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Measuring the Immeasurable: Designing and Validating Assessments of Spiritual Intelligence as a Core Component of SEL in Faith-Based School Contexts in Ghana and Botswana

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Title: Measuring the Immeasurable: Designing and Validating Assessments of Spiritual Intelligence as a Core Component of SEL in Faith-Based School Contexts in Ghana and Botswana
Language: English
Authors: Simon Ntumi (ORCID 0000-0001-7874-4454), Tapela Bulala (ORCID 0000-0003-4084-1501), Abraham Yeboah, Divine Agbovor
Source: Psychology in the Schools. 2026 63(1):244-268.
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 25
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Spiritual Development, Intelligence, Measures (Individuals), Religious Factors, Empathy, Ethics, Decision Making, Psychometrics, Factor Analysis, Factor Structure, Test Reliability, Scores, Test Validity, Comparative Education, Gender Differences
Geographic Terms: Ghana, Botswana
DOI: 10.1002/pits.70090
ISSN: 0033-3085
1520-6807
Abstract: In an era where holistic education is gaining prominence, spiritual intelligence is emerging as a critical yet under-assessed component of students' personal and social development. This study aimed to develop and validate the Spiritual Intelligence Assessment Tool (SIAT) for cross-cultural application in faith-based educational settings across Ghana and Botswana. Grounded in four theoretical dimensions, spiritual awareness, compassion, ethical decision making, and purpose and meaning, the instrument underwent rigorous psychometric evaluation. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a clear four-factor structure explaining 75.8% of the cumulative variance, with eigenvalues ranging from 1.75 to 4.21. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated excellent model fit (X[superscript 2]/df = 1.91, CFI = 0.957, TLI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.043), supporting the factorial validity of SIAT. Internal consistency was high across subscales (Cronbach's [alpha] = 0.81-0.87), with composite reliability (CR = 0.83-0.89) and average variance extracted (AVE = 0.53-0.61) indicating strong convergent validity. Discriminant validity was established, as AVE values exceeded maximum shared variance (MSV) for all factors. Measurement invariance testing confirmed configural and metric invariance across Ghana and Botswana, indicating a stable factor structure and equivalent factor loadings across contexts. While scalar and strict invariance showed marginal declines in model fit ([delta]CFI = -0.016 and -0.011 respectively), partial support suggests cautious interpretation of latent mean differences. Descriptive statistics revealed higher spiritual intelligence scores among students in Botswana (M = 78.2, SD = 9.4) compared to Ghana (M = 75.3, SD = 10.1), with females consistently outperforming males. ANOVA results indicated significant differences by country (p = 0.031), educational level (p = 0.006), and religious affiliation (p = 0.022), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. Overall, the SIAT demonstrated robust psychometric properties and cultural relevance, making it a valid tool for assessing spiritual intelligence among students in sub-Saharan African faith-based educational settings. It is recommended that educational policymakers and school leaders in faith-based institutions should consider incorporating spiritual intelligence into their curricula and student development programs.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1491168
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
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  Data: Measuring the Immeasurable: Designing and Validating Assessments of Spiritual Intelligence as a Core Component of SEL in Faith-Based School Contexts in Ghana and Botswana
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  Data: English
– Name: Author
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Simon+Ntumi%22">Simon Ntumi</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7874-4454">0000-0001-7874-4454</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Tapela+Bulala%22">Tapela Bulala</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4084-1501">0000-0003-4084-1501</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Abraham+Yeboah%22">Abraham Yeboah</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Divine+Agbovor%22">Divine Agbovor</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Psychology+in+the+Schools%22"><i>Psychology in the Schools</i></searchLink>. 2026 63(1):244-268.
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
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  Data: 25
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Spiritual+Development%22">Spiritual Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Intelligence%22">Intelligence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Measures+%28Individuals%29%22">Measures (Individuals)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Religious+Factors%22">Religious Factors</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Empathy%22">Empathy</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ethics%22">Ethics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Decision+Making%22">Decision Making</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychometrics%22">Psychometrics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Factor+Analysis%22">Factor Analysis</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Factor+Structure%22">Factor Structure</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Reliability%22">Test Reliability</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Scores%22">Scores</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Validity%22">Test Validity</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Comparative+Education%22">Comparative Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Gender+Differences%22">Gender Differences</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Ghana%22">Ghana</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Botswana%22">Botswana</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1002/pits.70090
– Name: ISSN
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  Data: 0033-3085<br />1520-6807
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
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  Data: In an era where holistic education is gaining prominence, spiritual intelligence is emerging as a critical yet under-assessed component of students' personal and social development. This study aimed to develop and validate the Spiritual Intelligence Assessment Tool (SIAT) for cross-cultural application in faith-based educational settings across Ghana and Botswana. Grounded in four theoretical dimensions, spiritual awareness, compassion, ethical decision making, and purpose and meaning, the instrument underwent rigorous psychometric evaluation. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a clear four-factor structure explaining 75.8% of the cumulative variance, with eigenvalues ranging from 1.75 to 4.21. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated excellent model fit (X[superscript 2]/df = 1.91, CFI = 0.957, TLI = 0.942, RMSEA = 0.043), supporting the factorial validity of SIAT. Internal consistency was high across subscales (Cronbach's [alpha] = 0.81-0.87), with composite reliability (CR = 0.83-0.89) and average variance extracted (AVE = 0.53-0.61) indicating strong convergent validity. Discriminant validity was established, as AVE values exceeded maximum shared variance (MSV) for all factors. Measurement invariance testing confirmed configural and metric invariance across Ghana and Botswana, indicating a stable factor structure and equivalent factor loadings across contexts. While scalar and strict invariance showed marginal declines in model fit ([delta]CFI = -0.016 and -0.011 respectively), partial support suggests cautious interpretation of latent mean differences. Descriptive statistics revealed higher spiritual intelligence scores among students in Botswana (M = 78.2, SD = 9.4) compared to Ghana (M = 75.3, SD = 10.1), with females consistently outperforming males. ANOVA results indicated significant differences by country (p = 0.031), educational level (p = 0.006), and religious affiliation (p = 0.022), with effect sizes ranging from small to moderate. Overall, the SIAT demonstrated robust psychometric properties and cultural relevance, making it a valid tool for assessing spiritual intelligence among students in sub-Saharan African faith-based educational settings. It is recommended that educational policymakers and school leaders in faith-based institutions should consider incorporating spiritual intelligence into their curricula and student development programs.
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  Data: 2026
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        Value: 10.1002/pits.70090
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 25
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    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Spiritual Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Intelligence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Measures (Individuals)
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      – SubjectFull: Religious Factors
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      – SubjectFull: Ethics
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      – SubjectFull: Decision Making
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      – SubjectFull: Psychometrics
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      – SubjectFull: Factor Analysis
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      – SubjectFull: Factor Structure
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      – SubjectFull: Scores
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      – SubjectFull: Comparative Education
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      – SubjectFull: Gender Differences
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      – SubjectFull: Ghana
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      – SubjectFull: Botswana
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      – TitleFull: Measuring the Immeasurable: Designing and Validating Assessments of Spiritual Intelligence as a Core Component of SEL in Faith-Based School Contexts in Ghana and Botswana
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