Peer Problems in Narcissistic Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies
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| Title: | Peer Problems in Narcissistic Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies |
|---|---|
| Language: | English |
| Authors: | Ioanna Voulgaridou (ORCID |
| Source: | Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(10):3975-3987. |
| Availability: | Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us |
| Peer Reviewed: | Y |
| Page Count: | 13 |
| Publication Date: | 2025 |
| Document Type: | Journal Articles Reports - Research |
| Descriptors: | Peer Relationship, Interpersonal Competence, Personality Traits, Personality Problems, Emotional Response, Adolescents, Correlation, Gender Differences, Intervention, Prevention, Adolescent Development, Social Development |
| DOI: | 10.1002/pits.23589 |
| ISSN: | 0033-3085 1520-6807 |
| Abstract: | This study explores the associations among narcissistic traits, emotion regulation strategies, and peer problems among adolescents. Specifically, it examines whether cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression moderate the relationship between narcissistic traits and peer problems. In total 2207 individuals (1165, 52.8% females), aged between 13 and 16 (M = 14.04, SD = 0.81) responded to self-report measures. Results confirmed that narcissism is positively correlated with peer problems, consistent with prior research. Emotion regulation strategies showed distinct patterns: expressive suppression was linked to a stronger association between narcissism and peer problems, whereas cognitive reappraisal was linked to a weaker association. Preliminary analyses indicated that males reported higher levels of narcissism and expressive suppression, but gender did not moderate the narcissism-peer problems link. These findings underscore the importance of emotion regulation in understanding social difficulties among adolescents with narcissistic traits and suggest the value of gender-sensitive, school-based interventions that promote adaptive regulation strategies. The study offers practical considerations for prevention and intervention efforts and informs future research on adolescent social development. |
| Abstractor: | As Provided |
| Entry Date: | 2025 |
| Accession Number: | EJ1483485 |
| Database: | ERIC |
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| FullText | Links: – Type: pdflink Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwEAbRFj80se7Cqb50xhBsWLAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDHdYsbIO3nyDkq8Y5QIBEICBm7Nag2IqZh6NQ_lK1OWZ-p5jNrMBHZzCbUepCJbY74LbMb6H0-vNaOMw0pEhfNCCxxsZLUvp5U0pBZS1QhswYebZVSOQIDtotNpC2xm5tVORXKXNniu8UIO51rjKkGR4jPOcP8743b-_rOK6zN1YMJzCLjx8Sy-IHLLhL8xLYsQvHfNZqH0v6viRIlj4oW7RzSeb_q0aA7vuVcSn Text: Availability: 1 Value: <anid>AN0187949511;pis01oct.25;2025Sep16.03:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187949511-1">Peer Problems in Narcissistic Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies </title> <p>This study explores the associations among narcissistic traits, emotion regulation strategies, and peer problems among adolescents. Specifically, it examines whether cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression moderate the relationship between narcissistic traits and peer problems. In total 2207 individuals (1165, 52.8% females), aged between 13 and 16 (M = 14.04, SD = 0.81) responded to self‐report measures. Results confirmed that narcissism is positively correlated with peer problems, consistent with prior research. Emotion regulation strategies showed distinct patterns: expressive suppression was linked to a stronger association between narcissism and peer problems, whereas cognitive reappraisal was linked to a weaker association. Preliminary analyses indicated that males reported higher levels of narcissism and expressive suppression, but gender did not moderate the narcissism–peer problems link. These findings underscore the importance of emotion regulation in understanding social difficulties among adolescents with narcissistic traits and suggest the value of gender‐sensitive, school‐based interventions that promote adaptive regulation strategies. The study offers practical considerations for prevention and intervention efforts and informs future research on adolescent social development.</p> <p>Summary: Emotion regulation strategies moderate the relationship between narcissism and peer problems in adolescents.Targeted interventions focused on enhancing cognitive reappraisal skills and reducing reliance on expressive suppression can improve peer relationships and social functioning among narcissistic adolescents.School‐based interventions should be gender‐sensitive to address unique emotion regulation tendencies.</p> <p>Keywords: adolescents; emotion regulation; narcissism; peer problems</p> <p>The growing empirical interest in adolescent narcissism has elucidated its complex relations with various behavioral and personality constructs (Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref1">50</reflink>]). Narcissism, characterized by grandiosity, entitlement, and a preoccupation with self‐worth, is linked to both adaptive and maladaptive behaviors (Win [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref2">53</reflink>]; Hendin and Cheek [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref3">31</reflink>]). Recent frameworks differentiate between pathological narcissism, associated with significant psychological distress and impaired functioning, and non‐pathological narcissism, which includes traits like confidence, assertiveness, and charm that can be socially advantageous in specific contexts (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref4">4</reflink>]; Pincus et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref5">44</reflink>]). This study focuses on non‐pathological narcissism, which includes traits like exploitation, superiority, and preoccupation with worth appraisals. Although these traits may be associated with social advantages in some contexts, they are also frequently linked to interpersonal difficulties, particularly during adolescence (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref6">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>A well‐established finding across research on narcissism is its positive association with peer problems, which encompass difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy social relationships, including heightened interpersonal conflicts and peer rejection (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref7">4</reflink>]; Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref8">51</reflink>]). These problems involve struggles to establish and sustain friendships, rejection or exclusion by peers, and engagement in aggressive or bullying behaviors (Goodman [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref9">22</reflink>]). Peer problems are characterized by disrupted reciprocity in relationships, limited empathy, and heightened sensitivity to criticism, all of which can hinder adolescents' social and emotional development (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref10">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>Although some dimensions of narcissism, such as charisma and self‐confidence, may initially enhance social standing, they often mask underlying relational difficulties. Narcissistic individuals may engage in socially beneficial behaviors for self‐serving purposes, such as gaining admiration or status, rather than fostering genuine connections (Pincus et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref11">44</reflink>]). While temporarily adaptive, such behaviors are also associated with increased misunderstandings, social rejection, and isolation over time (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref12">35</reflink>]).</p> <p>Understanding peer problems in the context of narcissism is particularly important during adolescence, a developmental period marked by significant social challenges and the formation of complex peer relationships. Adolescents with high levels of narcissism often face substantial peer problems, including difficulties in forming and maintaining close friendships, heightened interpersonal conflict, and a propensity for aggressive behaviors (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref13">4</reflink>]; Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref14">35</reflink>]). These peer problems are not only detrimental to adolescents' immediate social development but also carry long‐term implications for mental health and well‐being, as peer relationships play a critical role in fostering a sense of belonging, happiness, and overall life satisfaction (Baumeister et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref15">5</reflink>]; Demır and Weitekamp [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref16">14</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite its correlation with social challenges, non‐pathological narcissism has demonstrated associations with positive perceptions of one's relationships (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref17">4</reflink>]). However, these positive perceptions often stem from self‐inflation and the need for admiration, which may drive individuals to engage in socially beneficial behaviors for external validation rather than authentic connection (Pincus et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref18">44</reflink>]). Over time, this lack of genuine empathy and reciprocity can lead to misunderstandings, conflicts, and social isolation (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref19">35</reflink>]). While effective emotion regulation strategies may temporarily maintain an illusion of positive interactions, the self‐centered nature of narcissism often undermines long‐term relationship stability (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref20">4</reflink>]). Emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, are crucial in moderating the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. Cognitive reappraisal, an adaptive strategy, enables individuals to reinterpret social challenges constructively, reducing emotional distress and fostering positive peer interactions (Gross [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref21">25</reflink>]). In contrast, expressive suppression, a maladaptive strategy, involves inhibiting emotional expression, which can increase internal tension and exacerbate interpersonal difficulties (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref22">27</reflink>]). By acting as moderators, these emotion regulation strategies significantly shape how narcissistic traits influence peer dynamics, either mitigating or amplifying the challenges associated with peer relationships.</p> <p>The purpose of this study is to examine associations between narcissism and problems in peer relationships in adolescence, a critical developmental stage marked by complex social dynamics. Social relationships fulfill a fundamental need to belong (Baumeister et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref23">5</reflink>]), significantly contributing to well‐being, happiness, and physical and mental health (Demır and Weitekamp [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref24">14</reflink>]). Adolescents with high levels of narcissism often encounter substantial peer problems, which may persist into adulthood if not addressed (Fanti and Henrich [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref25">16</reflink>]). Investigating these dynamics can inform early interventions aimed at fostering healthier relationship patterns and equipping adolescents with adaptive emotion regulation strategies to navigate their social environments more effectively (Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref26">50</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-2">Narcissism and Peer Problems</hd> <p>The relationship between narcissism and peer problems is multifaceted, with narcissistic traits often associated with an arrogant and superior interpersonal style (Pincus et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref27">44</reflink>]). Adolescents with narcissistic traits maintain a grandiose attitude, often using self‐confidence as a buffer against perceived threats to a fragile self‐concept (Pincus et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref28">44</reflink>]). While these traits can be linked to temporary social advantages, they are also often associated with difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy peer relationships (Lahtinen and Peets [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref29">39</reflink>]). Narcissistic traits, such as grandiosity and entitlement frequently result in aggression, social isolation, and strained peer dynamics, significantly impacting adolescents' mental health and social success. Close peer relationships, requiring reciprocity and commitment, may be particularly challenging for individuals who perceive themselves as superior to others (Wurst et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref30">54</reflink>]).</p> <p>Narcissistic adolescents may often face relational challenges and peer problems, which may include aggressive responses to perceived threats or attempts to assert dominance (Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref31">50</reflink>]). The self‐regulatory model of narcissism (Morf and Rhodewalt [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref32">40</reflink>]) provides a foundational framework for understanding interpersonal challenges, emphasizing the role of external validation in maintaining a grandiose self‐view. While narcissistic individuals may initially come across as charming and charismatic (Carlson et al. [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref33">10</reflink>]), their competitiveness, aggression, and lack of empathy often result in conflicts, rejection, and social isolation (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref34">35</reflink>]). The constant tension between an inflated self‐image and external feedback may contribute to a cycle of strained peer relations and negative social outcomes (Baumeister et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref35">5</reflink>]). This framework highlights how narcissistic traits undermine the reciprocity and empathy required for healthy peer relationships, further perpetuating social challenges.</p> <p>Narcissistic youth are motivated to maintain their grandiose self‐image through attention‐seeking behaviors (Campbell et al. [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref36">8</reflink>]; Morf and Rhodewalt [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref37">40</reflink>]). While these behaviors may help them gain initial popularity, they often lead to strained interpersonal relationships characterized by competitiveness, aggression, and reduced empathy (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref38">35</reflink>]). Their hypervigilance to criticism and rejection (Baumeister et al. [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref39">5</reflink>]) often results in conflictual relationships, with evidence suggesting that they perceive a higher frequency of daily interpersonal transgressions, such as insults or betrayals (Wurst et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref40">54</reflink>]). When faced with negative feedback, they may lash out at both the source of the insult and uninvolved third parties, further exacerbating peer problems (Bushman et al. [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref41">7</reflink>]).</p> <p>Despite growing interest in narcissism among adolescents, limited research has focused on its impact on peer relationships (Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref42">55</reflink>]). Similar to adults, adolescents with higher levels of narcissism frequently value dominance and attractiveness over forming close, reciprocal relationships (Ojanen and Findley‐Van Nostrand [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref43">42</reflink>]). They tend to exhibit lower empathy, are viewed as less prosocial by their peers, and are more likely to engage in conduct problems or aggressive behaviors (Fanti and Henrich [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref44">16</reflink>]; Thomaes et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref45">47</reflink>]; Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref46">51</reflink>]). Narcissistic adolescents often use their social interactions as platforms to gain attention or admiration rather than foster genuine connections (Thomaes et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref47">47</reflink>]). For instance, they may present themselves as fashionable, socially skilled, or 'cool,' which may temporarily enhance their popularity (Hawk et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref48">29</reflink>]). However, these self‐promotional behaviors are typically self‐serving and lack the depth necessary for stable, supportive relationships (Thomaes et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref49">47</reflink>]). Over time, narcissistic youth may view close relationships negatively—perceiving them as opportunities for power or dominance rather than sources of mutual support and understanding (Sauls and Zeigler‐Hill [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref50">46</reflink>]).</p> <p>Sex differences may also moderate the relationship between narcissism and peer problems, influencing how narcissistic traits manifest in interpersonal dynamics. For instance, narcissism has been associated with greater friendship quality among boys but was found to be unrelated to friendship quality among girls (Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref51">55</reflink>]). This suggests that boys and girls with narcissistic tendencies may engage differently in social interactions, possibly reflecting differences in the social expectations and peer norms they encounter.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-3">The Role of Emotion Regulation</hd> <p>Emotion regulation, the process by which individuals influence their emotions, is crucial in understanding the dynamics of narcissism and peer problems. Defined as the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reaction, emotion regulation strategies significantly impact how adolescents navigate social interactions and manage conflicts (Baroncelli and Ciucci [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref52">3</reflink>]). Gross ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref53">25</reflink>]) process model of emotion regulation provides a critical framework for understanding how cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression influence the social outcomes of narcissistic individuals.</p> <p>Cognitive reappraisal is an adaptive strategy that involves reinterpreting situations to reduce emotional distress and foster constructive interactions (Gross [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref54">25</reflink>]). This strategy allows individuals to reinterpret negative social interactions in a less threatening way, thereby promoting more positive and adaptive responses (Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref55">52</reflink>]). Conversely, expressive suppression, a maladaptive strategy, involves inhibiting outward emotional expressions. While this may temporarily prevent conflict, it often leads to heightened internal tension, frustration, and strained relationships (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref56">27</reflink>]).</p> <p>Adolescents with high levels of narcissism who employ cognitive reappraisal may be better equipped to manage social stressors, as this strategy helps them reinterpret peer criticism in a constructive way (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref57">26</reflink>]; Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref58">1</reflink>]). This can reduce aggressive tendencies and foster healthier peer relationships. In contrast, reliance on expressive suppression can exacerbate feelings of threat or rejection, leading to heightened aggression, increased peer conflict, and social isolation (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref59">27</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref60">18</reflink>]). These contrasting effects highlight the importance of investigating emotion regulation as a critical moderator in the relationship between narcissism and peer problems.</p> <p>Emotion regulation strategies act as moderators by shaping how narcissistic behavior influences peer relationships. The contextual reinforcement model by Campbell and Campbell ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref61">9</reflink>]) provides a useful framework for understanding how narcissistic behavior impacts peer relationships by emphasizing the role of perceived benefits and costs for both the individual with high narcissism and their interaction partner. According to this model, narcissistic behaviors are dynamic and influenced by the social environment. For instance, individuals with high narcissism may exhibit prosocial behaviors, such as charm or cooperation, in contexts where they perceive a benefit (e.g., admiration or status gain). Conversely, when faced with situations that involve criticism or rejection, these individuals are more likely to resort to defensive or aggressive behaviors to protect their grandiose self‐concept. These behaviors are further shaped by emotion regulation strategies. Cognitive reappraisal as a moderator can help narcissistic adolescents reinterpret peer criticism constructively, promoting positive social interactions. In contrast, expressive suppression may be more likely to internalize negative feedback, leading to frustration, defensiveness, or conflict escalation.</p> <p>The Narcissism in Situations Framework (NARCIS; Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref62">55</reflink>]) builds on this model by incorporating both contextual and situational influences. This framework highlights the interaction between personal traits, such as entitlement and grandiosity, and environmental factors, including social feedback and peer dynamics. For instance, positive reinforcement, such as admiration, may encourage narcissistic individuals to engage in prosocial behaviors. On the other hand, negative interactions, such as criticism or perceived slights, can trigger defensive mechanisms, leading to interpersonal conflict or withdrawal (Back et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref63">2</reflink>]; Wurst et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref64">54</reflink>]). Emotion regulation strategies act as critical moderators in shaping how narcissistic behavior impacts peer relationships within the framework of the contextual reinforcement model. The perceived benefits and costs associated with narcissistic behavior are influenced not only by external feedback but also by the individual's ability to regulate their emotional responses. For instance, narcissistic adolescents using cognitive reappraisal as a moderator may reinterpret peer criticism as constructive feedback, facilitating more positive social interactions. In contrast, those relying on expressive suppression as a moderator may internalize criticism, resulting in heightened frustration, increased tension, and aggressive responses.</p> <p>Sex differences have also been observed in emotion regulation tendencies. Males, for example, are more likely to use expressive suppression, while no significant gender differences are observed in cognitive reappraisal (Zimmermann and Iwanski [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref65">56</reflink>]). These findings suggest the need for gender‐sensitive approaches in interventions targeting emotion regulation strategies. Programs for males may focus on reducing reliance on expressive suppression, while those for females could emphasize enhancing cognitive reappraisal skills.</p> <p>Adaptive emotion regulation strategies are consistently linked to positive social outcomes, such as better social skills, higher friendship quality, and greater prosocial behavior (Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref66">36</reflink>]; Röll et al. [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref67">45</reflink>]). Conversely, emotion dysregulation is associated with increased stress, aggression, and social difficulties (Thompson [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref68">48</reflink>]). For example, cognitive reappraisal‐a strategy that involves rethinking the emotional impact of a situation‐ can reduce anger and minimize (Gratz and Roemer [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref69">23</reflink>]; Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref70">36</reflink>]). In contrast, expressive suppression, is associated with increased internal tension and maladaptive behaviors (Gross and Thompson [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref71">28</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given these dynamics, it is crucial to investigate the combined moderating effects of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. This study explores whether the dual‐moderator interaction of these strategies is associated with differences in how narcissistic traits relate to peer‐related difficulties. Cognitive reappraisal, which involves rethinking the meaning of an emotion‐eliciting situation to lessen its emotional effect, is associated with better coping mechanisms and positive emotional responses (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref72">27</reflink>]). Adolescents with high levels of narcissism who employ cognitive reappraisal may be better equipped to handle social stressors, as this strategy allows them to reinterpret negative social interactions in a less threatening manner (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref73">26</reflink>]; Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref74">1</reflink>]). Some evidence suggests that this reframing process may be associated with less aggressive behavior and improved peer interactions (Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref75">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conversely, adolescents who rely on expressive suppression may face greater challenges. Expressive suppression involves efforts to inhibit emotional expression, and has been associated with reduced experience of positive emotions and greater difficulty managing negative affect, potentially resulting in increased internal tension and frustration (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref76">27</reflink>]). Among adolescents high in narcissism, expressive suppression may be linked to heightened perceptions of threat or criticism and greater interpersonal conflict. This strategy has also been associated with challenges in forming close peer connections and with greater social strain or isolation (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref77">27</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref78">18</reflink>]). Taken together, the co‐occurrence of high suppression and low reappraisal may be associated with greater peer problems in adolescents with narcissistic traits, while the presence of higher reappraisal may be linked to more favorable social outcomes. The present study investigates whether these emotion regulation strategies, individually and in combination, moderate the strength of the association between narcissism and peer problems (Figure 1).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23589-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23589-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Hypothetical model of the moderating roles of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in the relationship between narcissism and peer problems." /> </p> <p></p> <p>By drawing on both Gross ([<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref79">25</reflink>]) process model of emotion regulation and the NARCIS framework (Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref80">55</reflink>]) this study positions cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression as critical moderators in understanding the link between narcissism and peer problems. The use of PROCESS (Model 2) allows for the investigation of these two moderators simultaneously, providing insight into their interactive effects. This dual‐moderator approach highlights the importance of considering the interplay between adaptive and maladaptive processes in shaping adolescents' social outcomes.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-5">The Present Study</hd> <p>This study investigates the moderating effects of emotion regulation strategies on the relationship between narcissism and peer problems in adolescents. Adolescence is a developmental stage characterized by heightened social challenges and the formation of complex peer relationships, making it a critical period for examining how narcissistic traits interact with key social and emotional processes. Narcissism has been linked to both positive attributes, such as prosocial behavior and emotion control, and negative interpersonal challenges, including conflicts and aggression (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref81">4</reflink>]). This study seeks to explore how these contradictory associations manifest in peer relationships, emphasizing the role of emotion regulation strategies. It is hypothesized that cognitive reappraisal would be associated with a weaker link between narcissism and peer problems, potentially serving a buffering function. Adolescents reporting higher use of this adaptive strategy may be more likely to manage social stressors in ways that support positive peer interactions (Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref82">52</reflink>]). Conversely, it is expected that expressive suppression will be associated with a stronger relationship between narcissism and peer problems, given prior findings linking suppression to internal tension, frustration, and interpersonal strain (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref83">26</reflink>]).</p> <p>The study also considered whether sex moderates the association between narcissism and peer problems. Research suggests that boys and girls may differ in how narcissistic traits are expressed and perceived within peer contexts (Zhou et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref84">55</reflink>]). For example, boys with higher narcissistic tendencies may experience relatively higher friendship quality compared to girls, who may be less likely to see narcissism positively reflected in their peer relationships. By examining these hypotheses, this study aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the interaction between narcissistic traits, emotion regulation strategies, and sex in shaping peer problems.</p> <p>Given the significant role of emotion regulation in social functioning, understanding these moderating effects can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms that influence peer relationships among narcissistic adolescents. This understanding can also identify potential targets for intervention. For instance, programs that enhance cognitive reappraisal skills could mitigate the negative social consequences of narcissism. Additionally, developing strategies to reduce reliance on expressive suppression and promote healthier emotion expression could help improve peer relationships and overall social functioning.</p> <p>Understanding the relationship between narcissism, peer problems, and emotion regulation is especially relevant for school psychology due to the unique social challenges and complex peer dynamics that characterize adolescence. During this period, narcissistic traits often peak, heightening the risk of social difficulties, such as conflicts, aggression, and social isolation, which can adversely impact students' well‐being and academic success (Thomaes et al. [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref85">47</reflink>]; Fanti and Henrich [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref86">16</reflink>]). The moderating role of emotion regulation strategies provides a valuable framework for developing effective interventions. For example, interventions that teach adolescents adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, can help them navigate social interactions more effectively and reduce peer conflicts (Baroncelli and Ciucci [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref87">3</reflink>]; Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref88">36</reflink>]). These programs can foster a positive and supportive school environment, promoting healthier social interactions and preventing long‐term psychological problems (Demır and Weitekamp [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref89">14</reflink>]). Addressing these issues early in adolescence supports students' academic and emotional development while reducing the potential long‐term impact of peer problems.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-6">Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949511-7">Participants</hd> <p>In total 2207 individuals (1165, 52.8% females), aged between 13 and 16 (<emph>M</emph> = 14.04, SD = 0.81) participated in the study. All participants were attended the three grades of junior high school, were native Greeks, while most of them came from middle‐class families. A post hoc power analysis was conducted utilizing G * Power. With an alpha level of 0.05, a sample size of 2207, and a medium effect size of 0.46 (Cohen [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref90">12</reflink>]), achieved power for the study was 1.00.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-8">Procedure</hd> <p>The Institute of Education Policy, a scientific and advisory body regulated by the Greek Ministry of Education, Research and Religious Affairs, approved the study. A random stratified cluster sampling with prefecture and locality (urban/rural) as sampling criteria was applied to select the respondents from 10 junior high schools in the broader area of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace including five regions. The sample was selected to reflect adolescent student population (junior high school students) in this area based on the most recent Greek Bureau of Statistics data. School principals were face‐to‐face informed about the purpose of the study and students were instructed to hand in a written consent to their parents and/or legal guardians emphasizing that the participation was voluntary and anonymous and that the collected information was confidential. Surveys were group administered during a class period in approximately 45 min. Approximately 97% (<emph>n</emph> = 2439) of the given consent forms were returned by the parents and/or legal guardians and most of them gave active consent for their children to participate (<emph>n</emph> = 2229, 89% of the original sample). Twenty‐two students and their questionnaires were excluded because of errors or incomplete responses.</p> <p>To address potential common method bias, several steps were taken. Participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality to minimize social desirability bias, and validated self‐report instruments were used to ensure reliability and clarity in responses. Additionally, Harman's single‐factor test was conducted to statistically assess common method bias (Fuller et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref91">20</reflink>]). The results indicated that no single factor accounted for the majority of the variance, suggesting that common method bias was unlikely to significantly influence the findings.</p> <p>It is important to acknowledge that the data used in this study have also been used in a separate publication (Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref92">50</reflink>]). In accordance with ethical guidelines, we ensured that the dual use of data was transparently disclosed, with each publication focusing on distinct and nonoverlapping research objectives. The data were collected following rigorous ethical protocols, including obtaining informed consent from all participants and ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. The decision to use the data in multiple studies was made with careful consideration of ethical standards to maintain the integrity and ethical conduct of the research.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-9">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949511-10">Narcissism</hd> <p>The 7‐item Narcissism subscale ("I act charming or nice to get things I want") from the Antisocial Process Screening Device‐Youth Version (APSD; Frick and Hare [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref93">19</reflink>]) was used, rated on a four‐point Likert scale (<emph>0 = not at all true</emph> to <emph>3 = definitely true</emph>). The scale was translated in Greek and its validity has been supported with Greek‐speaking adolescents (Fanti and Henrich [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref94">16</reflink>]). Cronbach's alpha 0.79 for the narcissism subscale was acceptable for this study.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-11">Peer Problems</hd> <p>The self‐reported form of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref95">21</reflink>]) is a widely used instrument for evaluating distinct social, emotional, and behavioral problems related to mental health in children and adolescents over the previous 6 months. The SDQ consists of 25 items grouped into five subscales with five items each: emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity‐inattention, peer problems, and prosocial behavior. Each item is scored on a three‐point scale (<emph>0 = not true</emph>, <emph>1 = somewhat true</emph>, and <emph>2 = certainly true</emph>). In the current study only the five items referring to the peer problems subscale (e.g., "I get on better with adults than with other children") were used in analyses. The subscale score was computed by summing the relevant items after reverse‐coding the positively worded items (e.g., "I am generally liked by other children"). Higher scores on the subscale reflect more difficulties in peer interactions. This scale has been used with Greek samples in epidemiological, developmental, and clinical research (e.g., Bibou‐Nakou et al. [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref96">6</reflink>]; Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref97">38</reflink>]), demonstrating adequate internal consistency (Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref98">37</reflink>]). Cronbach's alpha 0.77 for the narcissism subscale was acceptable for this study.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-12">Emotion Regulation</hd> <p>The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ; Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref99">27</reflink>]) is a 10‐item self‐report questionnaire which consists of two scales corresponding to two different emotion regulation strategies: cognitive reappraisal (six items; "When I want to feel happier, I think about something different") and expressive suppression (four items; e.g., "I control my feelings by not showing them"). The 10 items are rated on a 7‐point‐Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Higher scores on each scale indicate greater use of the corresponding emotion regulation strategy. The ERQ has been reported to have high internal consistency (Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref100">36</reflink>]), as well as sound convergent and discriminant validity and good psychometric properties (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref101">27</reflink>]). In this study, the cognitive reappraisal scale showed a Cronbach's alpha of 0.92, and the expressive suppression scale showed a Cronbach's alpha of 0.80, both indicating good reliability.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-13">Analysis Plan</hd> <p>Descriptive statistics were calculated for all measures. Independent <emph>t</emph>‐tests explored possible sex differences in narcissism, peer problems, and emotion regulation strategies. Pearson correlation coefficients estimated the associations among the variables.</p> <p>To examine whether the relationship between narcissism and peer problems differed by sex, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted. In the first step, narcissism and sex (dummy‐coded: 0 = female, 1 = male) were entered. In the second step, the interaction term (narcissism × sex) was added to the model. This approach allowed us to determine whether sex moderated the effect of narcissism on peer problems.</p> <p>In the next step, moderation analyses were conducted using PROCESS Model 2 (Hayes [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref102">30</reflink>]) to test whether emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) moderated the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. These analyses aimed to identify how adaptive (cognitive reappraisal) and maladaptive (expressive suppression) emotion regulation strategies influenced the relationship between narcissism and peer problems, while controlling for sex as a covariate.</p> <p>To illustrate significant interactions, simple slopes were examined for the predictor at levels of the moderators (e.g., male vs. female for sex; −1 SD, mean, +1 SD for emotion regulation strategies). The moderation hypotheses were tested using the bootstrap moderation method as described by Hayes (PROCESS statistical program; Hayes [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref103">30</reflink>]), which calculates the conditional effects of the predictor at specified levels of the moderators using bias‐corrected bootstrapping with 5000 samples. All analyses were performed using IBM Statistics SPSS 27.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-14">Preliminary Analyses</hd> <p>Means, standard deviations, observed ranges, and Pearson correlations among the study's variables, are presented in Table 1. All constructs were scored as mean item responses, with item scores ranging from 0 to 2 for narcissism and peer problems, and 1–7 for emotion regulation items. Observed score ranges in the sample were as follows: narcissism (0.11–2.00), peer problems (0.20–2.00), cognitive reappraisal (1.00–6.80), and expressive suppression (1.00–6.50). Similarly, values ± 1 standard deviation from the mean are reported in Table 1 to support the interpretation of "high" and "low" moderator conditions used in the simple slopes analysis (e.g., high suppression defined as +1 SD above the mean).</p> <p>1 Table Descriptive statistics, ranges, ± 1 SD values, and correlations among narcissism, peer problems, cognitive reappraisal, and expressive suppression.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;th /&gt;&lt;th&gt;Mean&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;SD&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Range&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#8722;1 SD&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;+1&amp;#8201;SD&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;1.&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;2.&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;3.&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1. Narcissism&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.03&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.57&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0&amp;#8211;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.46&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2. Peer problems&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.78&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.41&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0&amp;#8211;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.37&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.25&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;3. Cognitive reappraisal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.98&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.97&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&amp;#8211;7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.95&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;0.14&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;0.17&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td /&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;4. Expressive suppression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.66&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&amp;#8211;7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.62&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.94&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.05&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.16&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;0.29&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note</emph> : All variables were scored as mean item responses. Narcissism and peer problems range from 0 to 2; cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression from 1 to 7.</p> <ulist> <item>2 * <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.05</item> <item>3 ** <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01.</item> </ulist> <p>To aid interpretation of the peer problems construct, we examined the proportion of participants exceeding the SDQ threshold for elevated peer difficulties, defined as a score ≥ 4 on the standard 0–10 scale. Based on our scoring approach (mean of five items, each rated from 0 to 2), this threshold corresponds approximately to a mean item score of 1.60. In our sample, 10.3% of adolescents met or exceeded this level, indicating a meaningful subgroup with elevated peer difficulties. This suggests that while the overall average level of peer problems was low (M = 0.78, SD = 0.41), the sample included sufficient variability, including participants with elevated peer‐related challenges. Similarly, for narcissism, 17.2% of participants scored above 1.50 (on a 0–2 scale), reflecting relatively elevated levels in a nonclinical range. This interpretive approach is consistent with previous studies examining narcissism as a dimensional construct in adolescent populations (Kauten and Barry [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref104">34</reflink>]). The findings indicate meaningful variation within the sample to examine associations among constructs. Regarding the emotion regulation constructs, 22.6% of participants scored above +1 SD (≥ 1.94) on expressive suppression, indicating elevated use of this maladaptive strategy. Conversely, 21.4% scored below −1 SD (≤ 1.01) on cognitive reappraisal, reflecting a subgroup with relatively low use of this adaptive strategy. These distributions indicate sufficient variability to examine the moderating roles of these constructs.</p> <p>Preliminary analyses revealed that male participants reported higher narcissism <emph>t</emph>(2217) = 2.71, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01. No significant sex differences were found in peer problems, <emph>t</emph>(2217) = 1.02, <emph>p</emph> = 0.31, or in emotion regulation strategies, including cognitive reappraisal, <emph>t</emph>(2217) = 1.15, <emph>p</emph> = 0.25, and expressive suppression, <emph>t</emph>(2217) = 0.92, <emph>p</emph> = 0.36.</p> <p>Pearson correlations indicated that narcissism and peer problems had a positive correlation. Further, both narcissism and peer problems were significantly positively correlated with expressive suppression and negatively with cognitive reappraisal.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-15">Moderation Analyses</hd> <p>A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to examine whether sex moderated the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. In Step 1, narcissism (centered) and sex (coded as 0 = female, 1 = male) were entered as predictors. This model was significant, <emph>F</emph>(<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref105">2</reflink>, 2197) = 45.12, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.001, R² = 0.039. Narcissism was a significant predictor (β = 0.31, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.001), while sex was not (β = 0.05, <emph>p</emph> = 0.09). In Step 2, the interaction term (narcissism × sex) was added. The interaction was not statistically significant, β = 0.06, <emph>p</emph> = 0.18, ΔR² = 0.002, indicating that the association between narcissism and peer problems did not differ significantly between males and females.</p> <p>In the second stage, moderation analyses were conducted with emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression) as moderators (PROCESS Model 2; Hayes [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref106">30</reflink>]), while controlling for sex as a covariate. Results indicated that expressive suppression strengthened the relationship between narcissism and peer problems, while cognitive reappraisal weakened this association. Detailed reporting of effect sizes and confidence intervals provides a clearer picture of the magnitude and precision of these effects (Table 2). High expressive suppression (b = 0.24, SE = 0.12, 95% CI [0.11, 0.42], t = 2.98, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01 and low cognitive reappraisal (b = −0.35, SE = 0.17, 95% CI [−0.45, −0.19], t = −3.65, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01) moderated the associations between narcissism and peer problems (Table 2).</p> <p>2 Table Model summary of the moderating effect of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression between narcissism and peer problems.</p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;th&gt;Variable&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;italic&gt;B&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;italic&gt;SE&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;italic&gt;t&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;italic&gt;p&lt;/italic&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Constant&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10.60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Narcissism&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Cognitive reappraisal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;0.35&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;3.65&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Narcissism X cognitive reappraisal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;2.33&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;4.15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Expressive suppression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.24&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.98&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Narcissism X expressive suppression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#60;0.01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <p></p> <p> <ephtml> &lt;table&gt;&lt;thead valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;tr valign="bottom"&gt;&lt;th align="left"&gt;Conditional effect of narcissism on peer problems at values of empathy&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Values of cognitive reappraisal &amp;#8211; expressive suppression&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Effect&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Boot SE&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Boot LLCI&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Boot ULCI&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/thead&gt;&lt;tbody valign="top"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;High &amp;#8211; High&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.29&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;High &amp;#8211; Low&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.08&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#8722;0.21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.32&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Low&amp;#8208; High&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.34&lt;ext-link href="&amp;#42;" /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.45&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Low &amp;#8211; Low&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.38&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt; </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>4 <emph>Note</emph> : Bootstrapped estimates are based on 5000 samples. LLCI = lower limit of confidence interval; ULCI = upper limit of confidence interval; B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error.</item> <item>5 * <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01.</item> </ulist> <p>The narcissism × cognitive reappraisal and the narcissism × expressive suppression interactions were also significant, beta = 2.33, SE = 0.26, <emph>t</emph>(2190) = 4.15, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01 and beta = 3.18, SE = 0.26, <emph>t</emph>(2190) = 5.19, <emph>p</emph> &lt; 0.01, respectively. Simple slopes analysis for emotion regulation demonstrated that one standard deviation (SD) above the mean of expressive suppression, and one SD below the mean of cognitive reappraisal increased the positive association between narcissism and peer problems (Figure 2).</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23589-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23589-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 Moderating effects of emotion regulation strategies on narcissism and peer problems. Note: Each line represents a combination of emotion regulation levels based on ±1 standard deviation (SD) from the sample means. Specifically, high expressive suppression = 1 SD above the mean (1.94), low expressive suppression = 1 SD below the mean (0.62); high cognitive reappraisal = 1 SD above the mean (2.97), low cognitive reappraisal = 1 SD below the mean (0.99). The group sizes were as follows: High Suppression/Low Reappraisal (n = 923, 41.6%), Low Suppression/Low Reappraisal (n = 461, 20.8%), High Suppression/High Reappraisal (n = 337, 15.2%), and Low Suppression/High Reappraisal (n = 497, 22.4%)." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949511-17">Discussion</hd> <p>The present study aimed to explore the moderating effects of emotion regulation strategies, specifically expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal, on the relationship between narcissism and peer problems in adolescents. The findings contribute to our understanding of how emotion regulation may shape the interpersonal experiences of narcissistic youth, offering evidence of the differential impact of emotion regulation strategies on peer‐related outcomes.</p> <p>The results indicate that narcissism is positively correlated with peer problems, confirming previous research linking narcissistic traits to difficulties in social interactions and increased interpersonal conflicts (Lahtinen and Peets [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref107">39</reflink>]; Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref108">51</reflink>]). Adolescents high in narcissism may struggle with empathy and reciprocity, essential components of successful interpersonal interactions, leading to frequent misunderstandings, conflicts, and social isolation (Kjærvik and Bushman [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref109">35</reflink>]). This need for admiration and validation, typical of narcissistic individuals, can further strain peer relationships, as peers may become weary of the constant need for attention and the potential for manipulative or exploitative behaviors (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref110">4</reflink>]; Wurst et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref111">54</reflink>]). These findings align with existing theories on narcissism, which suggest that narcissistic individuals often face social rejection due to their self‐centered behaviors and lack of genuine interest in others (Nowak et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref112">41</reflink>]). These results support theories that narcissistic traits often lead to social challenges but also underscore the critical role of emotion regulation in influencing these outcomes (Voulgaridou et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref113">51</reflink>]; Lahtinen and Peets [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref114">39</reflink>]). While some studies suggest that certain narcissistic traits may be adaptive, such as in leadership or charisma (Grijalva et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref115">24</reflink>]), our findings highlight the primarily negative social consequences of narcissism, especially when maladaptive strategies like expressive suppression are employed (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref116">27</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref117">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>Both narcissism and peer problems were positively correlated with expressive suppression and negatively correlated with cognitive reappraisal. This pattern suggests that adolescents exhibiting higher levels of narcissism and peer problems are more likely to engage in maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as expressive suppression, and less likely to use adaptive strategies like cognitive reappraisal (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref118">4</reflink>]). According to theories on emotion regulation, expressive suppression can lead to internal stress and frustration, as it prevents individuals from addressing their emotional experiences constructively (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref119">27</reflink>]). This maladaptive strategy may heighten the risk of negative peer interactions with peers, leading to more intense and uncontrollable emotional responses, such as aggressive outbursts or social withdrawal (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref120">26</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref121">18</reflink>]). Recent research supports these findings, indicating that reliance on expressive suppression is associated with increased social difficulties and emotional dysregulation in adolescents (Nowak et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref122">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conversely, cognitive reappraisal, which involves altering one's thoughts about a situation to alter its emotional impact (Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref123">52</reflink>]; Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref124">1</reflink>]). Adolescents who effectively use cognitive reappraisal can reinterpret negative social encounters in a less threatening and more constructive manner, reducing emotional distress and promoting more positive social interactions (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref125">27</reflink>]). The negative correlation between cognitive reappraisal and both narcissism and peer problems indicates that adolescents who lack this adaptive strategy may be more prone to the detrimental social effects of narcissism, including heightened peer conflicts and difficulties in forming stable, supportive relationships (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref126">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>Preliminary analyses revealed that male participants reported higher levels of narcissism compared to female participants. This finding aligns with previous research indicating sex differences in narcissistic traits (Barry and Kauten [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref127">4</reflink>]). These differences could be attributed to various social and cultural factors. Societal expectations and gender norms often encourage males to exhibit traits such as assertiveness, dominance, and self‐confidence, which are closely related to narcissism (Twenge et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref128">49</reflink>]). In contrast, females might be socialized to be more nurturing, empathetic, and relationally oriented, resulting in lower levels of narcissistic traits (Foster et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref129">17</reflink>]). In terms of emotion regulation strategies, males are more likely to use expressive suppression compared to females (Zimmermann and Iwanski [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref130">56</reflink>]). This aligns with previous research suggesting that gendered socialization patterns influence how emotions are regulated and expressed.</p> <p>A key contribution of the current study is the examination of sex as a moderator in the narcissism–peer problems link. Although male adolescents reported higher levels of narcissism than females—consistent with prior literature (Twenge et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref131">49</reflink>]; Foster et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref132">17</reflink>])—the hierarchical regression analysis revealed no significant interaction between narcissism and sex. This indicates that the strength of the association between narcissism and peer problems is comparable across males and females. This finding suggests that while sex differences exist in levels of narcissism and emotion regulation tendencies (e.g., males showing more suppression; Zimmermann and Iwanski [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref133">56</reflink>]), the underlying mechanisms linking narcissism to peer difficulties are not sex‐dependent. Thus, interventions targeting emotion regulation skills in adolescents with narcissistic traits may be relevant across sexes, provided they are implemented with awareness of gendered patterns in emotional expression and coping.</p> <p>The moderation analyses further demonstrated that both emotion regulation strategies‐cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression‐ were associated with the strength of the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. Specifically, these strategies operated within a dual moderation model, where high expressive suppression and low cognitive reappraisal intensified the association between narcissism and peer problems. This finding illustrates the value of examining how adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies may interact to shape social outcomes for narcissistic adolescents.</p> <p>The results suggest that cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression function in opposing ways within this relationship. Expressive suppression, considered a maladaptive strategy, was associated with a stronger link between narcissism and peer problems. Narcissistic adolescents who frequently use expressive suppression may struggle to manage the internal emotional tension. When emotions are left unexpressed, this buildup can intensify feelings of frustration and hostility, increasing the likelihood of aggressive outbursts and strained relationships with peers (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref134">27</reflink>]; Kokkinos et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref135">36</reflink>]). For narcissistic adolescents, who are particularly sensitive to perceived threats and, expressive suppression can amplify feelings of aggression and hostility, exacerbating conflicts with peers and impeding the development of supportive relationships. This aligns with previous research suggesting that expressive suppression is linked to negative social outcomes and emotional dysregulation (Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref136">1</reflink>]; Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref137">27</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref138">18</reflink>]). Narcissistic adolescents often struggle with criticism and rejection, reacting defensively to perceived slights. When employing expressive suppression, their inability to express emotions can heighten internal stress, leading to more volatile and aggressive responses (John and Gross [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref139">32</reflink>]; Kashdan et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref140">33</reflink>]). This maladaptive cycle creates a hostile social environment, where peers may respond negatively to the narcissistic individual's aggression, reinforcing social isolation and negative perceptions of social interactions (Morf and Rhodewalt [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref141">40</reflink>]). Such emotional suppression drains psychological resources, reducing the capacity for positive social behavior and conflict resolution (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref142">26</reflink>]; Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref143">52</reflink>]).</p> <p>Conversely, cognitive reappraisal‐a strategy associated with more adaptive outcomes‐ was related to a weaker link between narcissism and peer problems. For narcissistic adolescents, this strategy facilitates the reinterpretation of negative social interactions in a less threatening manner, thereby reducing the likelihood of conflict and aggression. This aligns with prior research that underscores the benefits of cognitive reappraisal in enhancing emotional well‐being and promoting positive social interactions (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref144">26</reflink>]; Webb et al. [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref145">52</reflink>]). Cognitive reappraisal allows individuals to interpret potentially negative situations in a more balanced way, which reduces the emotional intensity and allows for more controlled reactions (John and Gross [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref146">32</reflink>]; Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref147">26</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref148">18</reflink>]). For narcissistic adolescents, this approach helps them manage their reactions to perceived insults or criticisms more effectively, thereby reducing the likelihood of aggressive responses that could escalate conflicts (Nowak et al. [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref149">41</reflink>]). By adopting a more positive perspective on social interactions and cues, these adolescents can foster healthier peer relationships. This adaptive emotion regulation strategy not only addresses immediate conflicts but also contributes to a more positive and stable social environment over time (Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref150">1</reflink>]). The dual moderation model highlights the dynamic interplay between adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in shaping the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. Adolescents with high levels of expressive suppression and low levels of cognitive reappraisal experience the strongest association between narcissism and peer problems, suggesting that the combined use of these strategies amplifies the social challenges faced by narcissistic youth. Conversely, higher levels of cognitive reappraisal can buffer against the adverse effects of narcissism, even when expressive suppression is also employed. This interaction emphasizes the importance of balance between adaptive and maladaptive strategies. While expressive suppression may heighten emotional tension and conflict, cognitive reappraisal offers a pathway to reinterpret social interactions constructively, mitigating these effects.</p> <p>The findings of this study have practical relevance for addressing the social difficulties associated with narcissism in adolescents, particularly through targeted emotion regulation interventions. Specifically, the results highlight the importance of enhancing cognitive reappraisal skills and reducing reliance on expressive suppression to improve peer relationships among narcissistic adolescents. Programs aimed at teaching cognitive reappraisal skills can help adolescents reinterpret negative social cues and manage their emotional responses constructively. Techniques such as role‐playing, guided reflection, and cognitive‐behavioral exercises can assist adolescents in reframing their thoughts during social interactions, reducing emotional distress, and promoting more positive peer relationships (Gross [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref151">26</reflink>]; Aldao et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref152">1</reflink>]). Furthermore, incorporating these strategies into social‐emotional learning (SEL) programs within schools can provide a systemic approach to equipping students with the necessary skills to navigate complex social dynamics.</p> <p>Interventions should also focus on minimizing the use of expressive suppression by providing adolescents with alternative strategies for managing their emotions. Practices such as mindfulness training (Gross and John [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref153">27</reflink>]; De France and Hollenstein [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref154">18</reflink>]) and stress management techniques (Chiesa and Serretti [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref155">11</reflink>]) can help adolescents become more aware of their emotions and reduce their tendency to suppress them (Creswell [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref156">13</reflink>]). For example, brief mindfulness exercises can be integrated into classroom routines, while stress management workshops can provide students with practical tools to handle emotional challenges effectively. Creative outlets, such as art and journaling, can also encourage healthy emotional expression and reduce the internal tension associated with suppression. These approaches can alleviate emotional distress, foster healthier social interactions, and provide students with sustainable tools for managing emotional challenges (Durlak et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref157">15</reflink>]).</p> <p>Given the observed sex differences, gender‐sensitive approaches are essential. For boys, interventions should focus on reducing expressive suppression and encouraging emotional literacy through activities such as peer discussions and emotional coaching. For girls, the emphasis should be on enhancing cognitive reappraisal skills to help them better manage social stressors and navigate peer dynamics. Empowerment workshops and mentoring programs tailored to their needs can further enhance their self‐confidence and social resilience. Despite these differences, the consistent mechanisms linking narcissism and peer problems across sexes underscore the importance of broad, adaptable frameworks that can address common challenges while remaining responsive to gender‐specific needs.</p> <p>By targeting these specific emotion regulation strategies, interventions can mitigate the negative effects of narcissistic traits on peer relationships, offering adolescents practical tools to navigate social challenges more effectively. Integrating these strategies into daily school practices, such as SEL sessions and classroom activities, ensures that the interventions are accessible and actionable. Additionally, collaboration between school psychologists, teachers, and parents can amplify the impact of these interventions by creating a supportive network that reinforces these skills across different environments. This approach not only supports adolescent development but also fosters a more positive and inclusive social environment, ultimately contributing to students' emotional well‐being and academic success.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-18">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>While this study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. The cross‐sectional design limits the ability to draw causal inferences about the relationships between narcissism, emotion regulation, and peer problems. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish the directionality of these associations and to examine how they evolve over time. Such studies could help determine whether narcissistic traits lead to peer problems through specific emotion regulation strategies or if difficulties in peer relationships contribute to the development or intensification of narcissistic behaviors. Longitudinal data would also allow for the examination of potential reciprocal effects, where peer problems and narcissistic traits influence each other over time.</p> <p>Additionally, the reliance on self‐report measures may introduce bias, as participants might underreport or overreport their levels of narcissism and emotion regulation strategies. Self‐report measures are susceptible to social desirability bias, where individuals might present themselves in a more favorable light (Paulhus and Vazire [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref158">43</reflink>]), or to recall bias, where participants might not accurately remember or assess their behaviors and emotional responses. Future research should consider incorporating multiple assessment methods, such as peer reports, teacher evaluations, and observational data, to provide a more comprehensive and objective view of the participants' narcissistic traits, emotion regulation strategies, and peer problems.</p> <p>Future research should also explore the potential moderating effects of other variables, such as social support and family dynamics, on the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. Social support from friends, family, and other significant individuals can play a crucial role in buffering the negative effects of narcissism on peer relationships. Investigating how different sources and types of social support interact with narcissistic traits and emotion regulation strategies could provide deeper insights into protective factors that promote better social functioning in narcissistic adolescents. Given the numerous variables and interactions tested, there is a risk of overfitting. Given the numerous variables and interactions tested, a risk of overfitting was acknowledged. Although cross‐validation was not conducted in the present study, it is recognized as a valuable methodological approach to enhance model robustness. While the sample size (<emph>N</emph> = 2218) was sufficiently large to permit a split‐sample cross‐validation, priority was placed on testing theoretically driven hypotheses rather than on model development or prediction. Therefore, statistical power for detecting moderation effects was maximized by conducting analyses within the full sample. Nonetheless, it is recommended that future research implement cross‐validation techniques—such as k‐fold or holdout validation—to ensure the generalizability of findings and to assess the consistency of interaction effects across independent subsamples.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-19">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study significantly contributes to the literature on narcissism and peer relationships in several ways. It extends previous research by exploring how emotion regulation strategies—specifically cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression—moderate the relationship between narcissism and peer problems. This provides new insights into the mechanisms affecting social interactions. Cognitive reappraisal emerges as a protective factor, promoting adaptive emotional responses and positive social interactions, while expressive suppression exacerbates social difficulties.</p> <p>While the findings of this study emphasize the negative social consequences of narcissism, certain narcissistic traits can be adaptive in specific social contexts. For example, traits such as confidence, and assertiveness are often associated with leadership and popularity (Grijalva et al. [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref159">24</reflink>]). Narcissistic admiration, characterized by charm and self‐promotion, may enhance an individual's ability to make positive first impressions and emerge as leaders in group settings (Back et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref160">2</reflink>]; Paulhus and Vazire [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref161">43</reflink>]). However, as this the study focuses on the overall level of narcissism rather than specific traits, caution is warranted in drawing conclusions about the adaptiveness of individual narcissistic characteristics. Instead, the study underscores the predominantly negative social outcomes associated with narcissism, particularly when maladaptive emotion regulation strategies are employed.</p> <p>Additionally, the study reveals gender differences in the expression and management of narcissistic traits, underscoring the importance of gender‐sensitive approaches in interventions. Finally, the research offers practical implications for school‐based interventions, providing evidence‐based recommendations to enhance social functioning and emotional well‐being among adolescents with narcissistic traits.</p> <hd id="AN0187949511-20">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>Deep appreciation is extended to Professor Constantinos M. Kokkinos for his constructive feedback and insightful comments during the preparation of this manuscript, which were instrumental in shaping its direction and quality. The conduct of this study was financially supported by the Greek State Scholarships Foundation (SSF) awarded to Ioanna Voulgaridou (Award #10451).</p> <ref id="AN0187949511-21"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref58" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aldao, A., S. Nolen‐Hoeksema, and S. Schweizer. 2010. " Emotion‐Regulation Strategies Across Psychopathology: A Meta‐Analytic Review." Clinical Psychology Review 30, no. 2 : 217 – 237.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref63" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Back, M. D., A. C. P. Küfner, M. Dufner, T. M. Gerlach, J. F. Rauthmann, and J. J. A. Denissen. 2013. " Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry: Disentangling the Bright and Dark Sides of Narcissism." 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| Items | – Name: Title Label: Title Group: Ti Data: Peer Problems in Narcissistic Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies – Name: Language Label: Language Group: Lang Data: English – Name: Author Label: Authors Group: Au Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ioanna+Voulgaridou%22">Ioanna Voulgaridou</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2615-4126">0000-0002-2615-4126</externalLink>) – Name: TitleSource Label: Source Group: Src Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(10):3975-3987. – Name: Avail Label: Availability Group: Avail Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us – Name: PeerReviewed Label: Peer Reviewed Group: SrcInfo Data: Y – Name: Pages Label: Page Count Group: Src Data: 13 – Name: DatePubCY Label: Publication Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: TypeDocument Label: Document Type Group: TypDoc Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research – Name: Subject Label: Descriptors Group: Su Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Traits%22">Personality Traits</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Personality+Problems%22">Personality Problems</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Emotional+Response%22">Emotional Response</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Correlation%22">Correlation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intervention%22">Intervention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Prevention%22">Prevention</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescent+Development%22">Adolescent Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Development%22">Social Development</searchLink> – Name: DOI Label: DOI Group: ID Data: 10.1002/pits.23589 – Name: ISSN Label: ISSN Group: ISSN Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807 – Name: Abstract Label: Abstract Group: Ab Data: This study explores the associations among narcissistic traits, emotion regulation strategies, and peer problems among adolescents. Specifically, it examines whether cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression moderate the relationship between narcissistic traits and peer problems. In total 2207 individuals (1165, 52.8% females), aged between 13 and 16 (M = 14.04, SD = 0.81) responded to self-report measures. Results confirmed that narcissism is positively correlated with peer problems, consistent with prior research. Emotion regulation strategies showed distinct patterns: expressive suppression was linked to a stronger association between narcissism and peer problems, whereas cognitive reappraisal was linked to a weaker association. Preliminary analyses indicated that males reported higher levels of narcissism and expressive suppression, but gender did not moderate the narcissism-peer problems link. These findings underscore the importance of emotion regulation in understanding social difficulties among adolescents with narcissistic traits and suggest the value of gender-sensitive, school-based interventions that promote adaptive regulation strategies. The study offers practical considerations for prevention and intervention efforts and informs future research on adolescent social development. – Name: AbstractInfo Label: Abstractor Group: Ab Data: As Provided – Name: DateEntry Label: Entry Date Group: Date Data: 2025 – Name: AN Label: Accession Number Group: ID Data: EJ1483485 |
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| RecordInfo | BibRecord: BibEntity: Identifiers: – Type: doi Value: 10.1002/pits.23589 Languages: – Text: English PhysicalDescription: Pagination: PageCount: 13 StartPage: 3975 Subjects: – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship Type: general – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence Type: general – SubjectFull: Personality Traits Type: general – SubjectFull: Personality Problems Type: general – SubjectFull: Emotional Response Type: general – SubjectFull: Adolescents Type: general – SubjectFull: Correlation Type: general – SubjectFull: Gender Differences Type: general – SubjectFull: Intervention Type: general – SubjectFull: Prevention Type: general – SubjectFull: Adolescent Development Type: general – SubjectFull: Social Development Type: general Titles: – TitleFull: Peer Problems in Narcissistic Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies Type: main BibRelationships: HasContributorRelationships: – PersonEntity: Name: NameFull: Ioanna Voulgaridou IsPartOfRelationships: – BibEntity: Dates: – D: 01 M: 10 Type: published Y: 2025 Identifiers: – Type: issn-print Value: 0033-3085 – Type: issn-electronic Value: 1520-6807 Numbering: – Type: volume Value: 62 – Type: issue Value: 10 Titles: – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools Type: main |
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