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Neurodivergent (Autism and ADHD) Student Experiences of Access and Inclusion in Higher Education: An Ecological Systems Theory Perspective

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Title: Neurodivergent (Autism and ADHD) Student Experiences of Access and Inclusion in Higher Education: An Ecological Systems Theory Perspective
Language: English
Authors: Luke Butcher (ORCID 0000-0001-7617-6211), Stevie Lane
Source: Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research. 2025 90(1):243-263.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: College Students, Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Foreign Countries, Students with Disabilities, Student Experience, Inclusion, Student Needs, Access to Education, Curriculum, Student Evaluation, Teacher Influence, Educational Environment, Peer Relationship, Accessibility (for Disabled), Clubs, Self Concept, Self Disclosure (Individuals), Social Isolation, College Choice, Tuition, Attitudes toward Disabilities
Geographic Terms: Australia
DOI: 10.1007/s10734-024-01319-6
ISSN: 0018-1560
1573-174X
Abstract: Higher Education (HE) can be a complicated and isolating experience for neurodivergent students. Many systemic barriers and injustices create challenges for the accessibility and inclusivity of learning environments and curriculums. However, with the appropriate accommodations, staff guided by neurodiversity-affirming practices, accessible curricula, and opportunities to connect with neurodivergent peers, it can be highly rewarding. Through 15 in-depth, lived-experience-informed interviews with neurodivergent HE students who are Autistic and/or ADHDers in Australia, we analyse experiences at different system levels. By validating the robust framework of ecological systems theory in this context, we extend the academic understanding and add to the limited research on HE experiences for this marginalised, often ignored, but important student segment. We discover pivotal micro-systems of curricula, assessments, reasonable adjustment plans, spaces, teachers, students, and support services. Further contributions are made through the first extension of 'feedback loops' into research of HE micro-systems, and descriptions of macro and chrono-systems. With many HE systems erected and emergent to cater to the student majority, illuminating the experiences of neurodivergent students with these intersecting HE systems provides concrete insights for leadership, teachers, and support staff to improve accessibility and inclusion in HE.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1485062
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0187117446;hie01jul.25;2025Aug06.05:26;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0187117446-1">Neurodivergent (Autism and ADHD) student experiences of access and inclusion in higher education: an ecological systems theory perspective </title> <p>Higher Education (HE) can be a complicated and isolating experience for neurodivergent students. Many systemic barriers and injustices create challenges for the accessibility and inclusivity of learning environments and curriculums. However, with the appropriate accommodations, staff guided by neurodiversity-affirming practices, accessible curricula, and opportunities to connect with neurodivergent peers, it can be highly rewarding. Through 15 in-depth, lived-experience-informed interviews with neurodivergent HE students who are Autistic and/or ADHDers in Australia, we analyse experiences at different system levels. By validating the robust framework of ecological systems theory in this context, we extend the academic understanding and add to the limited research on HE experiences for this marginalised, often ignored, but important student segment. We discover pivotal micro-systems of curricula, assessments, reasonable adjustment plans, spaces, teachers, students, and support services. Further contributions are made through the first extension of 'feedback loops' into research of HE micro-systems, and descriptions of macro and chrono-systems. With many HE systems erected and emergent to cater to the student majority, illuminating the experiences of neurodivergent students with these intersecting HE systems provides concrete insights for leadership, teachers, and support staff to improve accessibility and inclusion in HE.</p> <p>Keywords: Neurodivergent; Autism; ADHD; Higher education; Accessibility; Ecological systems theory; Education Curriculum and Pedagogy Specialist Studies In Education</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-2">Introduction</hd> <p>All students studying at higher education (HE) institutions deserve high-quality student experiences for professional success, personal fulfilment, and civic contribution. This is particularly important for students with disability who experience cultural and economic disadvantage in HE policy (Pitman et al., [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref1">30</reflink>]). HE is acknowledged as a tool to close the employment gap between students with disability and those without (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref2">33</reflink>]). Yet, it continues to conceptualise disability largely using the medical model, reducing it to a central problem of an individual's life that must be treated or rehabilitated (Moriña and Carnerero, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref3">25</reflink>]). This is in opposition to the social model of disability which moves beyond medicalisation to consider the attitudes, policies, and practices of social contexts as barriers or aids that hinder or foster access and participation (Van Aswegen and Shevlin, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref4">40</reflink>]). Herein, by failing to prioritise accessibility in education, cycles of ignorance, exclusion, and marginalisation perpetuate (Gal et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref5">18</reflink>]).</p> <p>Equitable access for people with disability is essential in all domains of societal life, including education. Access to formal education for people with disability, especially higher education, provides pathways to employment, financial independence, and is a key indicator for quality of life (Dutta et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref6">15</reflink>]). Evidently, governments have set expectations that HE institutions ensure equal participation for students with disability on the same basis as students without. This includes Australia's (2005) 'Disability Standards for Education'. Between 2014 and 2019, the enrolment rate of students with disability in undergraduate tertiary studies at Australian universities increased at a faster rate than for students without disability (ADCET, [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref7">1</reflink>]). However, students with disability in Australia are still under-represented, with only 7.7% of domestic undergraduate students identifying as being disabled, despite the general population of people with disability being at least 17% (Koshy, [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref8">23</reflink>]).</p> <p>A growing segment of students encountering barriers to education in the form of attitudes, policies, and practices are those with accessibility needs, particularly neurodivergent students. Historically not included in such HE research, neurodiversity refers to the variability of all human minds, neurodivergent and neurotypical alike (Wise, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref9">41</reflink>]). Introduced to academia by Judy Singer in 1998 (Singer, [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref10">36</reflink>]), the term first emerged in mailing lists between Autistic adults and advocates in the early 1990s (Wise, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref11">41</reflink>]). Coined in 2000 by Kassiane Asasumasu, 'neurodivergent' is 'an umbrella term to describe individuals whose mind or functioning falls outside dominant societal norms' including both innate or genetic, and acquired conditions (Wise, [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref12">41</reflink>]). Whilst the medicalisation of this term often portrays it as limited to neurological conditions such as Autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia, and developmental apraxia (Doyle, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref13">13</reflink>]), the term includes a range of experiences, including those with mental health conditions, intellectual disability, and more. Given the co-occurrence of conditions in individuals under the neurodivergent umbrella, it is estimated that neurodivergent people make up approximately 15–20% of the population (Doyle, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref14">13</reflink>]).</p> <p>This research draws its focus to HE students that are autistic and/or ADHDers. Autism is a neurological condition categorised by qualitative differences in social interaction, sensory perception, and communication (Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref15">4</reflink>]). ADHDers experience varying levels of inattention (or often an abundance of attention), impulsivity, hyperactivity, and differences in executive functioning (Kwon et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref16">24</reflink>]). It is noted that approximately 1% of children and 5–7.2% of youth are diagnosed Autistic whilst 2.5–6.7% of adults are diagnosed with ADHD (Posner et al., [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref17">31</reflink>]; Song et al., [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref18">37</reflink>]). However, many may receive a formal diagnosis later in life, cannot access a diagnosis, or do not want one. Thus, actual numbers may be higher and explain the increasing number of students with 'hidden disabilities' such as Autism and ADHD (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref19">10</reflink>]). Regarding their co-occurrence, the prevalence of ADHD in Autistic people ranges from 50 to 70% (Rong et al., [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref20">34</reflink>]). However, possible influences of co-occurrences on student progression and degree completion are acknowledged as unknown (Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref21">4</reflink>]). Thus, understanding the experiences of NDHE students is crucial to improving HE structures and systems whilst leveraging diverse talents and capabilities.We have to fight the system just to stay here (Study participant)</p> <p>The study develops an in-depth understanding of the access and inclusion needs of 18–25-year-old HE neurodivergent students (Autistic, ADHDers, or both). It critiques the curriculums and environments available to them and identifies how HE can better support them to thrive academically and personally. We address this through lived-experience-informed in-depth interviews describing neurodivergent HE student experiences. Through a robust analysis framed within ecological systems theory (EST) scholarly contributions are made, including extending the academic understanding of HE experiences for a marginalised, poorly understood, yet important student segment; advancing accessibility and inclusion in education research; extending the application of ecological systems theory to HE; and providing concrete insights to improve accessibility and inclusion in HE.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-3">Literature review</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187117446-4">Inclusivity and accessibility in HE</hd> <p>Education is an important indicator for career success and quality of life for people with disability (Dutta et al., [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref22">15</reflink>]). This is a sizeable amount of people too, as HE undergraduate students in Australia with disability increased 123% from 2008 to 2017, with HE students with disability in the USA increasing to 19.44% of the student population in 2016 (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref23">16</reflink>]). Unfortunately, Australian HE institutions have an unclear view of the academic challenges facing students with disability (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref24">16</reflink>]). For example, many barriers exist that can affect student performance, including being less prepared, less integrated, unable to advocate (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref25">33</reflink>]), and feeling less academically capable (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref26">32</reflink>]). Evidently, students with learning disabilities are particularly disadvantaged in HE (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref27">32</reflink>]) and at greater risk of dropping out (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref28">33</reflink>]). Socially just education requires the inclusion of all students in spaces that human interaction takes place, regardless of their differences (Wong et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref29">42</reflink>]). Herein, the social model of disability considers the extent to which someone is disabled by society's attitudes and actions (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref30">9</reflink>]) as constructed by socio-cultural and socio-historical contexts of disability (Nieminen, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref31">26</reflink>]). These contexts manifest systemically and are pivotal in shaping accessible education.</p> <p>Inclusive education for people with disability must carefully examine the entire process of learning to support diverse learners (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref32">17</reflink>]). This is particularly important at a time when the COVID-19 pandemic and underlying market dynamics have forced many Australian universities to teach both local and remote/online students (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref33">16</reflink>]). Evidently, hybrid learning models introduce numerous new challenges for equitable learning. Central to inclusivity is accessibility, which aims to address disadvantage by designing equitable services, physical spaces, and digital platforms that match the needs of people with disability to live better lives (Duggin, [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref34">14</reflink>]). Accessibility's importance is evidenced by the more than 250,000 (of the 1.1 million) domestic students enrolled in Australian universities in 2020 that utilised accessibility provisions during their studies (Universities Australia, [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref35">38</reflink>]). Yet inaccessible or non-inclusive learning further entrenches barriers to a quality education, violating principles set out in HE disability, access and inclusion plans (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref36">16</reflink>]), and potentially laws and regulations. However, research has neglected to diagnose systemic issues encountered by NDHE students. Illustrating their interconnected nature, the experiences of students with a disability with one micro-system (e.g. student clubs or associations) are shown to influence other micro-systems (e.g. campus housing) (Vaccaro and Kimball, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref37">39</reflink>]). This highlights Nieminen's ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref38">26</reflink>]) perspective that it is inaccessible practices that disable people, yet offers hope that academia can mitigate these societal barriers systemically enforced in HE environments (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref39">9</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-5">Ecological systems theory</hd> <p>To improve accessibility and inclusion, institution-wide practices involving many stakeholders are required (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref40">16</reflink>]), with HE institutions examining entire processes, both physical and educational (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref41">17</reflink>]). This may include online learning, other students, teachers, support services, student clubs and associations, etc. To address these challenges, a theoretical framework is needed that frames the experiences of neurodivergent students within their educational contexts, whilst identifying and classifying those that are unique to them and acknowledging the heterogeneity of neurodivergence. Ecological systems theory (EST) (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref42">6</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref43">7</reflink>]) is employed to achieve this. EST is a theoretical framework converging psychological, biological, and social sciences to understand and explain human learning and development through how individuals interact with and are influenced by inter-related systems within their environments (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref44">7</reflink>]; Crawford, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref45">11</reflink>]).</p> <p>Bronfenbrenner depicts EST as a holistic framework of nested systems (representing persons, processes, context, time, etc.) as concentric circles with the self in the centre (Crawford, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref46">11</reflink>]). It has underpinned research of diverse populations and contexts in HE (see Ozaki et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref47">28</reflink>]; Vaccaro & Kimball, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref48">39</reflink>]). The different system levels that influence learning development are the <emph>micro:</emph> the pattern of activities, relations, and roles that individuals experience directly; <emph>meso</emph>: a system of micro-systems formed through their interactions; <emph>exo</emph>: the larger social system the individual is not part of, but influences their development; the more diffuse <emph>macro</emph>: the influences and structures of culture and patterns of social exchange; and <emph>chrono</emph>: incorporating time's influence on the individual and environments in development (Crawford, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref49">11</reflink>]; Ozaki et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref50">28</reflink>]; Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref51">6</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref52">7</reflink>]). As neurodivergent student experiences of accessibility and inclusion in HE are shaped by intersecting systems (such as one's campus, support services, teaching staff, and other students) an EST framework enables a multi-layer examination of complexity that is learner-centred, providing significant advancement to HE scholarship. However, its limited scholarly application in this context leaves many gaps addressed by this research. For example, research of Nuske and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref53">27</reflink>]) has examined ND student experiences through an EST lens but does so across heterogenous studies without collecting any primary data. Moreover, this data is not homogenous to HE students, includes data from vocational education, parents, is limited to autistic students, and does not evaluate macro or chrono-systems.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-6">Neurodivergent students in HE</hd> <p>There is an increasing number of students openly identifying as neurodivergent in HE. Indubitably a positive outcome of community advocacy and societal progression, this trajectory creates challenges for HE institutions that have sub-optimal systems for ensuring accessible and inclusive education. Evidently, due to their unique and often unmet needs, many neurodivergent higher education (NDHE) students are overwhelmed by the transition to HE and its negotiation of social interactions, self-identity, independence, and change (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref54">9</reflink>]). This necessitates that teachers, support staff, and institutional leadership must learn and evolve to accommodate and include this diverse student segment (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref55">9</reflink>]; Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref56">17</reflink>]). Due to their growing visibility in HE and society more broadly, and the regularity of co-occurrence, this research focuses its exploration of the HE experiences of neurodivergent students who are Autistic, ADHDers, or both, whilst acknowledging that 'neurodivergent' covers a much broader range of people and experiences.</p> <p>Autistic individuals exhibit a 'spiky profile' representing development with great variability between the exhibition of skills across tasks (Alvares et al., [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref57">2</reflink>]). This contrasts with the general misunderstanding of low / high functioning dualisms based on intellect. Despite a growing number of HE enrolments, in 72% of universities, Autistic students were found to have below average graduation rates (Chown et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref58">8</reflink>]). Barriers for Autistic students in HE include navigating social interactions, differences with executive functioning, socialisation, asking questions, delivering presentations, and understanding abstract concepts (Knott and Taylor, [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref59">22</reflink>]; Shmulsky and Gobbo, [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref60">35</reflink>]). However, little is known about Autistic students' academic progress in HE (Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref61">4</reflink>]). Being an ADHDer in HE can also be challenging, as attention is crucial to regulating time and study environments, attending to the academic task at hand, and eliminating or ignoring distractions. Differences in sustaining such attention can hinder academic functioning in relation to time management, organisation, daily routine, and attaining knowledge and skills (Barton et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref62">5</reflink>]; Kwon et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref63">24</reflink>]). Such differences can be more pronounced within online learning settings or those that limit face-to-face social interactions with peers (Wong et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref64">42</reflink>]). Herein, ADHDer students have been found to average a whole grade lower than their non-ADHD peers and are more likely to be on academic probation (Heiligenstein et al., [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref65">20</reflink>]).</p> <p>ND students have been shown to struggle in HE, particularly autistic and ADHDer students with 'hidden disabilities' (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref66">10</reflink>]). However, this does not have to be the case. The 'spiky profile' principle illustrates how each ND individual is different and will possess many cognitive strengths that society benefits from having developed (Doyle, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref67">13</reflink>]). HE has the responsibility to foster these strengths. For example, many students with autism benefit from HE's opportunities to immerse in areas of intense or special interest and meet likeminded others (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref68">10</reflink>]). Their preferences for structure, aptitudes of repetition, and a detailed world understanding (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref69">9</reflink>]) can be highly compatible with HE. Similarly, for ADHDers, HE can leverage compensatory behaviours for engagement and associated approaches for deep learning (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref70">10</reflink>]). With inclusivity, parity can be achieved, as ADHD students have been found to demonstrate equivalent academic performance to autistic students and those with no recorded conditions (Bakker et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref71">4</reflink>]). Herein, as neurodivergence comes of age in education policy (Doyle, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref72">13</reflink>]), HE can leverage these strengths to achieve ambitions of supporting and retaining diverse student populations whilst realising high academic standards (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref73">10</reflink>]).</p> <p>Like Clouder and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref74">9</reflink>]), this research seeks to explore how neurodivergent students experience contemporary HE. Research establishes that Autistic people and ADHDers find support less available once they reach adulthood. This may be reflected in extant research focused to children, creating the gap of understanding the adult experience of being neurodivergent for proactive support (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref75">17</reflink>]). Compounding this, some young neurodivergent adults may not have been diagnosed with Autism and/or ADHD in childhood, and therefore in HE are not only adjusting to university, but also to a new identity, often with little support. To truly be accessible and inclusive, HE must address the entire process of physical and educational approaches to learning (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref76">17</reflink>]). Thus, addressing these gaps requires evaluating the interconnected systems NDHE students encounter involving leadership, campus, staff, other students, support systems, and much more.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-7">Method</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187117446-8">Philosophy and design</hd> <p>Social constructivism is employed to make meaning of the experiences of NDHE students who are Autistic and/or ADHDers. In doing so, meaning is primarily formed through interactions with other people (Creswell, [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref77">12</reflink>]), with accessibility examined through the social model of disability as 'the result of the interaction between people living with environments filled with physical, attitudinal, communication and social barriers' (People with Disability Australia, [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref78">29</reflink>]). This is undertaken through a methodology of phenomenology, allowing for the description of students' specific experiences and meaning making (Ozaki et al., [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref79">28</reflink>]), placing their voice at the centre to create socially just HE experiences and an environment of mutual respect for others (Wong et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref80">42</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-9">Sample and data collection</hd> <p>The population of interest is neurodivergent HE students who are Autistic and/or ADHDers between the ages of 18–25, enrolled at a university in Australia. These constraints ensure greater homogeneity in experiences with neurodivergent identity, ADHD and/or autism diagnosis, and past education experiences. Inclusion criteria mandate that participants are HE students in Australia. In acknowledging the genuine barriers that exist in getting a formal diagnosis, but also the importance of lived experience and validity of self-report (as undertaken by Kwon et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref81">24</reflink>]), students are accepted regardless of having a formal diagnosis of Autism or ADHD. Upon receiving ethics approval from the university research office, a sample of 15 students each undertook in-depth, lived-experience-informed interviews (averaging approximately 1 h). Demographic data of participants is detailed in Table 1. Whilst the population of interest sought students aged 18–25, the youngest participant in the sample is 20 years old. To ensure interviews remained accessible to participants, the option was given to participate as structured and asynchronous (<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref82">7</reflink>) or synchronous and semi-structured (<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref83">8</reflink>). Participants were given the questions beforehand to ease any anxiety and provide a level of structure and organisation that may be helpful to Autistic and/or ADHDers. For participants to feel supported, they were encouraged to have a support person with them throughout — none opted for this. Topics explored include starting university, student support, social / activities, study mode / load, university spaces (online and physical), and assessments.</p> <p>Table 1 Sample characteristics</p> <p> <ephtml> <table frame="hsides" rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>#</p></th><th align="left"><p>ND</p></th><th align="left"><p>Aus. state</p></th><th align="left"><p>Age</p></th><th align="left"><p>Diagnosed / identify</p></th><th align="left"><p>Study load*</p></th><th align="left"><p>Language</p></th><th align="left"><p>Pronouns</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>P1</p></td><td align="left"><p>Both</p></td><td align="left"><p>SA</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT (on leave)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Identity first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P2</p></td><td align="left"><p>Both</p></td><td align="left"><p>WA</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT (on leave)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Identity first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/they</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P3</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autism</p></td><td align="left"><p>WA</p></td><td align="left"><p>21</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT (on leave)</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P4</p></td><td align="left"><p>Both</p></td><td align="left"><p>WA</p></td><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT</p></td><td align="left"><p>Identity first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/they</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P5</p></td><td align="left"><p>ADHD</p></td><td align="left"><p>ACT</p></td><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT (3 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>he/him</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P6</p></td><td align="left"><p>ADHD</p></td><td align="left"><p>ACT</p></td><td align="left"><p>24</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT (2–3 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Person first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/they</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P7</p></td><td align="left"><p>Both</p></td><td align="left"><p>ACT</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>Before</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>he/him</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P8</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autism</p></td><td align="left"><p>NSW</p></td><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>Before</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT</p></td><td align="left"><p>Person first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P9</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autism</p></td><td align="left"><p>ACT</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>Before</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT</p></td><td align="left"><p>Person first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P10</p></td><td align="left"><p>ADHD</p></td><td align="left"><p>QLD</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT (3 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>he/they</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P11</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autism</p></td><td align="left"><p>WA</p></td><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT (3 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Identity first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P12</p></td><td align="left"><p>Both</p></td><td align="left"><p>NSW</p></td><td align="left"><p>20</p></td><td align="left"><p>Before</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P13</p></td><td align="left"><p>ADHD</p></td><td align="left"><p>NSW</p></td><td align="left"><p>23</p></td><td align="left"><p>Before</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT (2 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Person first</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P14</p></td><td align="left"><p>ADHD</p></td><td align="left"><p>ACT</p></td><td align="left"><p>22</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>FT (considering PT)</p></td><td align="left"><p>No preference</p></td><td align="left"><p>she/her</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>P15</p></td><td align="left"><p>Autism</p></td><td align="left"><p>WA</p></td><td align="left"><p>25</p></td><td align="left"><p>During</p></td><td align="left"><p>PT (2–3 units)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Identity first</p></td><td align="left"><p>they/them</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Australian States: 'SA' = South Australia, 'WA' = Western Australia, 'ACT' = Australian Capital Territory, 'NSW' = New South Wales, 'QLD' = Queensland *<emph>PT</emph> part time, <emph>FT</emph> full time</p> <p>Participants are referenced in this study through a pseudonym number (see Table 1). Of the five students who were diagnosed or identified as Autistic and/or ADHDers before university, only one (P12) was diagnosed as a young child. There was an even number of participants (<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref84">5</reflink>) who were ADHDers, Autistic, or both. Participants were located in five different Australian states and territories and aged between 20 and 25 years. Over two-thirds of students stated they were diagnosed / identified as Autistic and/or ADHDers whilst in HE. To ensure respect, participants were asked whether they prefer person-first (e.g. person with autism) or identity-first (e.g. autistic person) language, with a broad split, including many who were indifferent. To align with community best practice, this paper uses identity-first, de-medicalised language as much as possible.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-10">Data analysis</hd> <p>In accordance with Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref85">17</reflink>]), a constant comparative approach was undertaken with iterative inductive analysis employed across researchers. The research team comprises both insider and outsider experience, with interviews conducted by the second author with lived experience of neurodivergence. Data were recorded and transcribed, with a data matrix developed using an open, axial, and selective coding process. Through the process of open coding, 309 significant statements were identified by either author that reflect an experience specific to neurodivergence and HE (positive, negative, or neutral). Both authors recognised these statements with 99.6% agreement. Where disagreement was achieved, divergences were discussed in consultation with the literature until authors converged on a suitable coding. In constant consultation with EST literature (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref86">6</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref87">7</reflink>]), significant statements were coded at the axial stage according to the systems of neurodivergent higher education (NDHE) student experiences they best described. This began initially with micro, exo, macro, and chrono-systems, enabling a coding sheet to emerge. From here, statements that described a student influencing a micro-system were then coded separately as 'feedback loops', with statements describing an intersection of two or more micro-systems then coded as meso-systems. Both authors then re-evaluated the coding with inter-coder agreement of 98.4% (equivalent processes followed to reach consensus). Through selective coding these experiences were interpreted within the context of the EST and ND literature, with the breadth of student experiences presented in the results for each of the systems.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-11">Results</hd> <p>Three hundred nine significant statements were identified that distinctly represent NDHE student experiences across many stakeholders, contexts, interactions, relationships, and procedures. Data have been synthesised across the perspectives of students from many universities, each operating under different attitudes, policies, and practices towards neurodivergence and disability. These were classified at 22 codes across the different systems of influence on NDHE students, with the majority comprising references to micro-systems and meso-systems, as categorised in Fig. 1. Data are shaped by the distinct neurological profiles of the students and their distinctive challenges related to sensory, communication, executive functioning (Autism); concentration, focus, regulating time (ADHD); or both, with significant implications for accessibility and inclusion in HE.</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Intersecting systems influencing neurodivergent higher education student experiences</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-12">Micro-systems</hd> <p>Results reveal numerous significant micro-systems that shape NDHE student development and learning. Importantly, distinction is made between micro-systems that shape ND student experiences and the 'feedback loops' in the systems where NDHE student conduct influences how the microsystem subsequently shapes their student experience — both are impactful. Eight micro-systems of regular interactions (beliefs, actions, roles) that directly influence NDHE student experiences are first identified.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-13">Accessible curricula</hd> <p>Experiences with the core learning resources and environments that comprise the educational aspects of HE emerges as an important system. Participants shared several issues that are distinctly problematic because of their neurodivergence (i.e. sensory stimulation, distractions, focus). This includes the use of difficult to interpret symbolic images; 'ableist' curricula that does not frame disability appropriately; poor audio and mic quality for lectures or recordings; that not having lecture slides available in advance creates issues with focus; and a lack of standardisation across learning management systems. One particular example highlights the intimidating nature of discussion boards that do not accommodate questions from those who function differently. 'I didn't think that anyone's going to be rude... but it was just that it wasn't structured in a way that felt like I could actually share...because my thoughts would be in a very different vein from everyone else' [P4]. Nonetheless, several positive aspects of curricula experiences are also impactful, including experiences with intensive learning, having breaks in tutorials, and including the experiences of disabled people in the curriculum.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-14">Assessments</hd> <p>Assessments prove to be a very challenging aspect of NDHE student experiences. Whilst an important part of curriculums, they are so influential to NDHE experiences they are coded as a distinct microsystem. Participants indicated struggling with tests due to recall and focus; multiple choices due to the semantic nuances of options; group assessments due to executive functioning and social interaction; oral presentations due to punitive requirements on body language and eye contact; and general difficulty with understanding what the assessment is asking of them. 'It's not that I dislike working with other people—it's because my executive function and capacity to complete assignments often affects my ability to keep up with project timelines or plans made with other group members' [P11]. Flexibility that allows NDHE students to adapt an assessment to their distinct educational needs is discussed as an antidote, alongside positive experiences with room adjustments (e.g. lighting and distractions) catered for their unique needs.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-15">Teachers</hd> <p>A key, but divisive stakeholder shaping NDHE student experiences is teachers. Perhaps the most influential of all micro-systems, many indicated negative experiences with how concepts are explained to ND students' and the clarity and consistency with which teachers post information on learning management systems. Participants indicated a desire to have teachers assist them break down their assessments in a way that is understandable to their distinct educational needs, to assist in managing the project into smaller tasks, or to help interpret the question and arrange their thoughts. One particularly impactful experience was even shared, 'one of my lecturers told me off for "slacking off" when I was in the psychiatric hospital for two weeks after a suicide attempt' [P15]. Many positive experiences were shared that provided ND students with a sense of support, recognition, and additional assistance stemming from affirming students, kindness, and accommodation of their needs. 'Then I'll get an email being like "how are you going" and kind of check in. What can we do to support you? And then suddenly, I'm back in the game' [P1].</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-16">Spaces</hd> <p>The spaces on campus or where learning occurs are more impactful on NDHE students than to their neurotypical counterparts. Many express a desire to avoid most of the campus due to inaccessibility, including many sensory aspects related to noise and light, and being overwhelmed by the numerous people. Inflexibility to ND breeds dissatisfaction, even hopelessness. 'I'm very uncomfortable when classrooms and lecture halls have no windows, and they shut the doors' [P10]. Wayfinding around campus was regularly raised as problematic, including limited signage, contextual cues, and illogical numbering. This limits ND students to accessing a small amount of the campus, causing anxiety and stress when having to access unfamiliar areas. 'There are always lots of people on the streets and in the libraries and there are no quiet spaces or low sensory spaces. I spend as little time at uni as I can' [P15]. Familiarity remained significant, as issues with spaces are exacerbated in new environments or earlier on in the semester. Many students lamented not having access to sensory spaces designed to accommodate their needs with respect to lighting, audio, and furniture, but also to serve as meeting points to get to know other ND peers.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-17">Students</hd> <p>Other students form an important, but complicated microsystem. Whilst participants shared difficulties in communicating with others in class, no student shared any distressing or harmful experiences. However, many students accepted a sense of not being connected with other students and expressed a perceived stigma around being dangerous, or surprising when they excel academically. Many positive experiences helped shape their student experience, including feeling appreciated by classmates for the unique experiences they bring, and the rare chances to build relationships with other ND students. 'She was going through the process of being diagnosed with Autism and ADHD. It was actually very valuable to have someone kind of in a similar situation' [P6].</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-18">Support</hd> <p>The support services available for NDHE students are a crucial system they navigate that others typically do not. Some participants however had not even considered using support services; felt the institution was not forthcoming; did not know where to start; did not receive support as an online student; faced long wait times; or were concerned that they would not be able to commit to the services so did not even try. When engaged, participants expressed mixed experiences, including not understanding ND; not empathising with their struggles; and difficulty of providing adequate 'proof of disability'. 'I had to have a psychiatrist fill out a form regarding my symptoms and diagnosis, which I forgot to do at one appointment (unsurprising for someone with ADHD...) and then I had to wait 4 months until my next appointment' [P13]. However, many positives were experienced with support services and staff, including how welcoming, generous, and helpful they were, particularly with reasonable adjustment plans, disability advocates, study groups, and peer mentor programs.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-19">Reasonable adjustment plans</hd> <p>Reasonable adjustment plans (RAPs) are an integral component of the NDHE student experience to remedy stress, anxiety, and the ability to account for distractions. Participants use these to receive provisions to assist with their ND, including adjustments to assessment submissions, extensions, the waving of participation/attendance marks, and extra time for exams. Whilst many provisions were discussed, extensions were overwhelmingly the most common, but not always the most helpful. For example, '...giving me a five-day extension just means I have to stress for another five days' [P2]. For some, there is a sense of unease in using them, 'I've been a lot kinder to myself this sem. Like getting as many extensions as I need rather than working myself into a breakdown when assessment crunch hits' [P10]. Another participant indicated they should be seen more as a structural tool used to help ND students, rather than a privilege or 'being nice'.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-20">Student clubs and associations</hd> <p>An important component of typical student experiences is the various student clubs and associations. These can be managed by the university or set up by students. However, participants lamented an absence of student clubs and associations that are tailored to or dedicated to their ND identity/needs, expressing that institutions should do more to make the campus neurodivergent-friendly and affirming. The unstructured nature of the events, particularly their social aspects, as well as the already established relationships of members are also not manageable for some ND students. 'I tried to get involved, but I often couldn't keep up with the regularity. Social activities require a lot of maintenance and upkeep which I often can't keep up with' [P11].</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-21">Microsystem: feedback loops</hd> <p>Six micro-systems related to NDHE student conduct (beliefs, actions, limitations, etc.) are identified that operate as feedback loops. These are examples where the student influences a microsystem in a way that impacts how that microsystem subsequently influences their development.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-22">Neurodivergent identity</hd> <p>HE students' identity as neurodivergent (Autistic and/or ADHDers) has a large impact on how they experience several micro-systems. Whilst some are comfortable in their identity, or do not identify as ND due to recency of diagnosis, for others it negatively impacts their experiences with other students. 'I think I don't involve myself because I feel awkward and that I don't belong in groups with people who have ADHD and or Autism' [P14]. Participants indicated embarrassment preventing them from using tutoring services; feeling they are 'not disabled enough' [P2] to access support for disabled students; or that they fall into a 'fail cycle' where their expectations of themselves continually get lower, leading to more failure and inevitably 'end up ghosting...my attendance just like decreases to zero, so I feel like I'll be letting people down if I become friends with them' [P1]. One participant indicated feeling too uncomfortable and embarrassed to even send teachers their RAP.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-23">Disclosing neurodivergence</hd> <p>To whom and when NDHE students disclose their neurodivergent identity or experiences also creates a significant feedback loop. Most participants indicated they only disclose when they deem it necessary or relevant to their studies and feel comfortable having the ensuing discussions. In this sense, disclosure is mostly instrumental, so to enact RAP provisions, but can often come with a sense of guilt or shame. One participant found it relevant to tackle ableist curricula with other students. Disclosing to the class online was considered easier for a participant as they were not exposed to others' reactions or questions, but for another participant was too formal and thus anxiety-inducing. However, whilst several expressed teachers and students being 'super-duper supportive' [P9], one particular statement highlights the complexity of disclosure. 'I don't think I've ever told staff. Probably because of the internalised stigma, I think they'll be like "Ok, so what?". This is probably far from the truth because ...they've always been very understanding and accommodating' [P10].</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-24">Sense of isolation</hd> <p>Participants indicated a strong sense of isolation, with no one indicating a sense of belonging. Several expressed feeling like they are the only ND student at their university; not knowing anyone in class whilst other students all seem to be friends; a desire to connect with disabled students; and that studying online leads to disconnect. Moreover, 'a lot of the struggles at uni are unique to neurodivergence, such as taking longer with your degrees, not coping with the workload, struggling to fit in. They are so shameful and make us feel so different to others – it feels like nobody understands' [P11]. Student interactions can make the experiences of curricula more difficult, such as other students not understanding how they uniquely relate to study material, how they learn, or when students do not engage due to fear of offence. Accordingly, one participant expressed that having a student with similar learning styles would have made them feel more comfortable talking about course material to ensure they understood it.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-25">University choice</hd> <p>ND students' university choice significantly impacts how they will experience HE systems. Generally, participants indicated an ignorance to the support services available to them as ND at their chosen institution. This was further complicated by many who were not yet diagnosed/identifying when commencing in HE and thus not concerned primarily with accessibility. A familiar university that was close to home is often favoured, 'an entirely new environment would've been much more scary/overwhelming' [P10], as is the role of established friendship networks, 'I find it difficult to make and keep friends, following where my friends were going was the bigger priority' [P15]. Herein, student experiences can be hindered by students' inadvertent choice of institution, or by their preferencing of other factors over appropriate support. When moving into post-graduate study with greater experience as an NDHE student, 'small class sizes, quiet spaces and areas where I can distance from other students, pastoral care' [P15] became particularly important.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-26">Tuition choices</hd> <p>NDHE students' choices regarding how they will study are pivotal to their experience of various systems. When raised, every participant indicated how beneficial it has been for them to drop down to a part-time load. 'I needed more time to take in the content...and that wouldn't have worked with full-time study' [P4]. This was attributed to issues with multi-tasking, feeling more confident in their abilities when they graduate, fitting around work, and having the right support around them. 'I was originally full-time but found it too hard to split my focus on four completely different things at once' [P15]. Many participants indicated they have paused their studies at some point so to have a needed break. However, any reductions in study load come with trade-offs of time and money. Using outside-of-semester or intensive study periods helps ease the load during the standard semester; however, preferences for in-class or online learning varied greatly. The former is preferred for better focus, less distractions, and accessing teaching staff directly, whilst the latter for asking questions without disrupting others, reviewing curricula at their own pace, and not being required to attend classes or let down classmates by not attending.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-27">Meso-systems</hd> <p>Representing the interactions between two or more micro-systems that are directly experienced by the student, four meso-systems are identified. Typically characterised as interactions between two micro-systems, in certain contexts/scenarios a tertiary micro-system interaction occurs (indicated in parentheses).</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-28">Reasonable adjustment plans—(students)—(support)</hd> <p>Participants note there can be tensions between them, other students, and the provisions of their RAPs. 'I've heard students say before, I don't think it's fair that some people get like super long extensions, when it's like the rest of us have to complete it by this time' [P2]. Participants indicated a desire to have support services (respectfully) share with them what other students had found helpful with RAPs so to maximise the impact of theirs. 'It would have been really, really nice to hear, oh, this person has tried this. And they found that really helpful. Let's put it in your plan' [P2].</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-29">Teachers—reasonable adjustment plans—(support)</hd> <p>An important meso-systems involves teachers and RAPs. When approached with professionalism and respect, problems are avoided early and a sense of dignity is restored. 'Honestly, if I didn't have her almost every semester, I would have dropped out a while ago' [P15]. However, many students note teaching staff refusing their RAPs, requiring them to explain uncomfortable personal medical/psychiatric details (they are not legally required to provide), or not believing them when seeking their entitled provisions. 'When I told the advisor that I was struggling at uni and needed help getting my accommodations met, she told me "you should just drop out"' [P15]. This frustrates, de-motivates, breeds isolation, and leads to cumbersome administrative processes. Notably, support staff able to step in as an integral intersection between systems. 'If they say no to something that is in your access plan (RAP) you can contact a disability access plan person and then they'll contact your lecturer' [P1]. As each country and institution has different regulations and policies regarding RAPs, this raises the need for sector-wide collaboration and consistency to reduce anxiety, confusion, and bureaucracy for both students, staff, and the institution.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-30">Support – student clubs and associations</hd> <p>An intriguing interaction between systems is the role support services can play in building ND connection through student clubs and associations. One participant indicated that the support team had not informed them of any specific ND clubs and associations. 'It would be really lovely to have, like, ADHD, or Autistic groups, obviously, led by people that actually have experienced them firsthand, as an add-on to things like the peer support' [P2]. It was raised that universities should be doing more to make campus culture more ND-friendly and address isolation, as the role of social groups in building ND friendships as a form of support was emphasised.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-31">Spaces—students—support</hd> <p>A beneficial intersection between micro-systems is when spaces on campus are used as part of support services for ND students. These are most powerful when they are leveraged to build interaction, connections, and belonging between ND students in a space that feels welcoming and fosters ND student ownership. 'Students had kept in touch, and they'd formed little study groups. And like you've formed those connections' [P2]. Moreover, due to their specialised nature, these spaces can be used by universities as a point of facilitation or communication for other bespoke support services provided to ND students.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-32">Exo-systems</hd> <p>Results identify three influences (policies and procedures) that infrequently come from outside the aforementioned systems, not directly involving NDHE students, yet indirectly and significantly impact their experiences of micro-systems.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-33">Government requirements</hd> <p>Australian government policies that mandate students to be studying at a full-time load to receive student financial welfare (<emph>Youth Allowance</emph>) are particularly problematic as they exacerbate issues NDHE students uniquely face stemming from studying too many units at once. 'It's really difficult to get Centrelink and also have accessible university, that's a really tough thing to balance' [P1]. Naturally, this results in students having to work more than desired which further exacerbates the problem. Other pathways were acknowledged though, including the valuable (for others) yet invalid and cumbersome process for NDHE students engaging in government disability services to get further provisions.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-34">University reasonable adjustment plan policy</hd> <p>University decisions about RAPs have a sizeable influence on how NDHE students harness them for support services. A major issue lies with what is required of students when seeking a RAP. This can instil guilt and shame, reinforce the medical-model of disability, and often require them to engage in a whole range of other internal and external services, sometimes repeatedly, that are a drain on study time, motivation, and money. 'The documentation for my [RAP] cost me $300 + to pull together from various specialists to tell the occupational therapist a non-medical fact' [P15]. Naturally, this is not something neurotypical students experience. Positively, an inclusive policy was admired that allowed students to not have to pay for units they failed prior to having their RAP.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-35">External support integration</hd> <p>The integration of external support from medical/health professionals into the other systems that NDHE students experience is important. When external medical professionals understand institutions' requirements and processes, support services are engaged more effectively for a seamless implementation of RAPs. 'It's very well connected because they have to work together' [P5]. But this is not always the case. Overwhelmingly, participants indicated that a formal diagnosis is essential to getting the appropriate services and provisions. However, this wasn't necessarily deemed the most appropriate. 'They're still coming from a medical-model perspective...I think particularly with Autism, there still isn't a sense of listening to Autistic adults' [P4]. Participants reflected an understanding of diagnosis in the processes, but many lament others not validating self-diagnosis, particularly considering the laborious and expensive demands of a formal diagnosis.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-36">Macro-systems</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187117446-37">Perceptions and misunderstandings</hd> <p>Macro-systems represent the influences of cultural or social exchanges that shape the development of NDHE students. Whilst some participants had not experienced misunderstandings from others about their neurodivergence, for many, the way others see them, whether objective or not, is influential. One student shared how they feel perceived by teachers, 'I'm just seen as lazy or unmotivated or kind of not very smart because I'm not able to understand things that everyone else can' [P4]. Assumptions are made that because an NDHE student performs well academically that interacting with curricula and teachers should not be an issue; others fail to understand the stress or anxiety experienced, or stereotype NDHE students. 'So much of how people perceive ADHD is based on external observations and how it appears to the outsider, when in fact the biggest impact and difficulty is internal. It is so lonely and difficult to battle with your mind to do even the "simplest" tasks' [P11]. Participants bemoan other students considering them lucky to get extensions, with one noting RAPs are not taken as seriously when they reference 'ADHD / Autism', and is even considering having it replaced with something more 'generic'.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-38">Chrono-systems</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187117446-39">Transitions</hd> <p>Chrono-systems represent the influence of time on individuals and environments in human development. As education experiences happen over many years and are shaped by past experiences, transitions in ND identity or recognition are influential. The journey with ND diagnosis is different for all. Some participants were diagnosed during high school or earlier, others when entering HE, and some not until they were already deep into their studies. Herein, the amount of time one has with recognition of their ND has profound impacts on the impact of several micro-systems. For some, in HE 'when it comes to getting provisions in high school, it is just awful. So going from that to university, it's incredible' [P5]. One participant is optimistic that as research progresses over time the support will get better. However, for some, not enough is being done at the crucial time of transition into HE. 'I wish unis did more to help Autistic students when they are already enrolled. Some do lots of work in high school and in first year, but assume we'll just figure out the inaccessibility' [P15]. Expectations were also not met regarding promises in high school of meeting 'their people' at university. 'And then I got to the end (of studies), I was like, great, it's more of the same' [P3]. One participant was preparing for their future, suggesting that support for ND students is an expectation in HE, but in the workforce, such adjustments may not be made, thus they try not to take advantage of provisions if possible.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-40">Discussion</hd> <p>HE must remain inclusive and accessible, ensuring equal participation for students with disability on the same basis as students without (Australian Government, [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref88">3</reflink>]). The insights shared in this research suggest such a standard is not yet being met. To address this, an ecological systems theory (EST) framework is applied to the accessibility and inclusion of neurodivergent higher education (NDHE) student experiences, privileging their voices to achieve socially just HE and mutual respect (Wong et al., [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref89">42</reflink>]). Doing so reveals numerous important insights into how these intersecting systems uniquely shape human learning and development.</p> <p>EST is a holistic framework of nested systems (persons, processes, context, time, etc.), with the self (the student), at the centre (Bronfenbrenner, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref90">6</reflink>], [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref91">7</reflink>]; Crawford, [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref92">11</reflink>]). Extending the research of Nuske and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref93">27</reflink>]), this research supports EST as a useful framework for describing and classifying NDHE student experiences to illuminate concrete ways in which systems impact accessibility/inclusion. Most evident in the data is the impact of micro-systems. These emerge as the most common interactions that directly influence NDHE student experiences. Key micro-systems are revealed, including curricula, assessments, teachers, students, spaces, support, RAPs, and student clubs and associations. Findings support many presented in the literature, including test-driven assessment cultures that set barriers of inclusion for disabled students (Nieminen, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref94">26</reflink>]); that creating a sense of belonging is a dynamic process requiring time, space, and social assemblage towards co-constructed learning (Gravett and Ajjawi, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref95">19</reflink>]); and inaccessible physical spaces of campuses that fail to affirm neurodivergence (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref96">17</reflink>]).</p> <p>Scholarly understanding of the influence of micro-systems on student development is extended through a focus on the distinct experiences of ND students. For ND students, these systems are experienced in a far more complicated manner and shaped by self-perceived stigmas (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref97">9</reflink>]; Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref98">16</reflink>]) and low academic self-efficacy beliefs (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref99">33</reflink>]). Consequently, many barriers and challenges to academic and personal development are erected. Key findings include inaccessible lecture recordings and curricula content, rigid assessment structures that mandate body language and eye contact standards, teachers not accommodating RAPs, the absence of sensory spaces, stigmatisation, cumbersome support services, and the absence of ND student clubs or associations led by lived experience. In addressing these deficiencies at a systems level, HE can leverage the strengths of ND students and reverse trends of those with 'hidden disabilities' struggling in HE (Couzens et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref100">10</reflink>]). By improving these systems, better support and curricula would be available for all students, shifting to more proactive and welcoming learning systems (Vaccaro and Kimball, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref101">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>A key contribution of this research lies in its extension of 'feedback loops' into micro-systems. Identifying feedback loops is pivotal to understanding how NDHE students influence a micro-system that then subsequently impacts their learning. This demarcation of micro-systems into two forms, those that directly influence the student and those where the student's conduct shapes the micro-system (feedback loops), is an important extension of the HE literature. Those discovered include neurodivergent student identities, disclosing neurodivergence, isolation, university choice, and tuition choices. Whilst Bronfenbrenner ([<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref102">6</reflink>]) proposes that individuals impact systems, feedback loops have not been explicitly demarcated in HE EST research. Herein, it is proposed this significant contribution is achieved by the research's focus on students that diverge from societal norms. This highlights the shortcomings of HE systems that are erected and emergent to cater to the majority i.e., neurotypical students. For such students, these feedback loops are inconsequential, as the system is designed for them. For example, they do not have to disclose highly personal information that impacts how staff/students perceive and treat them, or make choices that significantly shape how they access their education. Thus, it is the ways in which HE is not inclusive or inaccessible for ND students that cultivates these feedback loops. Consequently, NDHE students encounter many points at which they can influence the systems that influence them. This can be productive, such as choosing to reduce to a part-time tuition load, or selecting a university based on accessibility and support services; or unproductive, such as feeling embarrassed or 'not disabled enough' to access support services or experiencing 'fail cycles' that discourage participation and collaboration.</p> <p>As micro-systems interact with each other, various meso-systems emerge. Teachers and support services are discovered to be crucial connectors between the institution and education. This supports research that establishes the systemic change needed from faculty regarding engaging with neurodivergent students responsively and responsibly (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref103">17</reflink>]), social support groups to prevent loneliness and stress in Autistic students whilst enhancing self-esteem (Hillier et al., [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref104">21</reflink>]), and the importance of stewarding students to the next stage of support so not to 'fall through the cracks' (Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref105">17</reflink>]). Provisions provided by RAPs are also discovered to regularly intersect in systems of influence. This is unsurprising given the acknowledged role of flexibility and personalization as an enhancer of inclusivity for students with disability (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref106">9</reflink>]), particularly for assessments (Edwards et al., [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref107">16</reflink>]). Pertinently, we reveal the impact on NDHE students from the complicated administrative nature of RAPs and the variability in how they are received and accommodated by teachers and students (Vaccaro and Kimball, [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref108">39</reflink>]), validating Edwards and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref109">16</reflink>]) findings of self-perceived stigma.</p> <p>Influences in the form of policies and procedures from outside direct systems shape NDHE student experiences (exo-systems). Results reveal that government requirements to study full-time impacts the quantity and thus manageability of curricula students must contend with. Ensuring universities create inclusive environments and remove barriers to belonging for marginalised groups is a key focus of policy and practice (Gravett and Ajjawi, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref110">19</reflink>]). However, results reveal that institutional policies towards RAPs dramatically shape NDHE student experiences of multiple systems, whilst they remain outside of their control. Some HE institutions are found to do this well, whilst others compound non-inclusivity. The necessity to involve external health/medical professionals also reveals another complicated nuance to NDHE student experiences.</p> <p>At the macro-system level, the external perceptions or misunderstandings of others are significant actions of cultural or social exchange. Misunderstandings are established in the literature, such as feeling of stigmas against ND students and a lack of understanding embodied into concepts of self (Clouder et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref111">9</reflink>]). Herein, we advance their understanding by revealing how such misunderstandings impact various systems that NDHE students experience, including curricula, other students, teachers, and the impact of RAPs on further misunderstanding and stereotyping. Finally, transitions to HE are influential chrono-system that manifest over time, occurring from earlier experiences with education and support in high school that shape expectations and confirmations in HE. The articulation of these macro- and chrono-system level influences deepen HE EST research (Nuske et al., [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref112">27</reflink>]) which currently ignores these important systems.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-41">Conclusion</hd> <p>Through a variety of systemic barriers and injustices HE is experienced as non-inclusive and isolating to many ND students. Student experiences at different levels of systems are analysed, highlighting those that are distinct to neurodivergent students. In doing so, several important contributions are made to the HE literature. Through validating the robust framework of EST in this context and addressing the shortcomings of Nuske and colleagues ([<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref113">27</reflink>]), we extend the academic understanding of HE experiences for a marginalised, and often neglected but important student segment, advancing accessibility and inclusion in education research. In adopting the social model of disability considerate of attitudes, policies, and practices of social contexts (Van Aswegen and Shevlin, [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref114">40</reflink>]), we illuminate how HE institutions and their curricula, staff, and students shape learning for ND students. By classifying them at the varying levels of intersecting systems, we provide concrete insights for HE leadership, teachers, and support staff to improve accessibility and inclusion in HE. Specifically, this applies to curricula, assessments, RAPs, spaces, teachers, students, and support services.</p> <p>This research is the first to demarcate the presence of feedback loops on micro-systems through EST. In doing so, it highlights a bias in research that has rendered HE and its facilities non-inclusive or inaccessible for many. Herein, we propose these feedback loops had remained hidden because systems of HE practice have emerged from and for neurotypical students, whilst research tends to ignore the experiences of those with disability, particularly ND students.</p> <p>In the advancement of scholarship, this study privileges the voices of NDHE students, not only through its entirely ND sample, but through data of unique ND perspectives. Evidently, we identify the interactions, relationships, policies, practices, and cultural/societal forces that shape the development of ND students in HE. This is an important contribution as research extending to students with a disability/ND students is limited by its minor representation from those with disability (see Barton et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref115">5</reflink>]; Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref116">32</reflink>]), or its conflation across differing disability experiences (Reed et al., [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref117">33</reflink>]). In remedying this, we honour Friedman and Nash-Luckenbach's ([<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref118">17</reflink>]) proposition that neurodivergent student perspectives support community-engaged research and theory building.</p> <p>Limitations are present in this research that provide important areas for future HE scholarship. Firstly, acknowledging the significant costs and inconvenience of formal diagnosis, this study includes those who self-diagnose as Autistic, ADHDers, or both. Whilst we illuminate a multitude of systemic forces at HE institutions across multiple Australian states, a greater number of universities could be investigated, including beyond Australia, with a greater number of students through quantitative research. Further research could examine the extent to which the influence of sub-systems (e.g. government requirements) may be idiosyncratic to Australian contexts. Deeper comparison across age, gender, income, or broader neurodivergence could be investigated, including those of mature-age and post-graduate students. Understanding how HE systems shape the broader experiences of ND students (e.g. dyslexia, schizophrenia, OCD, bipolar) and disability (e.g. physical, vision, hearing) could prove insightful. Comparisons of NDHE learning experiences for those who choose to study online, compared with in-person or hybrid learning could reveal valuable intersections between spaces, students, and support.</p> <p>This research extends scholarly knowledge of student experiences for an important cohort of students that is often disadvantaged and unheard. In doing so, we hope to have contributed to meaningful systemic improvements in the accessibility and inclusivity of higher education.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-42">Acknowledgements</hd> <p>The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Kay Barnard, Marziya Mohammedali, and Rhiannon Huston for helping with the formulation of interview questions</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-43">Funding</hd> <p>Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-44">Data Availability</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-45">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0187117446-46">Conflict of interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> <hd id="AN0187117446-47">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0187117446-48"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref7" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> ADCET. 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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Students%22">College Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Neurodevelopmental+Disorders%22">Neurodevelopmental Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Autism+Spectrum+Disorders%22">Autism Spectrum Disorders</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attention+Deficit+Hyperactivity+Disorder%22">Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Students+with+Disabilities%22">Students with Disabilities</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Experience%22">Student Experience</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Inclusion%22">Inclusion</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Needs%22">Student Needs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Access+to+Education%22">Access to Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Curriculum%22">Curriculum</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Evaluation%22">Student Evaluation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Influence%22">Teacher Influence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Environment%22">Educational Environment</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Peer+Relationship%22">Peer Relationship</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Accessibility+%28for+Disabled%29%22">Accessibility (for Disabled)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Clubs%22">Clubs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Concept%22">Self Concept</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Disclosure+%28Individuals%29%22">Self Disclosure (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Social+Isolation%22">Social Isolation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Choice%22">College Choice</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Tuition%22">Tuition</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Attitudes+toward+Disabilities%22">Attitudes toward Disabilities</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Australia%22">Australia</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s10734-024-01319-6
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0018-1560<br />1573-174X
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Higher Education (HE) can be a complicated and isolating experience for neurodivergent students. Many systemic barriers and injustices create challenges for the accessibility and inclusivity of learning environments and curriculums. However, with the appropriate accommodations, staff guided by neurodiversity-affirming practices, accessible curricula, and opportunities to connect with neurodivergent peers, it can be highly rewarding. Through 15 in-depth, lived-experience-informed interviews with neurodivergent HE students who are Autistic and/or ADHDers in Australia, we analyse experiences at different system levels. By validating the robust framework of ecological systems theory in this context, we extend the academic understanding and add to the limited research on HE experiences for this marginalised, often ignored, but important student segment. We discover pivotal micro-systems of curricula, assessments, reasonable adjustment plans, spaces, teachers, students, and support services. Further contributions are made through the first extension of 'feedback loops' into research of HE micro-systems, and descriptions of macro and chrono-systems. With many HE systems erected and emergent to cater to the student majority, illuminating the experiences of neurodivergent students with these intersecting HE systems provides concrete insights for leadership, teachers, and support staff to improve accessibility and inclusion in HE.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1485062
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1485062
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10734-024-01319-6
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 243
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: College Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Neurodevelopmental Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Autism Spectrum Disorders
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Students with Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Inclusion
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Needs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Access to Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Curriculum
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Evaluation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Teacher Influence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Environment
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Peer Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Accessibility (for Disabled)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Clubs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Concept
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Disclosure (Individuals)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Social Isolation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: College Choice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Tuition
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Attitudes toward Disabilities
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Australia
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Neurodivergent (Autism and ADHD) Student Experiences of Access and Inclusion in Higher Education: An Ecological Systems Theory Perspective
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
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      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Luke Butcher
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Stevie Lane
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 07
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0018-1560
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-174X
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 90
            – Type: issue
              Value: 1
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education Research
              Type: main
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