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Longitudinal Association between Parental Technoference and Adolescent Academic Burnout: Anxiety and Sex Matter

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Title: Longitudinal Association between Parental Technoference and Adolescent Academic Burnout: Anxiety and Sex Matter
Language: English
Authors: Lin Chang, Hui Zhang (ORCID 0000-0002-9520-0640)
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(10):3794-3803.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 10
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Parent Child Relationship, Telecommunications, Handheld Devices, Adolescents, Burnout, Anxiety, Gender Differences, Family Environment, Foreign Countries, Computer Use
Geographic Terms: China
DOI: 10.1002/pits.23579
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: Technoference, the disruptions in parent-child communication caused by parental mobile device overuse, has been linked to academic burnout in adolescents. However, the specific effects of technoference on adolescent academic burnout remain underexplored. This study, based on family systems theory, expectation violation theory, and the conservation of resources theory, investigates the longitudinal impact of parental technoference on adolescent academic burnout, with a focus on the mediating role of anxiety and sex differences. Data were collected in two waves in 2022 (T1) and 2023 (T2). A total of 742 Chinese adolescents (54.4% boys, M[subscript age] = 12.97 years, SD = 0.64) participated. Participants completed the Technology Device Interference Scale, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale, and Academic Burnout Scale. T1 parental technoference was a significant positive predictor of T2 academic burnout, with T1 anxiety as a mediator. Specifically, parental technoference as an adverse family factor increased adolescents' anxiety, which in turn led to academic burnout. Furthermore, the effect of T1 parental technoference on T1 anxiety was moderated by sex, with the effect being stronger in girls. This study revealed the detrimental effects of parental technoference and adolescents' anxiety on academic burnout, with a greater impact on girls. The results offered important insights for interventions aimed at preventing academic burnout in students.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1483532
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187949502;pis01oct.25;2025Sep16.03:20;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187949502-1">Longitudinal Association Between Parental Technoference and Adolescent Academic Burnout: Anxiety and Sex Matter </title> <p>Technoference, the disruptions in parent−child communication caused by parental mobile device overuse, has been linked to academic burnout in adolescents. However, the specific effects of technoference on adolescent academic burnout remain underexplored. This study, based on family systems theory, expectation violation theory, and the conservation of resources theory, investigates the longitudinal impact of parental technoference on adolescent academic burnout, with a focus on the mediating role of anxiety and sex differences. Data were collected in two waves in 2022 (T1) and 2023 (T2). A total of 742 Chinese adolescents (54.4% boys, Mage = 12.97 years, SD = 0.64) participated. Participants completed the Technology Device Interference Scale, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale, and Academic Burnout Scale. T1 parental technoference was a significant positive predictor of T2 academic burnout, with T1 anxiety as a mediator. Specifically, parental technoference as an adverse family factor increased adolescents' anxiety, which in turn led to academic burnout. Furthermore, the effect of T1 parental technoference on T1 anxiety was moderated by sex, with the effect being stronger in girls. This study revealed the detrimental effects of parental technoference and adolescents' anxiety on academic burnout, with a greater impact on girls. The results offered important insights for interventions aimed at preventing academic burnout in students.</p> <p>Summary: Parental technoference positively predicted adolescent academic burnout.Anxiety mediated the relation of parental technoference and adolescent academic burnout.Gender examined as a moderator between parental technoference and anxiety.</p> <p>Keywords: academic burnout; adolescent; anxiety; parental technoference; sex difference</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Academic burnout, defined as emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral exhaustion from academic stress (Bai et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref1">4</reflink>]), has become a significant psychological problem among Chinese adolescents. This phenomenon not only impairs cognitive functions and academic performance, but also triggers both internalizing problems like anxiety and depression, and externalizing problems such as truancy and phone addiction (Bask and Salmela‐Aro [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref2">5</reflink>]; Q. He, Zhao, et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref3">20</reflink>]; M. T. Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref4">61</reflink>]). In Chinese society, where academic success is highly valued, understanding the factors and mechanisms behind academic burnout among adolescents is crucial to developing effective preventive interventions.</p> <p>A key factor that has gained attention in recent years is digital technology and its impact on adolescent well‐being. With the increasing prevalence of digital technology, "technoference" has emerged, which refers to the disruption of interpersonal interactions due to one or both partners' electronic device use (Qiao and Liu [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref5">48</reflink>]), and has become increasingly prevalent in family life. In particular, parent−child interactions are often disrupted by the presence of electronic devices (Jiang et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref6">23</reflink>]), a phenomenon known as parent−child technoference (McDaniel and Coyne [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref7">36</reflink>]). This communication disruption can negatively impact adolescents' emotional well‐being, cognitive functions, learning outcomes, and behavior, all of which can lead to academic burnout (Reed et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref8">49</reflink>]). While previous studies have linked technoference to academic burnout (Bai et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref9">4</reflink>]; Q. He, Zhao, et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref10">20</reflink>]), the specific mechanisms of parental device use affect adolescent academic burnout remain unclear (Abi‐Jaoude et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref11">1</reflink>]; Yang and Christofferson [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref12">67</reflink>]). Filling this gap is crucial to understanding how technoference can exacerbate academic burnout and developing strategies to reduce the negative impact of parent‐induced technoference on adolescent academic burnout.</p> <p>Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by exploring the impact of parental technoference on adolescent academic burnout and examining the underlying mechanisms. Specifically, we propose that anxiety may act as a mediator, and that sex may moderate the relationship between technoference and academic burnout. The findings will provide important insights into how to reduce the negative effects of technoference on family dynamics, thus helping to prevent academic burnout in adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-3">Parental Technoference and Academic Burnout</hd> <p>The family environment plays a critical role in the development of adolescent academic burnout (Luo et al. [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref13">30</reflink>]; Shin et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref14">54</reflink>]). Family systems theory suggests that family members' experiences and behaviors are interconnected, meaning that changes in one member's behavior can affect others (Cox and Paley [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref15">11</reflink>]). In this framework, parental technoference—when parents prioritize technology devices over direct interactions with their children—can harm adolescents' emotional well‐being and academic performance (X. Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref16">62</reflink>]). The disruptive behavior may make adolescents feel neglected or rejected, as it shows that technology devices are more important than the parent−child relationship (Kildare and Middlemiss [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref17">24</reflink>]). Such feelings of neglect may reduce the sense of emotional support and warmth from parents (Gong et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref18">16</reflink>]; Roberts and David [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref19">50</reflink>]; Stockdale et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref20">57</reflink>]). This lack of emotional support can, in turn, negatively affect adolescents' emotional and behavioral states at school, ultimately influencing their academic engagement and outcomes (Zhu et al. [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref21">71</reflink>]).</p> <p>Empirical research has shown that parental neglect and rejection are associated with a higher likelihood of adolescents experiencing academic burnout (Luo et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref22">29</reflink>]; Shin et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref23">54</reflink>]). Specifically, the disruption of parent−child relationships caused by technoference has been found to predict lower academic achievement and increased academic burnout among adolescents (Kildare and Middlemiss [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref24">24</reflink>]; Niu et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref25">42</reflink>]; Pinquart [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref26">46</reflink>]). Moreover, studies have confirmed a significant link between parental phubbing (a specific manifestation of parental technoference) and adolescent academic burnout (Bai et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref27">4</reflink>]; A. M. He, Chen, et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref28">19</reflink>]). Furthermore, parental technoference has also been identified as a predictor of problematic behaviors, including academic burnout (McDaniel and Radesky [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref29">39</reflink>]). These findings highlight the role of parental technoference in exacerbating adolescent academic burnout. In conclusion, the existing literature suggests that parental technoference is a key factor contributing to adolescent academic burnout.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-4">The Mediating Role of Anxiety</hd> <p>The expectancy violation theory (EVT) posits that individuals have specific expectations for each other's behavior in interpersonal interactions (Burgoon [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref30">8</reflink>]). When these expectations are violated, negative emotional responses often occur (Song [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref31">55</reflink>]; Vanden Abeele et al. [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref32">60</reflink>]). In the context of parent−child relationships, one significant violation arises from technoference—referring to the disruption caused by electronic devices that distract parents during interactions with their children—can significantly violate the expected uninterrupted communication between them, as proposed by EVT (Burgoon [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref33">8</reflink>]). EVT suggests that such technoference disrupts the expected communication between parents and children, leading to emotional dissonance, such as feelings of neglect, disappointment, emotional disengagement, and reduced willingness to engage in communication with their parents (Han [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref34">18</reflink>]; Song [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref35">55</reflink>]; Vanden Abeele et al. [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref36">60</reflink>]). This disruption of expectations not only affects emotional well‐being but can also trigger anxiety in adolescents, which has been highlighted in previous research (Kushlev and Dunn [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref37">27</reflink>]; Miller‐Ott and Kelly [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref38">40</reflink>]). Further studies indicated that parent−child technoference is closely related to adolescents' internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety and depression; Stockdale et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref39">57</reflink>]; X. Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref40">62</reflink>]). Therefore, when parents become absorbed in their electronic devices, adolescents may perceive a lack of attention and emotional support, triggering feelings of anxiety (Stockdale et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref41">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>Anxiety is not only an emotional response but also serves as a key psychological mediator that influences a variety of maladaptive outcomes, including academic burnout (Gázquez Linares et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref42">15</reflink>]). According to the Conservation of Resources Theory (Hobfoll [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref43">22</reflink>]), when individuals face stressors, particularly those that threaten their psychological or emotional resources, they are more likely to experience burnout as they try to protect their remaining resources. In the context of parent−child technoference, the anxiety triggered by perceived emotional neglect consumes adolescents' cognitive and emotional resources, particularly their working memory, which impairs their academic performance and motivation (Eysenck et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref44">13</reflink>]; Owens et al. [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref45">44</reflink>]). Furthermore, prolonged anxiety depletes these critical resources, adolescents may also experience reduced academic effort, leading to learned helplessness and lower achievement motivation (A. M. He, Chen, et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref46">19</reflink>]; Pekrun [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref47">45</reflink>]). These resource depletion pathways contribute to anxiety‐fostering academic burnout. Additionally, research has shown that anxiety and other mental health problems have a direct negative impact on academic performance (Fergusson and Woodward [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref48">14</reflink>]; Murray‐Harvey [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref49">41</reflink>]). Thus, anxiety can act as a key mediator between parent−child technoference and academic burnout.</p> <p>In summary, the disruption of expected parent−child interactions due to parental technoference leads to negative emotional outcomes, particularly anxiety, which in turn promotes academic burnout through resource depletion (Pinquart [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref50">47</reflink>]; Rohner et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref51">51</reflink>]). Thus, anxiety is a key psychological mediator in the relationship between parental technoference and academic burnout.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-5">Sex Differences: Socialization and Neurobiological Mechanisms</hd> <p>The relation between parental technoference and anxiety may be moderated by sex, with girls being more affected than boys. One explanation for this difference is the socialization process, where girls tend to place greater importance on interpersonal relationships and emotional connections (Rose and Rudolph [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref52">52</reflink>]). This heightened sensitivity to relational dynamics may make girls more vulnerable to the negative emotional impacts of disruptions like parental technoference, which may be perceived as a form of emotional neglect or emotional disengagement (Hales et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref53">17</reflink>]; Wu et al. [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref54">65</reflink>]). In contrast, boys, with their generally higher self‐esteem, may be less likely to perceive parental technoference as rejection or emotional disengagement, and thus experience less emotional impact from technoference (X. Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref55">62</reflink>]). This suggests that boys are less likely to experience the same level of anxiety in response to parental technoference. Previous studies also indicated that girls generally experience higher levels of internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety and depression) than boys (Ara [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref56">3</reflink>]; Leadbeater et al. [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref57">28</reflink>]). As a result, girls are more sensitive to external factors and are more susceptible to the effects of parental technoference than boys.</p> <p>From a sociocultural perspective, Chinese girls are expected to take on more emotional labor and duties in the family, such as maintaining family harmony and providing emotional support. This cultural expectation may increase their sensitivity to disruptions in family relationships, making them more vulnerable to the emotional consequences of parental technoference (Zhang, Tsang, et al. [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref58">68</reflink>]). Additionally, neurobiological research has shown that during adolescence, girls' amygdala—the brain region involved in emotional processing—exhibits heightened sensitivity to emotional stimuli, further increasing their likelihood of experiencing prolonged anxiety (Killgore et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref59">25</reflink>]; McClure et al. [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref60">35</reflink>]). This combination of societal expectations and physiological vulnerability creates a "social‐physiological" dual vulnerability for girls, which amplifies their emotional response to disruptions caused by parental technoference.</p> <p>However, this moderation may be specific to the emotional response pathway from parental technoference to anxiety, rather than other potential pathways, because the socialization of emotional sensitivity and neurobiological factors primarily influences adolescents' perception and response to relationship disruptions (Tan et al. [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref61">59</reflink>]). In contrast, other pathways, such as the direct link between technoference and academic burnout, and the latter half of the mediating path (from anxiety to academic burnout), may be less influenced by sex differences. This is because both boys and girls may equally experience resource depletion when anxiety is triggered, leading to academic burnout (Castellanos [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref62">9</reflink>]). Additionally, the mechanisms of resource depletion and stress response are generally consistent between sexes in the context of academic burnout (Olson et al. [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref63">43</reflink>]). Thus, the moderating role of sex is most relevant in the emotional response to technoference, which in turn mediates the subsequent academic burnout.</p> <p>Hence, given this framework, it is hypothesized that sex moderates the relationship between parental technoference and anxiety, with girls being more affected by parental technoference due to the combined effect of social expectations and physiological sensitivity.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-6">The Present Study</hd> <p>Although existing studies have focused on the impact of parental technoference, there are still three gaps. First, the lack of longitudinal tracking designs limits the ability to validate the cumulative and long‐term effects of parental technoference. Second, the mediating role of emotional mechanisms (e.g., anxiety) has not been systematically examined, limiting our understanding of the underlying mechanism. Third, the underlying mechanisms of sex differences in susceptibility to technoference remain unclear. To fill these gaps, this study constructs the first longitudinal model of "parental technoference → anxiety → academic burnout" by incorporating the conservation of resources theory and a "social‐physiological" perspective, and reveals the higher susceptibility of girls. These contributions provide new evidence for family intervention in digital environments.</p> <p>Based on previous research, family systems theory, expectation violation theory, and conservation of resources theory were integrated to construct this study framework (see Figure 1 for a diagram of the theoretical framework). This study used a 1‐year longitudinal follow‐up design to construct a moderated mediation model with middle school students. The goal is to examine the long‐term effects and underlying mechanisms of parental technoference on adolescents' academic burnout. The hypotheses are as follows:</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23579-fig-0001.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23579-fig-0001.jpg" title="1 Hypothetical model of the association between parental technoference and adolescent academic burnout." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-8">H1.</hd> <p>Parental technoference may positively predict adolescents' academic burnout 1 year later.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-9">H2.</hd> <p>Anxiety may mediate the link between parental technoference and adolescents' academic burnout.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-10">H3.</hd> <p>Sex may moderate the relation between parental technoference and adolescent anxiety.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-11">Materials and Methods</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-12">Participants and Procedure</hd> <p>Participants were adolescents recruited from a middle school in Guangdong, China. The initial sample included 742 middle school students (M = 12.97 years, SD = 0.64, 54.4% male). Subjective economic status (SES) was scored on a 10‐point scale (1 = <emph>bottom of society</emph>, 10 = <emph>top of society</emph>). Twenty‐seven percent of participants rated their family's SES as level 5, and 24.9% rated their family's SES as level 6. Parents' educational degree was rated on a 6‐point scale (1 = <emph>elementary or below</emph>, 6 = <emph>postgraduate</emph>). Among fathers, 27.9% had elementary education and 29.8% had junior high education; among mothers, 33.3% had elementary education and 26.8% had junior high education. The same adolescents were followed up 1 year later, with 506 middle school students remaining in the second sample. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, their parents, and teachers.</p> <p>This study included two surveys. T1 (2022) investigated parental technoference, anxiety, and academic burnout among adolescents. Questionnaires were distributed to classes for online completion, and 742 valid responses were collected. T2 (2023) was conducted in the same class to assess academic burnout.</p> <p>Of the initial sample, 236 adolescents did not provide data at T2. Attrition analyses indicated significant differences between attrited and non‐attrited adolescents on academic burnout, with attrited adolescents having higher T1 academic burnout (<emph>t</emph> = 3.59, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). No other demographic or study variable differences were found. We also conducted Little's MCAR test, which indicated the data were missing completely at random (<emph>χ</emph><sups>2</sups> = 5.11, df = 2, <emph>p</emph> = 0.078).</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-13">Measures</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-14">Parental Technoference</hd> <p>The Chinese version of the Technology Device Interference Scale was used to measure the frequency of parents' technoference behaviors (McDaniel and Coyne [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref64">36</reflink>]; Song [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref65">55</reflink>]). The scale contains five items (e.g., "<emph>When eating with my parents, they take out their phones or other mobile devices and check messages</emph>"). The scale is scored on an 8‐point Likert scale (0 = "<emph>never</emph>", 7 = "<emph>more than 10 times a day</emph>"). The total score for each item reflects the level of technoference, with higher scores indicating a greater degree of parental technoference. The Cronbach's α for this scale in the study was 0.88.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-15">Academic Burnout</hd> <p>The Chinese version of the Academic Burnout Scale was selected to report adolescents' academic burnout (Maslach and Jackson [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref66">34</reflink>]; Luo et al. [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref67">31</reflink>]). This 15‐item scale includes three dimensions: emotional exhaustion (e.g., "<emph>I often feel exhausted at the end of a school day</emph>"), depersonalization (e.g., "<emph>I doubt the importance of learning</emph>"), and low achievement (e.g., "<emph>I think I can be fully engaged in class</emph>"). A 7‐point Likert scale was used (1 = <emph>not at all</emph>, 7 = <emph>very much</emph>), with the low achievement dimension reverse‐scored. The total score indicates burnout severity, with higher scores indicating greater academic burnout. The Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> for the scale was 0.79 at T1 and 0.87 at T2.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-16">Anxiety</hd> <p>The Chinese version of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale was used to assess adolescents' anxiety (Spitzer et al. [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref68">56</reflink>]; X. Y. He et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref69">21</reflink>]). The scale consists of seven items (e.g., "<emph>Can't stop or control worrying</emph>") and uses a 4‐point Likert scale (0 = "<emph>never</emph>", 3 = "<emph>almost every day</emph>"). The total score is the sum of the items, with higher scores indicating more severe anxiety. The Cronbach's <emph>α</emph> for this scale in this study was 0.95.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-17">Analytic Strategy</hd> <p>First, preliminary analyses were conducted using SPSS 23.0 to calculate means, standard deviations, and correlations between the main variables. Second, missing data were processed through maximum likelihood estimation (Acock [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref70">2</reflink>]), allowing for the inclusion of all participants in the analysis. Moderated mediation models were tested with Mplus 8.3, controlling for adolescents' family SES. Finally, the bootstrap method with 95% confidence intervals (CI) was used to assess the significance of the mediation path.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-18">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-19">Common Method Biases</hd> <p>To assess common method bias, we conducted the Harman one‐factor test (Zhou and Long [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref71">70</reflink>]). The results showed that the first‐factor explanation rate was 30.45%, which is below the critical threshold of 40%, indicating that common method bias was not outstanding in this study.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-20">Descriptive Statistics and Correlations</hd> <p>Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations among all variables. T1 parental technoference was positively correlated with T1 and T2 academic burnout (<emph>r</emph> = 0.29, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; <emph>r</emph> = 0.21, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001, respectively), and with T1 anxiety (<emph>r</emph> = 0.40, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). T1 anxiety was also positively correlated with T2 academic burnout (<emph>r</emph> = 0.34, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001).</p> <p>1 Table Descriptive statistics and correlations of study variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th>M</th><th>SD</th><th>1</th><th>2</th><th>3</th><th>4</th><th>5</th><th>6</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>1. Sex</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td>—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>2. Age</td><td>12.97</td><td>0.64</td><td>−0.05</td><td>—</td><td /><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>3. SES</td><td>5.92</td><td>1.74</td><td>0.03</td><td>−0.01</td><td>—</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>4. T1 Parental technoference</td><td>14.53</td><td>8.40</td><td>0.13<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−0.01</td><td>−0.12<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>—</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>5. T1 Academic burnout</td><td>43.47</td><td>16.58</td><td>0.08<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.09<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>−0.21<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.29<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>—</td><td /></tr><tr><td>6. T1 Anxiety</td><td>4.64</td><td>5.23</td><td>0.18<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.04</td><td>−0.08<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.40<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.55<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>7. T2 Academic burnout</td><td>46.91</td><td>16.44</td><td>0.09<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.08</td><td>−0.14<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>0.21<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.51<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.34<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note: N</emph> = 742, sex: 0 = boy, 1 = girl.</p> <ulist> <item>2 * <emph>p</emph> < 0.05</item> <item>3 ** <emph>p</emph> < 0.01</item> <item>4 *** <emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</item> </ulist> <p>Family socioeconomic status (SES) was significantly associated with parental technoference, anxiety, and academic burnout, so it was included as a control variable in the subsequent analyses.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-21">Cross‐Lagged Panel Analysis</hd> <p>To test the bidirectional relationship between technoference and academic burnout, we constructed a cross‐lagged model (Figure 2). The results revealed a single causal relationship: T1 parental technoference positively predicted T2 academic burnout (<emph>β</emph> = 0.09, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), supporting H1. Whereas T1 academic burnout failed to predict T2 parental technoference (<emph>β</emph> = 0.03, <emph>p</emph> > 0.05). The results highlighted the prior role of technoference as a family environmental factor in driving long‐term academic burnout.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23579-fig-0002.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23579-fig-0002.jpg" title="2 Cross‐lagged panel model. Note: Solid lines represent significant paths (p < 0.05); dashed lines indicate nonsignificant paths. Standardized coefficients are shown." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-23">Moderated Mediation Analysis</hd> <p>Results indicated that T1 parental technoference positively predicted T2 academic burnout after controlling for SES and T1 academic burnout (<emph>β</emph> = 0.08, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). Mediation analysis revealed that T1 parental technoference significantly predicted T1 anxiety (<emph>β</emph> = 0.25, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001), and in turn, T1 anxiety positively predicted T2 academic burnout (<emph>β</emph> = 0.32, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001). The direct effect of T1 parental technoference on T2 academic burnout remained significant (<emph>β</emph> = 0.10, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05). In addition, the bootstrap test showed that the CI for this mediating pathway didn't include 0 (indirect effect = 0.08, SE = 0.02, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.11]), indicating that anxiety partially mediated the relation of parental technoference on adolescents' academic burnout (see Figure 3). H2 was supported.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23579-fig-0003.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23579-fig-0003.jpg" title="3 Moderated mediation model predicting academic burnout in adolescents." /> </p> <p></p> <p>Additionally, results showed that the interaction between T1 parental technoference and sex significantly predicted T1 anxiety (<emph>β</emph> = 0.07, <emph>p</emph> < 0.05), indicating that sex moderated this relationship. Simple slope analysis indicated that T1 parental technoference was a stronger positive predictor of T1 anxiety in girls (<emph>β</emph> = 0.46, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001) than in boys (<emph>β</emph> = 0.32, <emph>p</emph> < 0.001; see Figure 4). Thus, the effect of parental technoference on anxiety varied by adolescent sex, and H3 was supported.</p> <p> <img src="https://imageserver.ebscohost.com/img/embimages/rdk/PIS/01oct25/pits23579-fig-0004.jpg?ephost1=dGJyMNXb4kSepq84yOvqOLCmsE6epq5Srqa4SK6WxWXS" alt="pits23579-fig-0004.jpg" title="4 Interaction between parental technoference and sex in predicting anxiety." /> </p> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187949502-26">Discussion</hd> <p>This study used a 1‐year longitudinal design to examine the association between parental technoference and adolescent academic burnout, focusing on potential mediating and moderating factors. Results revealed that parental technoference increases adolescents' risk of academic burnout. Furthermore, anxiety mediated the association between parental technoference and academic burnout, and adolescent sex moderated the effect of parental technoference on anxiety. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which parental technoference affects adolescent academic burnout and highlight the groups most affected.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-27">Longitudinal Effects of Parental Technoference on Academic Burnout</hd> <p>The present study provided compelling evidence that parental technoference positively predicted adolescents' academic burnout 1 year later, consistent with previous studies (McDaniel and Radesky [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref72">38</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref73">39</reflink>]). This finding emphasizes the importance of parental technoference as a key factor in triggering academic burnout among adolescents. One possible explanation is that parental technoference disrupts the emotional connection between adolescents and their parents. The parent−child relationship is crucial for adolescent well‐being (Shek [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref74">53</reflink>]), and the disruption in this relationship caused by technoference may lead to emotional neglect or a lack of response to the child's needs (McDaniel and Coyne [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref75">37</reflink>]). Such disruptions can hinder parents' ability to provide emotional support and guidance, potentially increasing adolescents' susceptibility to negative outcomes and problematic behaviors, including academic burnout (Coyne et al. [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref76">12</reflink>]; Jiang et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref77">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>Moreover, the findings suggested that adolescents who experience neglectful or rejecting parenting styles are at higher risk of experiencing academic burnout. Previous research has shown that this parenting style, often associated with limited emotional involvement and inconsistent supervision, can lead to feelings of frustration, stress, and helplessness among adolescents, which may exacerbate academic burnout (Luo et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref78">29</reflink>]; Shin et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref79">54</reflink>]). Therefore, our study strengthens the idea that parental technoference can interfere with the emotional quality of the parent−child relationship, thereby exacerbating the vulnerability of adolescents to academic burnout.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-28">Anxiety as a Mediator: Emotional Pathways to Academic Burnout</hd> <p>Furthermore, our findings indicated that anxiety mediated the relationship between parental technoference and adolescent academic burnout. Specifically, parental technoference at T1 increased anxiety levels at T1, which, in turn, predicted higher levels of academic burnout at T2. This suggests that anxiety is an emotional pathway that links parental technoference to academic burnout over time. Parental technoference, often considered a new form of neglect and emotional rejection (Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref80">10</reflink>]), disrupts the parent−child relationship and hinders the emotional support adolescents need. This disruption has a particularly severe impact on middle school students, as they are in a critical developmental stage with increased sensitivity and vulnerability to emotional needs.</p> <p>Adolescents who experience parental technoference may feel emotionally neglected, leading to negative perceptions of the parent−child relationship. These feelings can create a cycle of increased stress, helplessness, and anxiety (Mackay et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref81">33</reflink>]; Xie and Xie [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref82">66</reflink>]). Over time, the accumulation of anxiety, combined with academic stress, can result in mental and physical exhaustion. This is characterized by reduced motivation, decreased initiative, and diminished persistence in academic tasks, eventually contributing to academic burnout (Zhang, Zheng, et al. [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref83">69</reflink>]). Thus, anxiety is a critical emotional pathway that mediates the relationship between parental technoference and academic burnout, emphasizing the importance of emotional well‐being in preventing academic burnout in adolescents.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-29">Sex Differences: Girls' Higher Vulnerability</hd> <p>More importantly, an important finding of this study is that sex moderated the relationship between parental technoference and anxiety. Specifically, we found that parental technoference had a more pronounced impact on anxiety in girls compared to boys, which is consistent with previous research (Ma [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref84">32</reflink>]; Song [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref85">55</reflink>]). Adolescents show significant sex differences in their responses to negative environmental factors (e.g., technoference), with girls generally being more sensitive to adverse family environments. In this study, parental technoference is considered as an adverse family environment (Belsky and Pluess [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref86">6</reflink>]), which weakens parents' attention and emotional responsiveness (Knitter and Zemp [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref87">26</reflink>]; McDaniel and Coyne [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref88">37</reflink>]).</p> <p>Girls, in particular, are more vulnerable to such environmental stressors due to their higher emotional sensitivity. They are also more likely to ruminate on negative experiences, such as parental technoference, leading to the accumulation of negative emotions, including anxiety and depression (Han [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref89">18</reflink>]; Sundqvist et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref90">58</reflink>]; X. Wang et al. [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref91">63</reflink>]). As a result, girls may experience stronger anxiety responses to parental technoference. This finding highlighted the importance of considering sex differences when examining the emotional consequences of parental technoference, as girls may be at greater risk of experiencing adverse outcomes. To our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal study to examine the moderating role of sex in the mediating effects of anxiety between parental technoference and adolescent academic burnout. By exploring these sex differences, our study offers a deeper understanding of the emotional processes underlying academic burnout, and emphasizes the need for targeted interventions that consider adolescents' sex‐specific vulnerabilities.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-30">Theoretical Contributions and Practical Implications</hd> <p>This study makes important contributions both theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it extends family systems theory from the traditional interaction context to the digital age, revealing the mechanism through which technoference damages family emotional connections via resource depletion. Meanwhile, this study is the first to propose this longitudinal model, validating anxiety as a longitudinal mediator between technoference and academic burnout, providing empirical support for the application of emotion regulation in educational psychology, and the sustained impact of technoference, overcoming the limitations of cross‐sectional approaches. Additionally, by integrating a "social‐physiological" perspective, this study deeply explored the reasons why girls are more sensitive to technoference, providing a new perspective for research on sex differences in developmental psychology.</p> <p>Practically, these findings have important implications for preventing and intervening in adolescent academic burnout. First, parental technoference can increase children's susceptibility to negative emotions and academic burnout (Blondal and Adalbjarnardottir [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref92">7</reflink>]; Waterman and Lefkowitz [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref93">64</reflink>]). In our increasingly digital world, the overuse or obsession with technology can lead to family isolation, making it more difficult for adolescents to connect with their parents and peers. To reduce this risk, parents should engage more with their children, respond to emotional needs promptly, and establish clear, mutually agreed‐upon rules for electronic device use at home. Second, negative emotions such as anxiety may be a key target for intervention in adolescent academic burnout. Adolescents can benefit from learning emotional regulation strategies through group activities, positive reinforcement, and emotional support. Both parents and schools should actively communicate with students, pay attention to their emotional needs, offer understanding, and provide timely encouragement and feedback to reduce anxiety (Murray‐Harvey [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref94">41</reflink>]). Finally, girls are more vulnerable to the effects of technoference. Schools and parents should pay special attention to the emotional well‐being of girls, offering additional support to help them cope with these challenges.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-31">Limitations and Future Directions</hd> <p>However, this study has some limitations. First, this study used a self‐reported method, and the data may introduce bias due to the social approval effect. Subsequent studies could collect more objective data from multiple sources, or use experimental designs to validate the mechanism of parental technoference affecting adolescents' academic burnout. Second, the participants were all middle school students; the findings may not be generalizable. Future research could expand the sample size and include diverse age groups for further examination. Third, although this study adopted a two‐wave longitudinal design, future studies could include more data collection points to track the development of academic burnout over time. Finally, this study only focused on family and individual factors. Future research could explore the unique effects of other potential influencing factors (e.g., peers and school) or explore how technoference affects parents themselves.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-32">Conclusion</hd> <p>This study explored how parental technoference impacts adolescent academic burnout, with a focus on anxiety and sex differences. The results indicated that parental technoference positively predicted adolescents' higher academic burnout 1 year later. Meanwhile, anxiety mediated this relationship, with parental technoference leading to increased academic burnout through anxiety. Furthermore, sex moderated the effect of parental technoference on anxiety, for example, girls being more affected than boys. These findings provide important insights into how parental technoference affects adolescent academic burnout.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-33">Author Contributions</hd> <p> <bold>Lin Chang:</bold> writing – original draft, writing – reviewing and editing, formal analysis. <bold>Hui Zhang:</bold> conceptualization, methodology, investigation, supervision, writing –reviewing and editing, funding acquisition.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-34">Ethics Statement</hd> <p>All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The present study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Nanjing Normal University.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-35">Consent</hd> <p>Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-36">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0187949502-37">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.</p> <ref id="AN0187949502-38"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref11" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Abi‐Jaoude, E., K. T. Naylor, and A. Pignatiello. 2020. " Smartphones, Social Media Use and Youth Mental Health." Canadian Medical Association Journal 192, no. 6 : E136 – E141. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref70" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> Acock, A. C. 2005. " Working With Missing Values." 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Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Longitudinal Association between Parental Technoference and Adolescent Academic Burnout: Anxiety and Sex Matter
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Lin+Chang%22">Lin Chang</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Hui+Zhang%22">Hui Zhang</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9520-0640">0000-0002-9520-0640</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(10):3794-3803.
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  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 10
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Child+Relationship%22">Parent Child Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Telecommunications%22">Telecommunications</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Handheld+Devices%22">Handheld Devices</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Burnout%22">Burnout</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Anxiety%22">Anxiety</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Family+Environment%22">Family Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Computer+Use%22">Computer Use</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22China%22">China</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.23579
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Technoference, the disruptions in parent-child communication caused by parental mobile device overuse, has been linked to academic burnout in adolescents. However, the specific effects of technoference on adolescent academic burnout remain underexplored. This study, based on family systems theory, expectation violation theory, and the conservation of resources theory, investigates the longitudinal impact of parental technoference on adolescent academic burnout, with a focus on the mediating role of anxiety and sex differences. Data were collected in two waves in 2022 (T1) and 2023 (T2). A total of 742 Chinese adolescents (54.4% boys, M[subscript age] = 12.97 years, SD = 0.64) participated. Participants completed the Technology Device Interference Scale, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale, and Academic Burnout Scale. T1 parental technoference was a significant positive predictor of T2 academic burnout, with T1 anxiety as a mediator. Specifically, parental technoference as an adverse family factor increased adolescents' anxiety, which in turn led to academic burnout. Furthermore, the effect of T1 parental technoference on T1 anxiety was moderated by sex, with the effect being stronger in girls. This study revealed the detrimental effects of parental technoference and adolescents' anxiety on academic burnout, with a greater impact on girls. The results offered important insights for interventions aimed at preventing academic burnout in students.
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  Data: 2025
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  Data: EJ1483532
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1483532
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        Value: 10.1002/pits.23579
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      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 10
        StartPage: 3794
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parent Child Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Telecommunications
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Handheld Devices
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Burnout
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Anxiety
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Family Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Computer Use
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: China
        Type: general
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      – TitleFull: Longitudinal Association between Parental Technoference and Adolescent Academic Burnout: Anxiety and Sex Matter
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