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Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement in China: Evidence from CEPS

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Title: Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement in China: Evidence from CEPS
Language: English
Authors: Yongxiang Xie (ORCID 0009-0005-7557-1048), Yijiang Li (ORCID 0009-0000-8539-1298)
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2025 62(12):4967-4980.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Secondary Education
Descriptors: Parent Attitudes, Beliefs, Educational Attitudes, Parenting Styles, Self Efficacy, Adolescents, Secondary School Students, Academic Achievement, Parent Responsibility
DOI: 10.1002/pits.70055
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: This study uses data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) to examine how parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs relate to adolescents' academic achievement. It also explores whether parental educational expectations mediate these relationships and how they vary by adolescents' level of conscientiousness. The study reveals that parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with adolescent academic achievement, while parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated. Parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Additionally, the association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is attenuated among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness. These findings highlight the importance of positive parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs in promoting children's academic achievement.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2025
Accession Number: EJ1488702
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0189190080;pis01dec.25;2025Nov11.05:32;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0189190080-1">Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement in China: Evidence From CEPS </title> <p>This study uses data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) to examine how parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs relate to adolescents' academic achievement. It also explores whether parental educational expectations mediate these relationships and how they vary by adolescents' level of conscientiousness. The study reveals that parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with adolescent academic achievement, while parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated. Parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Additionally, the association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is attenuated among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness. These findings highlight the importance of positive parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs in promoting children's academic achievement.</p> <p>Practitioner Points: Parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with adolescent academic achievement, while parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated.Parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement.The association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is weaker among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness.</p> <p>Keywords: academic achievement; conscientiousness; parental educational expectations; parental educational responsibility beliefs; parenting efficacy beliefs</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-2">Introduction</hd> <p>Parents play a critical role in sustaining the class‐based achievement gap (Chmielewski [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref1">10</reflink>]; Lee [<reflink idref="bib30" id="ref2">30</reflink>]; Reardon [<reflink idref="bib47" id="ref3">47</reflink>]). Parenting acts as a primary channel for the intergenerational transmission of education (Roksa and Potter [<reflink idref="bib50" id="ref4">50</reflink>]). Parental beliefs, as a core dimension of parenting, refer to parental expectations regarding their child's developmental trajectory and their perceived role in this process (Hoff et al. [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref5">21</reflink>]). Parental beliefs exert a significant influence on children's academic achievement.</p> <p>Previous research has mainly examined the effect of four types of parental beliefs on children's academic achievement. These include parental perceptions of their children's current ability and future potential, their views on the importance of academic competence, their beliefs about the best ways for their children to learn, and their attitudes whether children should be allowed to challenge their authority (Mulvaney and Morrissey [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref6">39</reflink>]; Silver et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref7">55</reflink>]; Šimunović and Babarović [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref8">56</reflink>]; Sonnenschein et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref9">57</reflink>]). These studies indicate that parental beliefs impact children's academic achievement and reveal three potential explanatory mechanisms: parenting practices, children's beliefs, and children's behaviors (Areepattamannil [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref10">3</reflink>]; Aunola et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref11">4</reflink>]; Bleeker and Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref12">6</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, existing studies focus on specific, micro‐level parental beliefs, neglecting the more fundamental, overarching, and strategic dimensions of parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs. Parental educational responsibility beliefs reflect parental perceptions of their role in their children's education. Specifically, these beliefs determine whether parents consider education to be the sole responsibility of teachers or a shared obligation between themselves and teachers. Parenting efficacy beliefs refer to whether parents believe that their parenting has a positive effect on their children's academic achievement. These core intrinsic beliefs about raising children directly guide parenting styles and practices, indirectly affecting children's beliefs and behaviors. Therefore, parental educational responsibility beliefs about parenting efficacy beliefs may exert a fundamental influence on children's academic achievement.</p> <p>In addition, previous study has primarily relied on parenting practices, children's beliefs, and children's behaviors to explain the relationship between parental beliefs and academic achievement (Areepattamannil [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref13">3</reflink>]; Aunola et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref14">4</reflink>]; Bleeker and Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref15">6</reflink>]). However, the parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs examined in this study are fundamental and overarching, and may influence more specific beliefs such as parental educational expectations. These expectations, in turn, play a critical role in shaping children's academic achievement (Neuenschwander et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref16">40</reflink>]; Pinquart and Ebeling [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref17">44</reflink>]). Thus, specific parental beliefs could also serve as an explanatory mechanism. Parental educational expectations may help explain the links between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescents' academic achievement.</p> <p>Furthermore, extant literature largely considers the homogeneous effects of parental beliefs on academic achievement without examining whether this relationship varies among different children. Conscientiousness, one of the Big Five personality traits, is a key noncognitive skill (Almlund et al. [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref18">2</reflink>]). Conscientiousness encompasses traits that reflect individual differences in self‐control, responsibility toward others, hard work, orderliness, and rule‐following (Eisenberg et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref19">17</reflink>]; Roberts et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref20">49</reflink>]). Conscientiousness can enhance adolescent academic achievement (Dumfart and Neubauer [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref21">14</reflink>]; Eilam et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref22">16</reflink>]) and may moderate the relationship between parental beliefs and adolescent academic achievement.</p> <p>Based on these, the present study addresses the following research questions: (<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref23">1</reflink>) What are the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement? (<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref24">2</reflink>) To what extent do parental educational expectations mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement? (<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref25">3</reflink>) Do these relationships vary according to adolescents' levels of conscientiousness?</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-3">Literature Review and Research Hypotheses</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189190080-4">The Association Between Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Belie...</hd> <p>Existing studies have mainly examined the effects of four types of parental beliefs on adolescent academic achievement. The first type involves parental perceptions of their children's current academic ability and their expectations for the children's future ability. Research indicates that higher parental perceptions and expectations of their children's academic competence are associated with improved mathematics grades (Aunola et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref26">4</reflink>]; Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref27">26</reflink>]; Jacobs and Weisz [<reflink idref="bib27" id="ref28">27</reflink>]; Phillipson and Phillipson [<reflink idref="bib43" id="ref29">43</reflink>]; Šimunović and Babarović [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref30">56</reflink>]) and reading achievement (Halle et al. [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref31">19</reflink>]; Stephenson et al. [<reflink idref="bib58" id="ref32">58</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second type is parental views on the importance of academic ability. Studies show that the more strongly parents value specific academic skills, the more likely their children are to perform better in language (Ronderos et al. [<reflink idref="bib51" id="ref33">51</reflink>]), reading, and mathematics abilities (Elliott and Bachman [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref34">18</reflink>]; Puccioni [<reflink idref="bib45" id="ref35">45</reflink>]; Puccioni et al. [<reflink idref="bib46" id="ref36">46</reflink>]; Silver et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref37">55</reflink>]; Sy and Schulenberg [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref38">59</reflink>]).</p> <p>The third type involves parental beliefs about optimal learning methods for their children. Research suggests that children tend to have better literacy outcomes when parents see reading as enjoyable, rather than just a task requiring instruction and practice (Sonnenschein et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref39">57</reflink>]).</p> <p>The fourth type of parental belief concerns whether children should be allowed to challenge parental authority. Empirical studies have shown that progressive beliefs are associated with higher levels of children's mathematics achievement (Ren et al. [<reflink idref="bib48" id="ref40">48</reflink>]), while traditional beliefs are negatively related to children's academic competence (Mulvaney and Morrissey [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref41">39</reflink>]).</p> <p>To explain the relationship between parental beliefs and adolescent academic achievement, three mechanisms have been proposed. The first is parenting practices. Parents who consider academic ability important are more involved in school activities, such as volunteering in classrooms, attending open houses, and participating in school events (Sy and Schulenberg [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref42">59</reflink>]). These parents are also inclined to adopt parenting practices such as parental encouragement and monitoring (Areepattamannil [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref43">3</reflink>]). Furthermore, parental beliefs influence parents' responses to their children's performance and the direct and indirect support they provide for learning (Muenks et al. [<reflink idref="bib38" id="ref44">38</reflink>]; Ng and Wei [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref45">41</reflink>]).</p> <p>The second mechanism is children's beliefs. Parental perceptions of their children's academic ability can affect children's self‐perception of academic competence (Bleeker and Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref46">6</reflink>]). The third mechanism involves children's behaviors. Parental perceptions of their children's academic ability influence task‐focused behaviors in school (Aunola et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref47">4</reflink>]).</p> <p>However, research on the effects of parental beliefs on children's academic achievement has often focused on specific, micro‐level beliefs, overlooking the broader and more fundamental dimensions of educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs. These beliefs have more direct and far‐reaching effects on parenting practices, children's beliefs, and children's behaviors. Educational responsibility beliefs reflect parental views on the responsibility for educating their children. When parents view education as entirely the teacher's responsibility, they are more likely to adopt a neglectful parenting style. Under such a style, parents are less likely to provide academic support, invest in extracurricular education, communicate with their children, or interact with schools (Huang [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref48">24</reflink>]; Matejevic et al. [<reflink idref="bib37" id="ref49">37</reflink>]; Yang and Zhao [<reflink idref="bib65" id="ref50">65</reflink>]).</p> <p>More critically, neglectful parenting style negatively affects children's academic self‐efficacy and school engagement (Kimmes and Heckman [<reflink idref="bib28" id="ref51">28</reflink>]; Masud et al. [<reflink idref="bib36" id="ref52">36</reflink>]). Therefore, children of parents who hold that educating their children is solely the responsibility of teachers tend to have lower academic achievement.</p> <p>Parenting efficacy beliefs refer to whether parents believe that parenting impacts their children's academic success. Like educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs directly affect parenting practices, children's beliefs, and children's behaviors. If parents believe that parenting has no effect on academic achievement, they are more likely to adopt a neglectful parenting style, which in turn leads to lower academic achievement in their children.</p> <p>Based on these, we propose the following hypotheses:</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-5">1A Hypothesis</hd> <p>Parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with children's academic achievement. Children of parents who believe that the responsibility for educating children lies entirely with teachers tend to have lower academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-6">1B Hypothesis</hd> <p>Parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated with children's academic achievement. Children of parents with a strong sense of parenting efficacy tend to achieve higher academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-7">Parental Educational Expectations as an Explanatory Mechanism</hd> <p>Previous studies have mainly explained the influence of parental beliefs on children's academic achievement through parenting practices, children's beliefs, and children's behaviors. This study, however, proposes a new explanatory mechanism by examining the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement through the lens of parental educational expectations.</p> <p>Parents who believe that educating children is solely the responsibility of teachers often view their child's development as entirely school‐driven, overlooking the role of the family. This belief leads them to view their child's development through the lens of school arrangements and evaluations. With this mindset, parents tend to adopt a passive or fatalistic attitude, lacking clear educational goals or developmental plans. Consequently, their expectations for the child's future are generally low, leading to reduced parental educational expectations.</p> <p>In contrast, parents who recognize the positive impact of parenting place greater importance on the family's role in their child's development. Believing that their own efforts and guidance can meaningfully support their child's academic success, they develop a strong sense of control over the educational process. This, in turn, fosters higher educational expectations for their child.</p> <p>Higher parental educational expectations can enhance children's academic achievement (Long and Pang [<reflink idref="bib35" id="ref53">35</reflink>]; Neuenschwander et al. [<reflink idref="bib40" id="ref54">40</reflink>]; Pinquart and Ebeling [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref55">44</reflink>]). This is because such parents tend to provide more academic support. Their expectations also significantly influence children's own educational expectations, academic self‐concept, and learning engagement (Pinquart and Ebeling [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref56">44</reflink>]; Seginer [<reflink idref="bib53" id="ref57">53</reflink>]; Wang and Shi [<reflink idref="bib61" id="ref58">61</reflink>]; Yamamoto and Holloway [<reflink idref="bib64" id="ref59">64</reflink>]; Zhou [<reflink idref="bib72" id="ref60">72</reflink>]).</p> <p>Based on the above analysis, we propose the following research hypotheses:</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-8">2A Hypothesis</hd> <p>Parents who believe that educational responsibility lies entirely with teachers tend to hold lower educational expectations for their children. Lower parental educational expectations are negatively associated with children's academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-9">2B Hypothesis</hd> <p>Parents with high parenting efficacy are more likely to hold higher educational expectations. Higher parental expectations are positively associated with children's academic achievement.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-10">Adolescent Conscientiousness Moderates the Relationships Between Parental Educational Respons...</hd> <p>Conscientiousness encompasses a range of traits that reflect individual differences in self‐control, responsibility toward others, diligence, orderliness, and adherence to rules (Eisenberg et al. [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref61">17</reflink>]; Roberts et al. [<reflink idref="bib49" id="ref62">49</reflink>]). As a crucial noncognitive skill, conscientiousness can enhance adolescent academic achievement (Dumfart and Neubauer [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref63">14</reflink>]; Eilam et al. [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref64">16</reflink>]; Laidra et al. [<reflink idref="bib29" id="ref65">29</reflink>]) and may moderate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement.</p> <p>Parents who believe that the responsibility for educating their child lies solely with teachers are more likely to adopt a neglectful parenting style and hold low educational expectations for their children. This leads to less frequent parent–child and school–home interactions, which in turn results in lower academic performance among children. However, adolescents with high levels of conscientiousness are more likely to exhibit traits such as self‐discipline, diligence, and orderliness in their academic pursuits. Specifically, they tend to complete homework assignments punctually, dedicate additional time to studying beyond classroom requirements, and engage in learning activities in a structured and goal‐oriented manner. These self‐regulatory learning behaviors not only reflect internal motivation and academic responsibility but also serve as effective strategies for enhancing academic performance. Consequently, a high level of conscientiousness may act as a protective factor, buffering against the negative relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement.</p> <p>In contrast, parents who believe that their parenting significantly influences their children's academic success are more likely to engage in frequent parent–child interactions and maintain active communication with schools. These forms of engagement foster a supportive learning environment that contributes to better academic outcomes. However, improving academic achievement is not solely the responsibility of parents. It also requires coordinated efforts and mutual responsiveness between parents and children. The benefits of parenting practices rooted in strong parenting efficacy beliefs are more likely to be fully realized when adolescents themselves demonstrate positive learning attitudes and behaviors. In this context, a high level of conscientiousness can play a critical moderating role. By enhancing adolescents' receptiveness to parental involvement and increasing their own engagement in academic tasks, conscientiousness may amplify the positive relationship between parenting efficacy beliefs and academic achievement.</p> <p>Based on these, we propose the following research hypotheses:</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-11">3A Hypothesis</hd> <p>The relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is attenuated among adolescents with higher levels of conscientiousness.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-12">3B Hypothesis</hd> <p>The relationship between parenting efficacy beliefs and academic achievement is strengthened among adolescents with higher levels of conscientiousness.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-13">Data, Variables, and Strategy</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189190080-14">Data</hd> <p>This study draws on data from the 2013–2014 academic year of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) to test the above research hypotheses. The CEPS data is highly representative and comprehensively collects detailed information on student individuals and families, making it highly relevant to the questions addressed in this study.</p> <p>CEPS is the first large‐scale, nationally representative longitudinal survey in China that focuses on junior high school students. The survey begins with two cohorts—seventh and ninth grade—and uses stratification variables such as average education level and migrant population ratio. In this basis, researchers employed a multistage probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling method to randomly select 28 county‐level units, 112 schools, and 438 classes across China. The baseline survey involved 19,487 students, 1412 teachers, and 112 principals.</p> <p>The analytic sample is restricted to respondents with complete data on all variables used in the analysis. Specifically, we exclude cases with missing values on any of the key variables, including parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, adolescent academic achievement, parental educational expectations, conscientiousness, and sociodemographic control variables. The original data set from the 2013–2014 wave of the CEPS contains 19,487 observations. After applying these exclusion criteria, 5622 cases with missing values on one or more key variables are excluded. As a result, a total of 13,865 valid cases remains and are included in the final analytic sample.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-15">Variables</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189190080-16">Dependent Variable</hd> <p>The outcome variable is the midterm examination results of Grade 7 and 9 students in major subjects (i.e., Chinese, mathematics, and English) in the fall semester of 2013. These core subject scores are not self‐reported by students. Instead, they are directly provided by the surveyed schools. For comparability across schools, scores for each subject are normalized by school, with the resulting values subsequently transformed to a range of 0–100.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-17">Independent Variable</hd> <p>The first explanatory is parental educational responsibility beliefs. The project team surveyed parents with the question, "Do you agree that it is totally the teachers' responsibility to educate children?" Respondents could choose from five options: "strongly disagree," "somewhat disagree," "it's hard to say," "somewhat agree," and "strongly agree," which are assigned scores of 1 to 5, respectively.</p> <p>The second indicator is parenting efficacy beliefs, which assesses whether parents believe their children's academic achievement is related to parenting, with two response options: "yes" and "no."</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-18">Mediating Variable</hd> <p>The mediating variable is parental educational expectations. The project team asked parents about their educational expectations for their children. It offered nine options: "drop out now," "junior high school," "technical secondary school or technical school," "vocational high school," "general high school," "junior college," "bachelor's degree," "master's degree," and "doctoral degree." Following previous research (Yuxiao and Chao [<reflink idref="bib66" id="ref66">66</reflink>]; Huang [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref67">24</reflink>]), these nine categories are converted into expected years of education. Specifically, "drop out now" = 7 or 8 years[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref68">1</reflink>], "junior high school" = 9 years, "technical secondary school/technical school/vocational high school" = 11 years, "general high school" = 12 years, "junior college" = 15 years, "bachelor's degree" = 16 years, "master's degree" = 19 years, and "doctoral degree" = 22 years.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-19">Moderator Variable</hd> <p>The moderator variable is conscientiousness. Based on the previous studies (Abbasi et al. [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref69">1</reflink>]; Chen et al. [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref70">9</reflink>]; Hu and Mu [<reflink idref="bib22" id="ref71">22</reflink>]; Zheng et al. [<reflink idref="bib71" id="ref72">71</reflink>]), we measure it using three indicators: "I would try my best to go to school even if I was not feeling very well or I had other reasons to stay at home," "I would try my best to finish even the homework I dislike," and "I would try my best to finish my homework, even if it would take me quite a long time." Each indicator has four response options: "strongly disagree," "somewhat disagree," "somewhat agree," and "strongly agree," which are assigned scores of 1 to 4, respectively. We sum the scores of these three indicators to obtain a total score for conscientiousness, where a higher score indicates a higher level of conscientiousness among students.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-20">Control Variables</hd> <p>This study includes two categories of control variables: individual‐level and family‐level factors. Previous studies have shown that gender (Scheeren and Bol [<reflink idref="bib52" id="ref73">52</reflink>]; Van Hek et al. [<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref74">20</reflink>]), children's educational expectations (Li [<reflink idref="bib31" id="ref75">31</reflink>]; Pinquart and Ebeling [<reflink idref="bib44" id="ref76">44</reflink>]), health (Eide et al. [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref77">15</reflink>]; Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib33" id="ref78">33</reflink>]), and boarding status (Wang and Sun [<reflink idref="bib60" id="ref79">60</reflink>]) have significant effects on adolescents' academic achievement. In addition, following common practices in existing research (Hu et al. [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref80">23</reflink>]; Wang and Wu [<reflink idref="bib62" id="ref81">62</reflink>]), we also include grade as a control variable. Therefore, the individual‐level control variables consist of gender (male = 1), grade (ninth grade = 1), children's educational expectations, self‐rated health, depression, and boarding status (yes = 1). The project team asked students about their educational expectations, providing 10 options: "drop out now," "junior high school," "technical secondary school or technical school," "vocational high school," "general high school," "junior college," "bachelor's degree," "master's degree," "doctoral degree," and "I don't care." We exclude cases in which respondents selected "I don't care" and convert each response option into the corresponding expected years of education. The coding method used for children's educational expectations is consistent with that used for parental educational expectations. Self‐rated health is students' subjective assessment of their health status, with five options assigned scores of 1–5. Mental health is measured through students' subjective evaluations of their emotions over the past week, using five indicators: "feeling blue", "depressed," "unhappy," "not enjoying life," and "sad." Each indicator includes five response options ranging from "never" to "always," assigned scores of 1–5. We apply principal component factor analysis to obtain a mental health score from these five indicators.</p> <p>Prior research has shown that parental education level (Li and Qiu [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref82">32</reflink>]), parental occupational status (Liu et al. [<reflink idref="bib34" id="ref83">34</reflink>]), family economic status (Bae and Wickrama [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref84">5</reflink>]), household registration type (Xu and Wu [<reflink idref="bib63" id="ref85">63</reflink>]), number of siblings (Shi et al. [<reflink idref="bib54" id="ref86">54</reflink>]), and family structure (Yuxiao et al. [<reflink idref="bib67" id="ref87">67</reflink>]) all exert significant influences on adolescents' academic achievement. In addition, following the standard practices in previous studies (Li and Qiu [<reflink idref="bib32" id="ref88">32</reflink>]; Zhang [<reflink idref="bib68" id="ref89">68</reflink>]), we also include parental political status and ethnicity as control variables in the analysis. Accordingly, the family‐level control variables include parental education level, parental occupational category (management/professional = 1), self‐rated family economic status, parental political status (Communist/Democratic party = 1), parental household registration status (nonagricultural hukou = 1), ethnicity (Han = 1), number of siblings[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref90">2</reflink>], and family structure (two‐parent residence = 1). Parental education level is measured by the higher years of education attained by either parent. The parental occupational category is based on the father's occupation; if missing, the mother's occupation is used. The father's occupation is assigned a value of 1 for "management" (administrators in state organs, public institutions, and enterprises) and "professional" (teachers, engineers, doctors, and lawyers) categories, and 0 for other occupations. Self‐rated family economic status is a subjective assessment of current family economic conditions, with five options scored from 1 to 5. Parental political status is a dummy variable; if either parent is a member of the Communist Party or Democratic party, the value is set to 1, otherwise 0. Family structure is measured based on whether the child lives with their parents, with a value of 1 assigned if the child resides with both parents, and 0 otherwise.</p> <p>Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the variables of interest.</p> <p>1 Table Descriptive statistics for analysis variables.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th /><th><italic>N</italic></th><th>Mean/percentage</th><th>SD</th><th>Min</th><th>Max</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Academic achievement</td><td>13,865</td><td>187.270</td><td>60.095</td><td>0</td><td>300</td></tr><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs</td><td>13,865</td><td>2.084</td><td>0.964</td><td>1</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Parenting efficacy beliefs</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>9025</td><td>65.1%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>4840</td><td>34.9%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Parental educational expectations</td><td>13,865</td><td>17.010</td><td>3.173</td><td>7</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Conscientiousness</td><td>13,865</td><td>10.041</td><td>1.954</td><td>3</td><td>12</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Gender</td></tr><tr><td>Female</td><td>7108</td><td>51.3%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Male</td><td>6757</td><td>48.7%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td align="left">Grade</td></tr><tr><td>Grade 7</td><td>7316</td><td>52.8%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Grade 9</td><td>6549</td><td>47.2%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Children's educational expectations</td><td>13,865</td><td>16.645</td><td>3.351</td><td>7</td><td>22</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐rated health</td><td>13,865</td><td>4.085</td><td>0.883</td><td>1</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td>13,865</td><td>0</td><td>1</td><td>−1.333</td><td>3.660</td></tr><tr><td align="left">School boarding</td></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>4194</td><td>30.2%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>9674</td><td>69.8%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Parental educational level</td><td>13,865</td><td>10.957</td><td>3.053</td><td>0</td><td>19</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Parental occupational category</td></tr><tr><td>Management/Professional</td><td>2734</td><td>19.7%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Others</td><td>11,131</td><td>80.3%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Family economic condition</td><td>13,865</td><td>2.827</td><td>0.580</td><td>1</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Parental political status</td></tr><tr><td>Communist/Democratic party</td><td>1708</td><td>12.3%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>The masses</td><td>12,157</td><td>87.7%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td align="left">Hukou</td></tr><tr><td>Nonagricultural</td><td>6528</td><td>47.1%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Agricultural</td><td>7337</td><td>52.9%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td align="left">Ethnicity</td></tr><tr><td>Han</td><td>12,799</td><td>92.3%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Minorities</td><td>1066</td><td>7.7%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Siblings</td><td>13,865</td><td>0.687</td><td>0.803</td><td>0</td><td>5</td></tr><tr><td align="left">Family structure</td></tr><tr><td>Two‐parent residence</td><td>11,437</td><td>82.5%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Single parent or left behind</td><td>2428</td><td>17.5%</td><td /><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189190080-21">Analytic Strategy</hd> <p>First, the CEPS data has a nested structure, with students nested within classes. The null model shows that the intraclass correlation (ICC) coefficient is 39.4, indicating that class factors account for 39.4% of the variation in academic achievement among students. Therefore, to account for class‐level effects and to mitigate the correlation of error terms within classes, we apply the oldinary least squares (OLS) model with class fixed effects and clustered standard errors at the class level to examine the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement.[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref91">3</reflink>] The following equation present the model expression. <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0001" display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>y</mi><mi>i</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>0</mn></msub><mo>+</mo><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><mi>ERB</mi><mo>+</mo><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>2</mn></msub><mi>PEB</mi><mo>+</mo><msub><mi>β</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><msub><mi>W</mi><mi>k</mi></msub><mo>+</mo><msub><mo>∑</mo><mrow><mi>j</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>j</mi><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></msub><msub><mi>β</mi><mi>n</mi></msub><msub><mi>D</mi><mi>j</mi></msub><mo>+</mo><msub><mi>ε</mi><mi>i</mi></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml></p> <p> <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0002" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>y</mi><mi>i</mi></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> denotes the academic achievement of student <emph>i</emph> and <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0003" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>0</mn></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> is the intercept term. <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0004" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>1</mn></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> and <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0005" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> represent the strength of the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs and children's academic achievement. <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0006" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mi>m</mi></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> refers to the coefficients of a series of control variables related to academic achievement. <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0007" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>β</mi><mi>n</mi></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> represents the coefficients of a set of class dummy variables capturing class‐level effects. <ephtml> <math altimg="urn:x-wiley:00333085:media:pits70055:pits70055-math-0008" display="inline" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><msub><mi>ε</mi><mi>i</mi></msub></mrow></mrow></semantics></math> </ephtml> is the error term.</p> <p>Second, we apply the same model as described above to conduct robustness tests on the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. The robustness tests comprise three approaches: substituting the outcome variable, altering the analytical method, and performing subsample analyses. Robustness tests help ensure the reliability of the findings from multiple perspectives.</p> <p>Third, we employ the Karlson‐Holm‐Breen (KHB) method to examine the mediating effect of parental educational expectations. The strength of this method lies in its ability to simultaneously assess how a specific mediator transmits the effects of multiple explanatory variables onto the outcome variable.</p> <p>Finally, we apply OLS model with class fixed effects and clustered standard errors at the class level to explore whether the strength of the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement varies among adolescents with different levels of conscientiousness.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-22">Results</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189190080-23">Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescent Acade...</hd> <p>We first examine the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement. Model 1 in Table 2 only includes parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs. The results indicate that children whose parents believe that educating them is solely the responsibility of teachers tend to have lower academic performance. This may be attributed to parents who perceive education as unrelated to their role being more likely to adopt a neglectful parenting style, resulting in less investment of money, time, and emotional resources in their children. Conversely, children of parents who believe that parenting significantly influences academic success tend to perform better academically. This could be because parents with a positive attitude toward parenting are more likely to adopt an authoritative parenting style and invest more in their children's education.</p> <p>2 Table Results for the associations between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Variable</th><th>Model 1</th><th>Model 2</th><th>Model 3</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs</td><td>−5.160<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.412<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.245<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.460)</td><td>(0.419)</td><td>(0.420)</td></tr><tr><td>Parenting efficacy beliefs</td><td>11.206<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>7.800<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>7.364<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.892)</td><td>(0.789)</td><td>(0.783)</td></tr><tr><td>Gender (Male = 1)</td><td /><td>−18.626<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−18.871<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.850)</td><td>(0.866)</td></tr><tr><td>Grade (Grade 9 = 1)</td><td /><td>16.233<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>14.855<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.205)</td><td>(0.513)</td></tr><tr><td>Children's educational expectations</td><td /><td>5.976<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>5.831<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.195)</td><td>(0.190)</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐rated health</td><td /><td>−1.099<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>−1.187<ext-link href="**" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.415)</td><td>(0.411)</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td /><td>−2.398<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−2.252<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.445)</td><td>(0.440)</td></tr><tr><td>School boarding (Yes = 1)</td><td /><td>5.471<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>6.150<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(1.793)</td><td>(1.798)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental educational level</td><td /><td /><td>1.165<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.190)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental occupational category (Management/Professional = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−0.802</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.144)</td></tr><tr><td>Family economic condition</td><td /><td /><td>0.741</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.780)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental political status (Communist/Democratic party = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>0.273</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.183)</td></tr><tr><td>Hukou (Nonagricultural = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−1.744</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.030)</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity (Han = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−1.748</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.885)</td></tr><tr><td>Siblings</td><td /><td /><td>−1.939<ext-link href="**" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.611)</td></tr><tr><td>Family structure (Two‐parent residence = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>4.567<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.125)</td></tr><tr><td>Constant</td><td>156.397<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>60.296<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>44.879<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(1.181)</td><td>(3.955)</td><td>(5.695)</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>13865</td><td>13865</td><td>13865</td></tr><tr><td>R<sup>2</sup></td><td>0.401</td><td>0.524</td><td>0.527</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>1 <emph>Note:</emph> Standard errors clustered at the class level are reported in parentheses.</p> <p>2 *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05; **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01; ***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</p> <p>After adding individual‐level control variables in Model 2, the coefficients for parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs decline substantially, yet both remain statistically significant. Model 3 incorporate family control variables, resulting in a smaller reduction in the coefficients for parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs.</p> <p>These analyses demonstrate that parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with adolescent academic achievement, while parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated. Hypotheses 1 A and 1B are supported.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-24">Robustness Tests</hd> <p>This section conducts a series of tests to explore the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement from four perspectives.</p> <p>First, we substitute the outcome variable. The China Education Panel Survey also assessed students' cognitive skill, which included tests on language, graphics, computation, and logic. These assessments do not focus on specific rote knowledge taught in school curricula but rather evaluate students' logical reasoning and problem‐solving skills. In Model 1 of Table 3, we replace the total scores from the major subjects with cognitive skill scores. The results indicate a negative correlation between parental educational responsibility beliefs and adolescent cognitive skill, while parenting efficacy beliefs show a positive correlation.</p> <p>3 Table Robustness tests by replacing the dependent variable.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th /><th>Model 1</th><th>Model 2</th><th>Model 3</th><th>Model 4</th><th>Model 5</th></tr><tr><th>Variable</th><th>Cognitive ability</th><th>Class ranking</th><th>Mathematics</th><th>Chinese</th><th>English</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs</td><td>−0.142<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−0.078<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−0.078<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−0.074<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−0.045<ext-link href="*" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.027)</td><td>(0.018)</td><td>(0.017)</td><td>(0.019)</td><td>(0.019)</td></tr><tr><td>Parenting efficacy beliefs</td><td>0.246<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.245<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.103<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>0.085<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.089<ext-link href="*" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.058)</td><td>(0.035)</td><td>(0.034)</td><td>(0.036)</td><td>(0.035)</td></tr><tr><td>Control variable</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>14,219</td><td>14,193</td><td>14,148</td><td>14,152</td><td>14,182</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>3 <emph>Note:</emph> Standard errors clustered at the class level are reported in parentheses.</item> <item>4 *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05; **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01; ***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</item> </ulist> <p>Additionally, the survey collected data on students' class rankings, which were categorized as "near the bottom," "below the average," "about the average," "above the average," and "around the top." In Model 2, when the dependent variable is changed to class ranking, the results again reveal a negative correlation between parental educational responsibility beliefs and adolescent class ranking, while parenting efficacy beliefs correlated positively with class ranking.</p> <p>Furthermore, the survey also assessed students' perceived difficulty in learning Mathematics, Chinese, and English, with response options of "very difficult," "a bit difficult," "not very difficult," and "not difficult at all." Models 3, 4, and 5 replace the dependent variable with the perceived difficulty of learning Mathematics, Chinese, and English, respectively. The results are consistent with the baseline analysis.</p> <p>Second, we change our analytical methods. This study employs matching methods to re‐examine the results. Given that parental educational responsibility beliefs have five discrete values, we apply generalized propensity score matching to examine its association with adolescent academic achievement. The findings indicate a negative correlation between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic performance. Given that parenting efficacy beliefs is a binary variable, we apply propensity score matching to analyze its relationship with academic achievement. Four matching methods—nearest neighbor matching, caliper matching, kernel matching, and local linear regression matching—demonstrate a positive correlation between parenting efficacy beliefs and adolescent academic performance. Due to space constraints, these analytical results are presented in the Supporting Information.</p> <p>Third, we conduct subsample analyses. Table 4 Models 1 and 2 focus on female and male students, while Models 3 and 4 target seventh and ninth graders, respectively. Models 5 and 6 examine students with agricultural and nonagricultural hukou statuses. The results indicate that the patterns of relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement are consistent across different genders, grades, and hukou statuses.</p> <p>4 Table Robustness tests by sub‐sample analysis.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th /><th>Model 1</th><th>Model 2</th><th>Model 3</th><th>Model 4</th><th>Model 5</th><th>Model 6</th></tr><tr><th>Variable</th><th>Female</th><th>Male</th><th>Grade 7</th><th>Grade 9</th><th>Agricultural</th><th>Nonagricultural</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs</td><td>−3.259<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.406<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.546<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.310<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.349<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−3.517<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.587)</td><td>(0.652)</td><td>(0.515)</td><td>(0.691)</td><td>(0.568)</td><td>(0.670)</td></tr><tr><td>Parenting efficacy beliefs</td><td>8.515<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>7.702<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>8.044<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>8.378<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>6.175<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>10.872<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(1.088)</td><td>(1.287)</td><td>(1.021)</td><td>(1.252)</td><td>(1.057)</td><td>(1.255)</td></tr><tr><td>Control variable</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>7108</td><td>6757</td><td>7316</td><td>6549</td><td>7337</td><td>6528</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>5 <emph>Note:</emph> Standard errors clustered at the class level are reported in parentheses.</item> <item>6 * <emph>p </emph>< 0.01</item> <item>7 ** <emph>p </emph>< 0.05</item> <item>8 *** <emph>p </emph>< 0.001.</item> </ulist> <p>Overall, the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement are robust.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-25">Mechanism Analysis</hd> <p>In this section, we employ the KHB method to examine the mediating mechanism underlying the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Table 5 presents the mediating role of parental educational expectations. The results indicate that parental educational expectations account for 12.1% of the mediating effect in the relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement, and 9.8% in the relationship between parenting efficacy beliefs and academic achievement. Parents who strongly agree that education is solely the responsibility of teachers tend to have lower educational expectations for their children, which in turn is associated with lower academic achievement. Conversely, parents who believe that parenting contributes to academic success tend to hold higher educational expectations for their children, which are linked to better academic achievement.</p> <p>5 Table Results for the KHB mechanism analysis.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr><th /><th>Educational responsibility beliefs</th><th>Parenting efficacy beliefs</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Total effect</td><td>−3.245<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>7.364<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.385)</td><td>(0.77)</td></tr><tr><td>Direct effect</td><td>−2.853<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>6.643<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.385)</td><td>(0.771)</td></tr><tr><td>Indirect effect</td><td>−0.392<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.721<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.160)</td><td>(0.163)</td></tr><tr><td>Mediation effect proportion</td><td>12.1%</td><td>9.8%</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>13,865</td><td>13,865</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>9 <emph>Note:</emph> Standard errors in parentheses.</item> <item>10 * <emph>p</emph>  < 0.05; ** <emph>p</emph>  < 0.01; *** <emph>p</emph>  < 0.001.</item> </ulist> <p>These findings suggest that parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Hypotheses 2A and 2B are supported.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-26">Heterogeneity Analysis</hd> <p>This section examines whether the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement vary among adolescents with different levels of conscientiousness. Model 1 in Table 6 includes the main effects of parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and conscientiousness, as well as the interaction effects. The results indicate that the association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is weaker among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness. A high level of conscientiousness is associated with a weaker negative relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and students' academic achievement. However, the relationship between parenting efficacy beliefs and academic achievement is not stronger among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness. When individual and family control variables are added in Models 2, 3, and 4, the analysis results remain consistent. Hypothesis 3A is supported, while Hypothesis 3B is not supported.</p> <p>6 Table Heterogeneity analysis for the associations between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and adolescent academic achievement.</p> <p> <ephtml> <table><thead valign="bottom"><tr valign="bottom"><th>Variable</th><th>Model 1</th><th>Model 2</th><th>Model 3</th></tr></thead><tbody valign="top"><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs</td><td>−11.681<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−8.787<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−8.814<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(2.704)</td><td>(2.284)</td><td>(2.282)</td></tr><tr><td>Parenting efficacy beliefs</td><td>14.939<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>6.242</td><td>6.406</td></tr><tr><td /><td>(4.957)</td><td>(4.274)</td><td>(4.282)</td></tr><tr><td>Conscientiousness</td><td>2.574<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>0.573</td><td>0.629</td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.733)</td><td>(0.629)</td><td>(0.626)</td></tr><tr><td>Educational responsibility beliefs × Conscientiousness</td><td>0.680<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>0.543<ext-link href="*" /></td><td>0.563<ext-link href="**" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.257)</td><td>(0.217)</td><td>(0.216)</td></tr><tr><td>Parenting efficacy beliefs × Conscientiousness</td><td>−0.418</td><td>0.143</td><td>0.081</td></tr><tr><td /><td>(0.476)</td><td>(0.412)</td><td>(0.413)</td></tr><tr><td>Gender (Male = 1)</td><td /><td>−17.806<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−18.024<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.848)</td><td>(0.862)</td></tr><tr><td>Grade (Grade 9 = 1)</td><td /><td>17.462<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>16.040<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.288)</td><td>(0.536)</td></tr><tr><td>Children's educational expectations (Undergraduate or above = 1)</td><td /><td>5.837<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>5.681<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.193)</td><td>(0.188)</td></tr><tr><td>Self‐rated health</td><td /><td>−1.375<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−1.483<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.412)</td><td>(0.408)</td></tr><tr><td>Depression</td><td /><td>−2.056<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>−1.895<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(0.446)</td><td>(0.441)</td></tr><tr><td>School boarding (Boarding = 1)</td><td /><td>5.202<ext-link href="**" /></td><td>5.914<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td>(1.773)</td><td>(1.776)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental educational level</td><td /><td /><td>1.225<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.189)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental occupational category (Management/Professional = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−0.773</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.133)</td></tr><tr><td>Family economic condition</td><td /><td /><td>0.960</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.775)</td></tr><tr><td>Parental political status (Communist/Democratic party = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>0.343</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.185)</td></tr><tr><td>Hukou (Nonagricultural = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−1.668</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.035)</td></tr><tr><td>Ethnicity (Han = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>−1.599</td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.870)</td></tr><tr><td>Siblings</td><td /><td /><td>−1.881<ext-link href="**" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(0.603)</td></tr><tr><td>Family structure (Two‐parent residence = 1)</td><td /><td /><td>4.487<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td /><td /><td>(1.123)</td></tr><tr><td>Constant</td><td>130.595<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>57.938<ext-link href="***" /></td><td>40.555<ext-link href="***" /></td></tr><tr><td /><td>(7.599)</td><td>(7.374)</td><td>(8.277)</td></tr><tr><td>N</td><td>13,865</td><td>13,865</td><td>13,865</td></tr><tr><td>R<sup>2</sup></td><td>0.415</td><td>0.527</td><td>0.531</td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <ulist> <item>11 <emph>Note:</emph> Standard errors clustered at the class level are reported in parentheses.</item> <item>12 *<emph>p</emph> < 0.05; **<emph>p</emph> < 0.01; ***<emph>p</emph> < 0.001.</item> </ulist> <hd id="AN0189190080-27">Conclusion and Discussion</hd> <p>Existing research has extensively examined the relationship between parental beliefs and adolescents' academic achievement. However, previous study has primarily concentrated on specific dimensions of parental beliefs, such as perceptions of children's current academic ability and expectations for their future capability. This narrow scope neglects broader and fundamental dimensions, including parental educational responsibilities beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs. Furthermore, the previous research primarily explains the link between parental beliefs and children's academic achievement through parenting practices, as well as children's beliefs and behaviors, overlooking the perspective of parental educational expectations. Additionally, extant literature has failed to explore the heterogeneous effects of parental beliefs on children's academic achievement.</p> <p>Based on these considerations, this study examines the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. It further explores how parental educational expectations can help explain the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Additionally, the study assesses the heterogeneous relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement across different levels of adolescent conscientiousness.</p> <p>The findings of this study are as follows: First, parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with children's academic achievement. This indicates that children of parents who believe that education is solely the responsibility of teachers tend to perform worse academically. Conversely, parenting efficacy beliefs positively correlate with children's academic achievement. This suggests that children whose parents believe that academic success is linked to parenting tend to achieve higher academic performance.</p> <p>Second, parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Parents who strongly agree that education is solely the responsibility of teachers tend to hold lower educational expectations, which are associated with lower academic achievement in their children. In contrast, parents who believe that parenting plays a role in academic success are more likely to have higher educational expectations, which are positively associated with better academic performance in their children.</p> <p>Third, the association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is weaker among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness.</p> <p>This study contributes to the literature by examining the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Unlike previous studies that focused on parental perceptions of current academic ability and expectations for future capability (Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref92">26</reflink>]; Šimunović and Babarović [<reflink idref="bib56" id="ref93">56</reflink>]), views on the importance of children's academic capability (Silver et al. [<reflink idref="bib55" id="ref94">55</reflink>]; Sy and Schulenberg [<reflink idref="bib59" id="ref95">59</reflink>]), opinions on optimal learning methods (Sonnenschein et al. [<reflink idref="bib57" id="ref96">57</reflink>]), or attitudes whether children should be allowed to challenge their authority (Mulvaney and Morrissey [<reflink idref="bib39" id="ref97">39</reflink>]), this study emphasizes more fundamental, comprehensive, and strategic parental beliefs. It provides a significant supplement to existing research.</p> <p>The perspective that explains adolescents' academic achievement through parental beliefs differs significantly from existing theoretical approaches. Cultural capital theory emphasizes that parental institutionalized, objectified, and embodied cultural capital facilitates children's academic success (Bourdieu [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref98">7</reflink>]; Bourdieu and Passeron [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref99">8</reflink>]; Davies and Rizk [<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref100">12</reflink>]). Social capital theory highlights the benefits of frequent interactions between parents and children, as well as among parents, for children's educational outcomes (Coleman [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref101">11</reflink>]; Dufur et al. [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref102">13</reflink>]; Israel et al. [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref103">25</reflink>]). Economic capital explanation suggests that parental investment in extracurricular tutoring contributes to higher educational achievement (Park et al. [<reflink idref="bib42" id="ref104">42</reflink>]; Zhang and Liu [<reflink idref="bib69" id="ref105">69</reflink>]; Zhang and Gao [<reflink idref="bib70" id="ref106">70</reflink>]). These theories focus primarily on the effects of parental objective resources, while overlooking the role of parental beliefs as subjective orientations. In fact, parental beliefs represent a more implicit and fundamental resource that substantially shapes how objective resources are allocated.</p> <p>Additionally, while prior research has often explained the relationship between parental beliefs and academic achievement through parenting practices (Areepattamannil [<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref107">3</reflink>]; Ng and Wei [<reflink idref="bib41" id="ref108">41</reflink>]), children's beliefs (Bleeker and Jacobs [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref109">6</reflink>]), and children's behaviors (Aunola et al. [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref110">4</reflink>]), this study offers a new explanatory mechanism by considering the perspective of parental educational expectations.</p> <p>Furthermore, this study highlights the moderating role of adolescent conscientiousness in the relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and children's academic achievement. This finding addresses a gap in existing research.</p> <p>Finally, this study has practical implications. Based on the findings of this study, parents should view their children's education as a shared responsibility between themselves and teachers, and actively fulfill their educational role. At the same time, parents should recognize the value of parenting in their children's development.</p> <p>This study also has limitations. First, although we control for a variety of individual and family variables and conduct various robustness tests, the causal relationships cannot be established. Second, both parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs are complex and multidimensional psychological constructs. Ideally, they should be measured using multi‐item, structured scales to ensure greater reliability and validity. However, due to data limitations, this study employs single‐item indicator to measure these two constructs. While these indicators possess a certain degree of face validity, they may, to some extent, compromise other forms of validity and overall measurement reliability. Third, while we propose a new explanatory mechanism of parental educational expectations, there may exist a reciprocal causal relationship between parental educational expectations and children's academic achievement. This reciprocal relationship somewhat weakens the mediating role of parental educational expectations. Additionally, mechanism analysis indicates that the mediating effect of parental educational expectations on the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement is limited.[<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref111">4</reflink>] Future studies should further explore the mediating pathways as data permit. Finally, in Chinese culture, family honor is closely tied to children's academic success. Parents typically feel a strong sense of responsibility for their children's educational outcomes. This cultural orientation may shape parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs, which in turn may influence the strength of their associations with children's academic performance. Therefore, caution should be exercised when generalizing the findings of this study to countries or regions with significantly different cultural backgrounds. Future research is encouraged to further validate these findings through cross‐cultural comparisons.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-28">Acknowledgments</hd> <p>This study is supported by the Key Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China in Education, titled <emph>Research on the Construction of a Basic Public Education Service System for High‐Quality and Equitable Development at the Provincial Level</emph> (Grant no. AFA220019).</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-29">Conflicts of Interest</hd> <p>The authors declare no conflicts of interest.</p> <hd id="AN0189190080-30">Data Availability Statement</hd> <p>The data that support the findings of this study are publicly available at <ulink href="http://ceps.ruc.edu.cn/">http://ceps.ruc.edu.cn/</ulink>.</p> <p>GRAPH: Supplementary Materials Figure 1: The GPS method for the relationship between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement.Supplementary Materials Table S1: PSM balance test results.Supplementary Materials Table S2: Results of the propensity score matching analysis on the relationship between parenting efficacy beliefs and academic achievement.Supplementary Materials Table S3: GPSM fractional logit regression results.Supplementary Materials Table S4: GPSM balance test results.</p> <ref id="AN0189190080-31"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref23" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> The value for seventh‐grade students is set to 7, and the value for ninth‐grade students is set to 8.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref18" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> To reduce the impact of outliers, this study sets the number of siblings greater than 5 to 5.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib3" idref="ref10" type="bt">3</bibl> <bibtext> We sincerely appreciate the reviewer's suggestions regarding the analytical method.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib4" idref="ref11" type="bt">4</bibl> <bibtext> It is worth noting that we also examine adolescents' peer groups as a potential mediating mechanism to explain the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. The CEPS data set includes information on both the positive and negative behaviors of students' close friends. Positive peer behaviors are captured through three indicators: "doing well in academic performance," "studying hard," and "expecting to go to college." Each item offers three response options—"none of them," "one or two of them," and "most of them"—which are coded from 1 to 3. We sum the scores of these three items to construct a composite measure of positive peer groups. Negative peer behaviors are assessed using six indicators: "skipping classes," "being criticized or punished for violating school rules," "frequently fighting with others," "smoking or drinking alcohol," "frequently going to net bars or video arcades," and "dropping out of school." The scores of these six items are summed to create a measure of negative peer groups. 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Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1488702
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PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
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IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement in China: Evidence from CEPS
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yongxiang+Xie%22">Yongxiang Xie</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7557-1048">0009-0005-7557-1048</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Yijiang+Li%22">Yijiang Li</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8539-1298">0009-0000-8539-1298</externalLink>)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2025 62(12):4967-4980.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 14
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Secondary+Education%22">Secondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Attitudes%22">Parent Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Beliefs%22">Beliefs</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Educational+Attitudes%22">Educational Attitudes</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parenting+Styles%22">Parenting Styles</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Efficacy%22">Self Efficacy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Adolescents%22">Adolescents</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Secondary+School+Students%22">Secondary School Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Academic+Achievement%22">Academic Achievement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Parent+Responsibility%22">Parent Responsibility</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1002/pits.70055
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: This study uses data from the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) to examine how parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs relate to adolescents' academic achievement. It also explores whether parental educational expectations mediate these relationships and how they vary by adolescents' level of conscientiousness. The study reveals that parental educational responsibility beliefs are negatively correlated with adolescent academic achievement, while parenting efficacy beliefs are positively correlated. Parental educational expectations partially mediate the relationships between parental educational responsibility beliefs, parenting efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement. Additionally, the association between parental educational responsibility beliefs and academic achievement is attenuated among adolescent with high levels of conscientiousness. These findings highlight the importance of positive parental educational responsibility beliefs and parenting efficacy beliefs in promoting children's academic achievement.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1488702
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1488702
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1002/pits.70055
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 14
        StartPage: 4967
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Parent Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Beliefs
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Educational Attitudes
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parenting Styles
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Efficacy
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Adolescents
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Secondary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Academic Achievement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Parent Responsibility
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Parental Educational Responsibility Beliefs, Parenting Efficacy Beliefs, and Adolescents' Academic Achievement in China: Evidence from CEPS
        Type: main
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          Name:
            NameFull: Yongxiang Xie
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          Name:
            NameFull: Yijiang Li
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          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
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            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0033-3085
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              Value: 1520-6807
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              Value: 62
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              Value: 12
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            – TitleFull: Psychology in the Schools
              Type: main
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