preacher, K. J., and A. F. Hayes. 2008. " Asymptotic and Resampling Strategies for Assessing and Comparing Indirect Effects in Multiple Mediator Models." Behavior Research Methods 40, no. 3 : 879 – 891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Remes, O., J. F. Mendes, and P. Templeton. 2021. " Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature." Brain Sciences 11, no. 12 : 1633. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121633.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ryan, R. M., and E. L. Deci. 2000. " Self‐Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well‐Being." American Psychologist 55, no. 1 : 68 – 78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shafran, R., Z. Cooper, and C. G. Fairburn. 2002. " Clinical Perfectionism: A Cognitive‐Behavioural Analysis." Behaviour Research and Therapy 40, no. 7 : 773 – 791. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00059-6.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shaheen, S. 2013. " Impact of Perfectionism and Self‐Efficacy on Psychological Distress Among Adolescents." International Journal of Education and Management Studies 3, no. 4 : 412.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Sherry, S. B., A. L. MacKinnon, K.‐L. Fossum, et al. 2013. " Perfectionism, Discrepancies, and Depression: Testing the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model in a Short‐Term, Four Wave Longitudinal Study." Personality and Individual Differences, 54 : 692 – 697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.017.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Shorey, S., E. D. Ng, and C. H. J. Wong. 2022. " Global Prevalence of Depression and Elevated Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis." British Journal of Clinical Psychology 61, no. 2 : 287 – 305. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12333.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Smith, M. M., S. B. Sherry, C. Ray, P. L. Hewitt, and G. L. Flett. 2021. " Is Perfectionism a Vulnerability Factor for Depressive Symptoms, a Complication of Depressive Symptoms, or Both? A Meta‐Analytic Test of 67 Longitudinal Studies." Clinical Psychology Review 84 : 101982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.101982.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Ståhlberg, J., H. Tuominen, A.‐T. Pulkka, and M. Niemivirta. 2021. " Students' Perfectionistic Profiles: Stability, Change, and Associations With Achievement Goal Orientations." Psychology in the Schools 58, no. 1 : 162 – 184. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22444.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stoeber, J., J. H. Edbrooke‐Childs, and L. E. Damian. 2018. " Perfectionism." In Encyclopedia of Adolescence, edited by R. J. R. Levesque, 4, 2732 – 2739. Springer.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stoeber, J., and D. P. Janssen. 2011. " Perfectionism and Coping With Daily Failures: Positive Reframing Helps Achieve Satisfaction at the End of the Day." Anxiety, Stress & Coping 24, no. 5 : 477 – 497. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.562977.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stoeber, J., D. J. Madigan, and L. Gonidis. 2020. " Perfectionism Is Adaptive and Maladaptive, but What's the Combined Effect? " Personality and Individual Differences 161 : 109846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109846.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Stoeber, J., and K. Otto. 2006. " Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges." Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no. 4 : 295 – 319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Szabo, M., and P. F. Lovibond. 2022. " Development and Psychometric Properties of the DASS‐Youth (DASS‐Y): An Extension of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) to Adolescents and Children." Frontiers in Psychology 13 : 766890. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.766890.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tahmassian, K., and N. Jalali Moghadam. 2011. " Relationship Between Self‐Efficacy and Symptoms of Anxiety, Depression, Worry and Social Avoidance in a Normal Sample of Students." Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences 5, no. 2 : 91 – 98.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Tak, Y. R., S. M. Brunwasser, A. Lichtwarck‐Aschoff, and R. C. M. E. Engels. 2017. " The Prospective Associations Between Self‐Efficacy and Depressive Symptoms From Early to Middle Adolescence: A Cross‐Lagged Model." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 46 : 744 – 756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0614-z.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Turner, M. 2024. " Neurobiological and Psychological Factors to Depression." International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice 28, no. 2 : 114 – 127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13651501.2024.2382091.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Twenge, J. M., T. E. Joiner, M. L. Rogers, and G. N. Martin. 2018. " Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide‐Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time." Clinical Psychological Science 6 : 3 – 17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Walton, G. E., D. R. Hibbard, C. Coughlin, and D. D. Coyl‐Shepherd. 2020. " Parenting, Personality, and Culture as Predictors of Perfectionism." Current Psychology 39 : 681 – 693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9793-y.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wang, J., D. Liu, G. Li, et al. 2022. " The Impact of Self‐Efficacy on First Onset and Prognosis of Major Depressive Disorder: Findings From a Longitudinal Study In a Sample of Chinese First‐Year University Students." Psychological Medicine 52, no. 1 : 178 – 183. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721003238.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Wuthrich, V. M., J. Belcher, C. Kilby, T. Jagiello, and C. Lowe. 2021. " Tracking Stress, Depression, and Anxiety Across the Final Year of Secondary School: A Longitudinal Study." Journal of School Psychology 88 : 18 – 30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.07.004.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhang, B., and T. Cai. 2012. " Moderating Effects of Self‐Efficacy in the Relations of Perfectionism and Depression." Studia Psychologica 54, no. 1 : 15 – 21.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zhou, Y., S. Chen, Y. Zhang, Y. Yang, and C. Guo. 2024. " Socially Prescribed Perfectionism and Depression: Roles of Academic Pressure and Hope." School Mental Health 16, no. 2 : 518 – 529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-024-09655-9.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Gabriela Campeau; Gabrielle Yale‐Soulière; Julie Goulet; Kassandra Berniqué; Lyse Turgeon and Natalie Castellanos Ryan</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib66" firstref="ref1"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib49" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib53" firstref="ref4"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib82" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib67" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib62" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib93" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref12"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib75" firstref="ref13"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib77" firstref="ref14"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib92" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib37" firstref="ref16"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib39" firstref="ref18"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib41" firstref="ref19"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib88" firstref="ref20"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib29" firstref="ref27"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl17" bibid="bib87" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl18" bibid="bib43" firstref="ref29"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl19" bibid="bib28" firstref="ref33"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl20" bibid="bib30" firstref="ref34"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl21" bibid="bib45" firstref="ref36"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl22" bibid="bib58" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl23" bibid="bib31" firstref="ref38"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl24" bibid="bib83" firstref="ref39"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl25" bibid="bib42" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl26" bibid="bib64" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl27" bibid="bib63" firstref="ref45"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl28" bibid="bib78" firstref="ref49"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl29" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref50"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl30" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref51"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl31" bibid="bib34" firstref="ref52"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl32" bibid="bib51" firstref="ref53"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl33" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref54"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl34" bibid="bib79" firstref="ref55"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl35" bibid="bib80" firstref="ref56"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl36" bibid="bib97" firstref="ref57"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl37" bibid="bib35" firstref="ref58"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl38" bibid="bib22" firstref="ref59"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl39" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref60"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl40" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl41" bibid="bib36" firstref="ref62"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl42" bibid="bib54" firstref="ref63"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl43" bibid="bib48" firstref="ref64"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl44" bibid="bib60" firstref="ref65"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl45" bibid="bib96" firstref="ref67"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl46" bibid="bib95" firstref="ref69"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl47" bibid="bib90" firstref="ref70"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl48" bibid="bib91" firstref="ref71"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl49" bibid="bib71" firstref="ref72"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl50" bibid="bib57" firstref="ref80"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl51" bibid="bib44" firstref="ref88"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl52" bibid="bib55" firstref="ref89"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl53" bibid="bib69" firstref="ref90"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl54" bibid="bib61" firstref="ref92"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl55" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref93"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl56" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref100"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl57" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref101"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl58" bibid="bib70" firstref="ref102"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl59" bibid="bib76" firstref="ref103"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl60" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref105"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl61" bibid="bib56" firstref="ref106"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl62" bibid="bib98" firstref="ref112"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl63" bibid="bib86" firstref="ref114"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl64" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref117"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl65" bibid="bib65" firstref="ref118"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl66" bibid="bib72" firstref="ref119"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl67" bibid="bib52" firstref="ref120"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl68" bibid="bib59" firstref="ref121"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl69" bibid="bib73" firstref="ref122"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl70" bibid="bib32" firstref="ref126"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl71" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref128"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl72" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref129"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl73" bibid="bib94" firstref="ref130"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl74" bibid="bib81" firstref="ref139"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl75" bibid="bib50" firstref="ref143"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl76" bibid="bib38" firstref="ref144"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl77" bibid="bib68" firstref="ref148"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl78" bibid="bib84" firstref="ref149"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl79" bibid="bib46" firstref="ref150"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl80" bibid="bib85" firstref="ref151"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl81" bibid="bib47" firstref="ref153"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl82" bibid="bib74" firstref="ref154"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl83" bibid="bib33" firstref="ref156"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl84" bibid="bib89" firstref="ref157"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl85" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref159"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl86" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref161"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl87" bibid="bib27" firstref="ref162"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl88" bibid="bib40" firstref="ref163"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl89" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref166"></nolink>
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1483461
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Prospective Association between Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in High School Adolescents: Analysis of the Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gabriela+Campeau%22">Gabriela Campeau</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6644-972X">0000-0002-6644-972X</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Gabrielle+Yale-Soulière%22">Gabrielle Yale-Soulière</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9018-8435">0000-0002-9018-8435</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Julie+Goulet%22">Julie Goulet</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6157-3609">0000-0002-6157-3609</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kassandra+Berniqué%22">Kassandra Berniqué</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lyse+Turgeon%22">Lyse Turgeon</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Natalie+Castellanos+Ryan%22">Natalie Castellanos Ryan</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7077-1340">0000-0002-7077-1340</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(10):4236-4250.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 15
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22High+Schools%22">High Schools</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Depression+%28Psychology%29%22">Depression (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22At+Risk+Persons%22">At Risk Persons</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22High+School+Students%22">High School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Individual+Characteristics%22">Individual Characteristics</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Canada+%28Montreal%29%22">Canada (Montreal)</searchLink>
– Name: SubjectThesaurus
  Label: Assessment and Survey Identifiers
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Multidimensional+Perfectionism+Scale%22">Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="SU" term="%22Depression+Anxiety+and+Stress+Scales%22">Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.70001
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Depression is still not fully understood when it comes to its risk factors. The association with perfectionism is increasingly under scrutiny. Moreover, this link could be elucidated by intermediary variables. This contributes to the fact that the risk factors for depression are not yet fully understood. This study sought to address this gap by examining the role of academic self-efficacy as a potential mediator of the relationship between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses were conducted using data collected at three time-points among 527 high school students (72.9% girls) aged 14-17 years (mean age = 14.9 years, SD = 0.91). Findings suggest that after controlling for baseline levels of depressive symptoms and academic self-efficacy, there were no prospective associations between perfectionism and depressive symptoms. However, certain findings emerging from this study highlight the role of academic self-efficacy in perfectionism. These results stress the need for methodological considerations such as controlling for baseline levels of the dependent variables, as well as the need for prevention or early intervention aimed at reducing the onset or continuation of subsequent mental health issues.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1483461
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1483461
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.70001
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 15
        StartPage: 4236
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Depression (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Personality Traits
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: At Risk Persons
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: High School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Correlation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Individual Characteristics
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Canada (Montreal)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Prospective Association between Perfectionism and Depressive Symptoms in High School Adolescents: Analysis of the Mediating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Gabriela Campeau
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Gabrielle Yale-Soulière
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Julie Goulet
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Kassandra Berniqué
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Lyse Turgeon
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Natalie Castellanos Ryan
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 10
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1520-6807
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 62
            – Type: issue
              Value: 10
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
ResultId 1