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Managing Sensory Processing Disorders in an Early Childhood Classroom: Evidence-Based Strategies for Teachers

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Title: Managing Sensory Processing Disorders in an Early Childhood Classroom: Evidence-Based Strategies for Teachers
Language: English
Authors: Marketa Raevsky (ORCID 0009-0001-7957-4642), Cassandra A. Nabalta (ORCID 0009-0005-2926-5998), Julia T. Atiles (ORCID 0000-0001-6893-1942)
Source: Early Childhood Education Journal. 2025 53(8):2885-2893.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 9
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Descriptive
Education Level: Early Childhood Education
Descriptors: Sensory Experience, Perceptual Impairments, Early Childhood Education, Evidence Based Practice, Sensory Integration, Symptoms (Individual Disorders), Coping, Classroom Techniques
DOI: 10.1007/s10643-025-01904-z
ISSN: 1082-3301
1573-1707
Abstract: Sensory processing disorders are recognized as a condition where the brain's sensory systems struggle to integrate sensory information. An individual with sensory processing disorders exhibits atypical (exaggerated or muted) response to sensory stimuli such as loud noises, unfamiliar textures, or being touched. It is estimated that between 5-16% of children have sensory processing disorders. Therefore, many teachers interact daily with children who struggle to self-regulate due to their sensory processing difficulties. This article synthesizes the literature on symptomatology, prevalence, and prognosis of sensory processing disorders. Next, we highlight how these symptoms may manifest in the early childhood classroom and provide practical, evidence-based classroom strategies for educators to help children cope with sensory processing challenges.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1496690
Database: ERIC
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  Value: <anid>AN0189590396;5mx01dec.25;2025Nov28.05:29;v2.2.500</anid> <title id="AN0189590396-1">Managing Sensory Processing Disorders in an Early Childhood Classroom: Evidence-Based Strategies for Teachers </title> <p>Sensory processing disorders are recognized as a condition where the brain's sensory systems struggle to integrate sensory information. An individual with sensory processing disorders exhibits atypical (exaggerated or muted) response to sensory stimuli such as loud noises, unfamiliar textures, or being touched. It is estimated that between 5-16% of children have sensory processing disorders. Therefore, many teachers interact daily with children who struggle to self-regulate due to their sensory processing difficulties. This article synthesizes the literature on symptomatology, prevalence, and prognosis of sensory processing disorders. Next, we highlight how these symptoms may manifest in the early childhood classroom and provide practical, evidence-based classroom strategies for educators to help children cope with sensory processing challenges.</p> <p>Keywords: Early childhood teachers; Sensory processing disorder; Classroom strategies; Psychology and Cognitive Sciences Psychology Medical and Health Sciences Neurosciences</p> <p>Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.</p> <p>David[<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref1">1</reflink>] was born amid the COVID-19 pandemic. His mother describes David as "a super sweet kid."[<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref2">2</reflink>] Right after his third birthday, David spent the summer with his family and cousins before returning to his familiar child care that he had attended since he was 4 months old. However, when he returned to child care this time, things were very different, and during the first two months in school, David experienced three different teachers. His mother described it as "a volcano erupting." David became "super clingy" at drop-off when separating from his mother. David's mother described these drop-offs like he was trying to "pancake himself in the ground." At home, David did not like sharing his toys or having his same-age cousins go in his room. He only allowed his mother to get him meals, cut his food, and change his diaper. In addition, he would only speak to his mother, and he avoided family gatherings, opening presents, and routine hygiene tasks such as teeth brushing and haircuts. He would bite his nails to avoid having them clipped. Helmet-wearing was another challenge that complicated David's participation in sports such as T-Ball and could transfer into the playground should teachers require helmets to ride tricycles. At first, his mother did not think too much about it. However, his eruptive behaviors intensified, and the child care called his mother to pick David up early, up to several times a week, due to his frequent throwing himself on the floor and head-banging behavior. In October 2023, David became very upset after a peer decided to begin swinging on a swing after David walked away from it, but David returned and bit his peer.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-2">The Knowledge Gap on Sensory Processing Disorders</hd> <p>The example of David's challenges is not an isolated case. During her first year in the classroom, Marketa heard colleagues in early childhood education (ECE) settings talk about "the sensory thing" in a very oblique way when faced with challenging behaviors and intense responses from children. What does this "sensory thing" look like? What are the symptoms of sensory processing disorders (SPDs), also called sensory integration disorders? What are the in-classroom strategies that could help children with SPDs self-regulate? A recent study by Grover and Dabholkar ([<reflink idref="bib12" id="ref3">12</reflink>]) showed that only 35% of special education teachers in India learned about SPDs during their pre-service training, and many had limited knowledge of the presentation of SPDs. In the United States, the path to becoming a teacher in ECE varies greatly depending on the state, age group taught, and private versus public setting. The <emph>Unifying Framework for the Early Childhood Profession</emph> summarizes that "many individuals working in ECE are working in states and settings where they are not required to meet even minimal educational qualifications" (Power to the Profession National Task Force, 2020, p. 7). In Colorado, for example, only two college courses are mandatory to earn lead teacher qualification to work with children in most early care and education programs (Colorado Department of Early Childhood, [<reflink idref="bib7" id="ref4">7</reflink>]), and neither of the two courses goes beyond outlining major disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).</p> <p>Teachers are required to think creatively to meet the needs of children with SPDs. Parents and teachers in Jones and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref5">14</reflink>]) study reported that occupational therapy[<reflink idref="bib3" id="ref6">3</reflink>] (OT) tools and teachers' knowledge about autism and sensory processing challenges are instrumental in aiding children with SPDs to learn. Yet, it is highly probable that toddlers and young preschoolers with noticeable sensory challenges do not have an established relationship with an occupational therapist, nor do they have a known diagnosis. As this is the time when children develop many of the social and emotional skills that promote school readiness, teachers need strategies to help the children who face major challenges with self-regulation.</p> <p>This article provides an overview of the sensory processing disorders' presentation, etiology, and prevalence. We review the literature that highlights the common challenges that children with SPDs face in the classroom. Next, we delve deeper into how SPDs may affect each of the following sensory systems: auditory, tactile, visual, gustatory, and proprioceptive. Finally, under each sensory system, we provide practical evidence-based recommendations for teachers or parents to implement in their classrooms or homes to help children with sensory processing challenges.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-3">Background About Sensory Processing Disorders (SPDs)</hd> <p>Although the first theory regarding SPDs was developed in 1972 by the occupational therapist and psychologist Anna Jean Ayres, this disorder remains without its specific diagnostic criteria in the <emph>DSM-5</emph> or <emph>ICD-10</emph> (McArthur, [<reflink idref="bib19" id="ref7">19</reflink>]). The debate about whether to create a separate category for SPDs in the DSM-5 continues because SPDs often occur alongside other neurodevelopmental disorders like ASD and ADHD. In fact, 80–90% of people with ASD and about 60% of people with ADHD show symptoms of SPD (Galiana et al., [<reflink idref="bib10" id="ref8">10</reflink>]). This overlap has led to some SPD symptoms being included as part of the features of ASD (American Psychiatric Association, [<reflink idref="bib2" id="ref9">2</reflink>]). Contemporary research into brain imaging and plasma analysis shows that unique biomarkers for SPDs may exist, but larger-scale research is needed (Galiana-Simal et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref10">11</reflink>]). Currently, SPDs are recognized as a separate entity of disorders by <emph>DC:0–5</emph><sups><emph>TM</emph></sups> which is the <emph>Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood</emph> published by Zero to Three ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref11">26</reflink>]) which complements the <emph>DSM-5</emph> and focuses on early childhood disorders. In this article, we use the <emph>DC:0-5™</emph> terminology to introduce the symptomatology of different categories of SPDs (See Fig. 1).</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-4">Symptomatology Profile of Sensory Processing Disorders</hd> <p>The symptomatology of SPDs is complex and difficult to assess, as issues may affect any of the senses (or their combination). The sensory integration process is sometimes divided into four phases (Galiana-Simal et al., [<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref12">11</reflink>]):</p> <p>Graph: Fig. 1 Four Phases of the Sensory Integration Process</p> <p>In children with SPDs, one or more of these sensory integration phases is malfunctioning, leading to over-, under-, or atypical responsivity to sensory stimuli (Zero to Three, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref13">26</reflink>]). For example, Heather, a 3-year-old girl, displayed significant avoidance behaviors and covered her ears when teachers attempted to take her to use a toilet in a large school bathroom instead of the typical classroom individual stall. Automatic flushers, excessive echoing, and noise from the sinks and dryers seemed to contribute to her avoidance of the hallway bathrooms. Although sometimes a child only falls into one of these categories, often the sensory profile is more complex, and a child may exhibit over-responsivity to some auditory or visual stimuli but seek tactile or proprioceptive feedback, including squeezes or physical touch. Table 1 defines each category based on Zero to Three ([<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref14">26</reflink>]) definitions and provides examples of children's sensory challenges:</p> <p>Table 1 Sensory processing disorder Types, Definitions, and examples</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Type</p></th><th align="left"><p>Definition</p></th><th align="left"><p>Example</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Sensory Over-Responsivity</p><p>(Avoider)</p></td><td align="left"><p>A heightened, exaggerated response that is more long-lasting and frequent than children of the same age and developmental level.</p></td><td align="left"><p>The child may burst into tears, and be inconsolable when they hear loud noises (fire alarm, ambulance, etc.)</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Sensory Under-Responsivity</p></td><td align="left"><p>A muted, minimal, and brief response to sensory stimuli that usually leads to higher levels of response among peers of the same age and developmental level.</p></td><td align="left"><p>The child may fall, and be bloody but exhibit no response or the child may show complete unawareness of loud sounds and volumes.</p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Other Sensory Processing Disorder</p><p>(Seeker)</p></td><td align="left"><p>Atypical responsivity to sensory stimuli but does not meet the criteria for sensory over-responsivity or sensory under-responsivity.</p></td><td align="left"><p>The child needs to sensorially explore objects that children their age usually ignore such as licking walls or doorknobs.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>Sensory over-responsivity often impacts different aspects of the auditory system, and even whistling, humming, and crackling sounds can trigger a negative response by the individual (Van Hulle et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref15">24</reflink>]). Over-responsivity symptoms also appear in the visual sensory system, such as a child getting upset or panicking when there are flashing lights. The child's sensory experience in these situations is so intense that it causes distress to the individual, and the extent of their response also negatively impacts their family and surroundings. As the child gets older, they may avoid the triggering stimuli (i.e., loud noises) as a coping mechanism. David, for example, refused to open presents because of the noise associated with unwrapping the paper. Only with the encouragement of finding his favorite lollipop under the gift wrap did he attempt to open gifts.</p> <p>Critz et al. ([<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref16">8</reflink>]) described the children with other sensory processing disorders as "sensory seekers." These children may seek out physical contact or be fidgety and may benefit from tight hugs and squeezes. When David began making progress with occupational therapies, he also started to ask for tight squeezes, and his mom described that his body would just "be more relaxed" as a result of a tight hug.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-5">Causes and Challenges Surrounding Sensory Processing Disorders</hd> <p>The causes of SPDs remain unknown (Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref17">16</reflink>]). However, Galiana-Simal and colleagues' ([<reflink idref="bib11" id="ref18">11</reflink>]) research found links to prenatal or birth complications, low birth weights, premature birth, and certain genetic factors. The researchers also found that high exposure to chemical agents and poor sensory stimulation in early childhood may be related. Our senses need to be stimulated to practice the integration of primitive and secondary reflexes, which is crucial for healthy functioning in society. Lane ([<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref19">16</reflink>]) summarizes the attempts of brain imaging technology to identify differences in the brain structure of individuals with SPDs. However, existing literature provides insufficient evidence for definite biological markers and for labeling this disorder as hereditary.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-6">Prevalence of Sensory Processing Disorders</hd> <p>Because SPDs often occur alongside other conditions like ASD, and since sensitivity to sensory stimuli is already considered a part of ASD, it is difficult to determine accurate prevalence rates for SPDs. The most common manifestation of SPDs is sensory over-responsivity, with a prevalence rate between 5 and 16.5% (Zero to Three, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref20">26</reflink>]), and this excludes manifestations of SPDs in children with other neurodevelopmental disorders. For children with other disabilities, the prevalence of SPDs is believed to be between 40 and 88% (Critz et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref21">8</reflink>]). No prevalence rate is stated for sensory under-responsivity (except that it is rare) and for other sensory processing disorders (Zero to Three, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref22">26</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-7">Age of Onset and Treatment</hd> <p>While symptoms of SPDs are often present from birth, <emph>DC:0-5™</emph> requires that a child be at least 6 months old, and they add that symptoms must have lasted at least 3 months across different settings such as in the home and the classroom (Zero to Three, [<reflink idref="bib26" id="ref23">26</reflink>]). Sensory processing disorders are chronic in nature; however, children's symptoms usually improve as they get older through habituation, avoidance, and coping strategies. Due to our incomplete understanding of how SPDs affect the neurological processing of information, there are currently no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved medications for sensory processing issues.</p> <p>The primary treatment is therefore part of occupational therapy, and the main approach is sensory integration therapy. These therapies are administered by trained professionals in a clinical setting where children are exposed to various sensorimotor experiences designed to help them tolerate and integrate sensory input (Critz et al., [<reflink idref="bib8" id="ref24">8</reflink>]; Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref25">16</reflink>]). Another way to mitigate the symptoms of SPDs is through sensory environmental modifications such as headphone-wearing, the use of weighted blankets, and the reduction of visual clutter in the classroom (Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref26">16</reflink>]). Lastly, non-sensory interventions include cognitive, task-based, and parent/teacher training approaches. While cognitive and task-based approaches promote the development of the child's coping strategies and self-regulation, parent/teacher coaching helps educate the caregivers about the symptoms of SPDs and their management at home/school (Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref27">16</reflink>]). The foundational principle of any of the mentioned therapies and interventions is following a child-centered and holistic approach because of SPDs' versatile nature.</p> <p>Research review shows that sensory processing issues detected in early childhood usually last and impact the children's sensory processing in elementary school as well (May-Benson et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref28">18</reflink>]). However, May-Benson et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref29">18</reflink>]) longitudinal study of children with SPDs (and no other simultaneous disorders) showed that half of the participants no longer showed sensory processing challenges in adulthood, and only 5% were currently in OT for sensory integration. On the less positive end, 88% of the respondents reported one or more current diagnoses ranging from ADHD, anxiety, ASD, and depression to learning disability. McMahon et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref30">20</reflink>]) confirmed the high likelihood of developing lifelong anxiety disorders for children with SPDs. Another study found that symptoms of SPDs in preschool seem to be a strong predictor for the presence of anxiety at age six (Carpenter et al., [<reflink idref="bib5" id="ref31">5</reflink>]). The most persistent sensory processing challenge seems to be auditory processing, and May-Benson et al. ([<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref32">18</reflink>]) suggested that this "may contribute to social-emotional challenges later in life, which may result in the increased anxiety found in these adults" (p. 10). Finally, researchers found that early intervention in the form of OT shows lower severity of SPD symptoms in adulthood (May-Benson et al., [<reflink idref="bib18" id="ref33">18</reflink>]).</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-8">Common Challenges that Children with SPDs Face in the Classroom</hd> <p>Alex was a toddler who displayed a variety of sensory processing difficulties. At the time, he was not diagnosed, and in all of her years studying child development, Julia had never heard about sensory processing disorders. As a teacher, she thought that Alex was just a child with a serious biting issue. With young children, the frequency and intensity of a behavior are what distinguish a need for intervention. For example, biting is not uncommon among toddlers. However, Alex was biting multiple times a day and so hard that it left teeth marks through corduroy pants. During the school day, Alex reacted strongly to loud noises and had difficulty with transitions. If anyone got too close, Alex would begin screaming and throwing a tantrum. For example, he enjoyed lining up animals, cars, and other manipulatives. But when another entered his space or interrupted his activity, he would scream or bite.</p> <p>David and Alex's examples support research finding that distraction, distress, anxiety, and lower classroom participation are among the impacts SPDs have on children's learning (Jones et al., [<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref34">14</reflink>]). These challenges may affect any combination of senses but the participants (parents and teachers) in Jones et al.'s ([<reflink idref="bib14" id="ref35">14</reflink>]) study discussed the auditory system as the most prevalent sensory system impacted followed by tactile and visual differences. In the classroom, the child with sensory over-responsivity may scream when hearing the toilet flush, refuse to touch and eat a large variety of foods, may avoid participating in circle time, or may struggle to focus unless in a quiet environment. For instance, Alex struggled falling asleep at naptime.</p> <p>The above-mentioned behaviors and challenges may impede the child's ability to engage in age-appropriate behavior and form early relationships with others (Van Hulle et al., [<reflink idref="bib24" id="ref36">24</reflink>]). A child with sensory under-responsivity might struggle with emergency drills, and teachers may notice major scrapes and bruises while the child does not even mention or acknowledge having fallen. This poses another unique set of challenges for the teachers whose ethical obligation is to ensure the safety of all children in their care. Finally, a child who needs additional sensory input, such as noise or tactile stimulation, may be distracting to others and destructive to the classroom materials by mouthing and chewing on materials or disassembling materials to receive tactile input.</p> <p>The practical information in the next section explains the warning signs that toddler and preschool teachers may see and how they might encourage sensory integration and/or boost their sensory-challenged children's engagement.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-9">Red Flags and Strategies for Working with Children with SPDs</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189590396-10">Sensory Systems</hd> <p>The early childhood teacher may observe and recognize unique behaviors and various participation difficulties of students with SPDs within their classrooms. These participation challenges can also affect learning as well as other social interactions (Tamblyn et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref37">23</reflink>]). Students with SPDs can present with atypical responses to one or multiple senses, which include auditory, tactile (touch), smell, oral (gustatory), vestibular, and proprioception (awareness of one's body position in space) (Tamblyn et al., [<reflink idref="bib23" id="ref38">23</reflink>]). According to McMahon et al. ([<reflink idref="bib20" id="ref39">20</reflink>]), researchers found that children with sensory processing and integration difficulties were likely to have challenges in self-regulation and anxiety. This correlation was also seen in David's sensory processing and self-regulation challenges that involved his auditory, tactile, visual, oral (gustatory), and proprioception senses. Therefore, the senses included in this article will address these areas and include strategies for managing both seeking and avoidant behaviors, which may be helpful in numerous toddler and preschool classrooms today.</p> <p>When implementing the activities mentioned below, teachers need to be mindful of allergies, choking hazards, and the safety of the strategies. The ECE professionals also need to utilize caution in selecting strategies based on their knowledge of the unique needs of each student and family.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-11">Auditory System</hd> <p>Children with auditory-seeking or avoidant behaviors often display easily identifiable responses to noise type, frequency, and intensity. Auditory seekers may yearn for ways to increase noise levels in music (excessive), talk loudly despite expectations for quiet voices, and crave hearing the noises that often make auditory avoiders and other people upset, such as tapping, clicking, or humming. A 4-year-old pre-kindergartener, Hezekiah, frequently sprinted to volume buttons to maximize volume, and he often spoke to his peers and teachers in an excessively loud voice. Auditory avoiders (over-responsive) may become upset and demonstrate excessive emotions to expected and/or unexpected alarms, bathroom sounds, or noise level changes. In the ECE classroom setting, noises from all environments plus other children's expressions can also vary greatly. Generally, the degree of seeking or avoiding loud and/or unexpected noises can fluctuate as well. Table 2 provides practical classroom strategies for auditory seekers and avoiders (adapted from Isbell & Isbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref40">13</reflink>]; Kuypers, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref41">15</reflink>]; Williams & Shellenberger, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref42">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 2 Practical classroom strategies for auditory avoiders and seekers</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Auditory Seekers</p></th><th align="left"><p>Auditory Avoiders</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Use of headphones with music activities or independent work activities (instrumental music or repeated rhythmic beat) to foster concentration while filtering background noise.</p><p>2. Provide materials and objects to create noise during appropriate centers or outside play.</p><p>3. Be mindful of seating arrangements to reduce the number of auditory distractions with possible seating near an adult who can encourage lowering voice/noise level.</p><p>4. Utilize visual supports (visual instructions, visual supports such as a timer, visual line for maximum noise level on devices, visual attentional cues) to complement auditory directions providing two sensory pathways for understanding instructions.</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. Forewarn these students of loud events (drills, student assemblies, hallway/bathroom noises).</p><p>2. Provide inexpensive noise-canceling headphones for loud events (be careful with overuse, as the goal is increasing participation).</p><p>3. Use of headphones in a quiet corner or during independent work activities (soft instrumental music).</p><p>4. Use noise-reducing supports such as tennis balls on the bottom of chairs/desks.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189590396-12">Tactile System</hd> <p>Similarly to auditory challenges, early childhood educators commonly notice children with tactile (touch) seeking or avoidant behaviors within their classrooms. Tactile experiences are vast and integrated into various classroom environments, including the indoor classroom, playground, hallways, bathrooms, and related arts spaces. Children with tactile system challenges may respond differently to these experiences, and the degree of seeking or avoiding could also vary greatly. Tactile seekers crave an increased amount of tactile input due to under-registration of the stimuli in their brain (Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref43">16</reflink>]). They may display a constant need to touch or hold sensory-rich items, be impulsive with reaching or grabbing appealing items such as new classroom materials or bulletin board decorations, and yearn for learning stations with sensory bins, play dough, or make-believe costume opportunities. Jess simply could not resist grabbing teachers' objects during sound lessons and rarely responded to redirection until we provided a replacement sensory object (a textured bag filled with small balls such as marbles). Tactile avoiders over-respond to tactile input and may pull away, refuse, or hide from various tactile experiences such as messy play, basic self-care routines, and unfamiliar sensory-rich items. They also may overreact to minor touches or accidental slight bumps from others. Table 3 provides strategies teachers may use for the tactile seekers and avoiders (adapted from Isbell & Isbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref44">13</reflink>]; Kuypers, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref45">15</reflink>]; Williams & Shellenberger, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref46">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 3 Practical classroom strategies for tactile seeker and avoiders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Tactile Seekers</p></th><th align="left"><p>Tactile Avoiders</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Use carpet squares or small hula hoops to identify the "space" between themselves and others for circle time and learning stations.</p><p>2. Lap pads for fidgety fingers made from large tube socks filled with materials such as small beads.</p><p>3. Travel pillowcases with various tactile items inside (The "rule" is that items must stay inside the pillowcase with hands inside).</p><p>4. Utilize manipulatives during learning activities as often as possible.</p><p>5. Carrying a book or other object that requires two hands between transitions and hallway to keep both hands "busy."</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. Use of songs for necessary routines to provide time perspective. For example, handwashing to the ABC song or moving items to trash to a Clean-Up song.</p><p>2. Participation in cleaning up of tactile sensory items that they are avoiding (tongs, forks/spoons, tongue depressors, and paintbrushes can be used prior to fingers/hands based on their degree of avoidance).</p><p>3. Progressive sequence of sensory bins (begin with small and dry items and move to more varied unpreferred prickly textures, such as aquarium rocks, and moist items, such as playdough).</p><p>4. Watching a video, demonstrating the activity in front of the student, and/or having a peer assist them in completing the tactile sensory/art activity (decreasing anxiety and increasing participation).</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189590396-13">Visual System</hd> <p>Early childhood educators may notice children with visual-seeking or avoidant behaviors when observing the children's response to a change in lighting or a visually intense area. Visual experiences often vary more frequently than perceived by the educator. The transitions of lighting and visual contrast occur regularly in the classroom, playground, hallways, bathrooms, and related art spaces. Children may respond very differently to these experiences, and the degree of seeking or avoiding could also vary greatly. Visual seekers are frequently more easily distracted by visual clutter and brightly colored decorations due to the under-registration of stimuli in their brain (Lane, [<reflink idref="bib16" id="ref47">16</reflink>]). Visual avoiders over-respond to changes in visual experiences and may resist transitions or hide from visual changes, such as transitioning to the playground on a sunny day, strong yearning for turning the lights off, and turning away from blinking lights from toys or decorations. Table 4 provides strategies teachers may use for the visual seekers and avoiders (adapted from Isbell & Isbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref48">13</reflink>]; Kuypers, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref49">15</reflink>]; Williams & Shellenberger, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref50">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 4 Practical classroom strategies for visual seekers and avoiders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Visual Seekers</p></th><th align="left"><p>Visual Avoiders</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Decrease visual clutter in the direction of their visual focus for activities/work to promote longer functional attending skills.</p><p>2. Use natural lighting when possible or lightbulbs with natural white tones rather than harsh fluorescent overhead.</p><p>3. Use flashlight or blacklight-involving activities as needed/determined to provide desired visual stimulation.</p><p>4. If age appropriate, send student on a small errand or class job that varies the visual environment for them temporarily.</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. Use temporary window tinting to reduce glare into the classroom.</p><p>2. Offer inexpensive plastic sunglasses for very bright areas such as playground and cafeteria if applicable.</p><p>3. Provide materials with high visual contrast such as firefighter in dress-up, or colorful building blocks.</p><p>4. During dim-to-bright lighting transitions, provide adequate time for the student's eyes to adjust. For example, the student stands in a shaded area on the playground before entering sunny areas.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189590396-14">Oral (Gustatory) System</hd> <p>Many early childhood educators today yearn for strategies to support students with oral sensory seeking and oral sensory avoiding (extreme picky eaters). Oral sensory seekers may put everything in their mouths, including non-food items. Oral sensory avoiders may eat a very limited diet of strongly preferred foods. Although specialist intervention(s) may be warranted, there are several strategies that early childhood educators can utilize within their classrooms to support their students. Table 5 provides strategies teachers may use for the oral seekers and avoiders (adapted from Isbell & Isbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref51">13</reflink>]; Kuypers, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref52">15</reflink>]; Williams & Shellenberger, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref53">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 5 Practical classroom strategies for oral sensory seekers and avoiders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Oral Seekers</p></th><th align="left"><p>Oral Avoiders</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Provide a sports water bottle (straw, spout) within reach of their desk or attached to their wheelchair.</p><p>2. Provide adaptive necklaces from non-toxic silicone intended for chewing or similar items. These can also be attached to a belt loop and stretchy key chain loop if that is preferred. The chew items must be safe, cleaned regularly, and replaced when damaged.</p><p>3. Introduce blowing activities such as blowing bubbles through straw into water or playing a harmonica when appropriate (be mindful of hygiene).</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. Begin with visual acceptance of the food first. For example, watching a peer eat something they avoid or placing a small portion near them without expectation of interaction.</p><p>2. Participation in cleaning up foods that the child avoids using tongs, forks/spoons, tongue depressors, and paintbrushes prior to fingers/hands based on the child's degree of avoidance.</p><p>3. Bringing food to their lips (without ingestion expectation) to incorporate visual, touch, and smell acceptance.</p><p>Repeated exposure to the steps above will support oral avoiders for interaction with new foods and textures. Do not force the avoider to eat and if they are showing signs of being overwhelmed, stop and try again later.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189590396-15">Proprioceptive System</hd> <p>Proprioception can be defined as one's internal understanding of body position in space (Aman et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref54">1</reflink>]). Children who crave proprioceptive input (seekers) may try to engage in frequent rough and tumble play, find "body squeeze" opportunities (jumping off furniture, using people or objects for crashing/bumping), and very frequently crave movement. Proprioceptive avoiders may seem to have difficulty with imitating motor movements and can appear to have weak muscles, be lethargic, and be uncoordinated (Aman et al., [<reflink idref="bib1" id="ref55">1</reflink>]). Table 6 provides strategies teachers may use for the proprioceptive seekers and avoiders (adapted from Isbell & Isbell, [<reflink idref="bib13" id="ref56">13</reflink>]; Kuypers, [<reflink idref="bib15" id="ref57">15</reflink>]; Williams & Shellenberger, [<reflink idref="bib25" id="ref58">25</reflink>]).</p> <p>Table 6 Practical classroom strategies for proprioceptive seekers and avoiders</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Proprioceptive Seekers</p></th><th align="left"><p>Proprioceptive Avoiders</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>1. Provide bean bag chairs, seat cushions or other alternative seating options within the classroom.</p><p>2. Animal walk activities that involve hands and feet on the floor (example: bear walk).</p><p>3. Have students engage in wall or chair push-ups. Offer additional time on playground equipment to increase body awareness in space.</p><p>4. Offer compression vests, weighted blankets, weighted sock/lap pads, and tight hugs.</p></td><td align="left"><p>1. Assign classroom jobs such as picking items from the floor or lower level surface to place on a higher surface to engage the student in challenging their balance.</p><p>2. Carrying lightweight items between school environments such as a book that requires two hands.</p><p>3. Use movement songs to promote balance and coordination such as Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <p>As demonstrated in the case of David, a child may simultaneously benefit from strategies for auditory (gift wrap opening) and tactile (helmet wearing) avoidance and proprioceptive seeking (squeezes to relax). Each child is unique, and this list is not exhaustive.</p> <p>For further guidance and support, we recommend exploring the additional resources listed below (see Table 7). These resources provide valuable tools and insights aimed at supporting parents, caregivers, and professionals working with children who have SPDs, offering key information to deepen their understanding. Additionally, consulting with an occupational therapist can provide personalized advice and tailored strategies to address the specific needs of both the student and the student's family.</p> <p>Table 7 Additional resources and websites for SPDs</p> <p> <ephtml> <table rules="groups"><thead><tr><th align="left"><p>Title</p></th><th align="left"><p>Description</p></th><th align="left"><p>Link</p></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td align="left"><p>Child Mind Institute</p></td><td align="left"><p>The article provides information and strategies for parents to help prepare children with SPDs for classroom environments.</p><p>The video offers a clear explanation of SPDs.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://childmind.org/article/school-success-kit-kids-sensory-processing-issues/" title="Child Mind Institute - Article" /></p><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://childmind.org/article/sensory-processing-issues-explained/" title="Child Mind Institute - Video" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>American Occupational Therapy Association</p></td><td align="left"><p>This website offers a variety of resources related to occupational therapy strategies for working with SPDs.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.aota.org/" title="Join AOTA to Fuel Your Passion| AOTA" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>The OT Butterfly</p></td><td align="left"><p>In this podcast, an OT discusses classroom accommodations for children with SPDs</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://theotbutterfly.com/episode10/sws-podcast/" title="The OT Butterly - Podcast" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Sensory Inclusive Schools</p></td><td align="left"><p>This website offers multiple free resources for caregivers working with children who have sensory challenge. You can find printable posters, articles, webinars and podcasts.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.sensoryinclusiveschools.org/pages/resources" title="Sensory Inclusive Schools - Resources" /></p><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.sensoryinclusiveschools.org/courses/what-teachers-need-to-know" title="Sensory Inclusive Schools - Webinar for Teachers on Sensory Integration" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>STAR Institute - Non-profit specialized on SPDs</p></td><td align="left"><p>This organization provides free monthly webinars for professional development and a variety of free SPD-related resources.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/resources-for-parents-and-professionals" title="STAR Institute - Resources" /></p><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://sensoryhealth.org/basic/monthly-webinars-0" title="STAR Institute - Free Webinars on Sensory Integration" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Understood - Non-profit that supports people with learning and thinking differences</p></td><td align="left"><p>This article provides several strategies, tips, and resources for caregivers of children with SPDs.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.understood.org/en/articles/understanding-sensory-processing-challenges" title="Understood.org - Article with SPD resources for Parents and Teachers" /></p></td></tr><tr><td align="left"><p>Case Study -Video</p></td><td align="left"><p>In this video, the young child Neil talks about the experiences of living with SPDs.</p></td><td align="left"><p><ext-link ext-link-type="url" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1G5ssZlVUw" title="Video - A Child's View of Sensory Processing" /></p></td></tr></tbody></table> </ephtml> </p> <hd id="AN0189590396-16">Conclusion</hd> <p>Due to the heterogeneity of symptoms of SPDs, teachers may need to try out a variety of modifications to see what works best for any specific child. Observing and taking detailed notes on the situations and context around challenging behaviors can help teachers narrow down possible triggers. Returning to the case of David who introduced this article, the challenges he had been experiencing in the classroom and at home led his mother to consult a pediatrician who recommended occupational therapy. A few weeks after the OT started the therapy sessions, his mother began to see small positive changes. David started responding better to the preferred/unpreferred activity transitions due to phrases such as, "First you can watch Mickey Mouse, and then you're gonna take a bath." The consistency of messages across different settings, such as therapy sessions, home, and school, was crucial to the OT strategies' effectiveness. Over the course of six months of receiving OT services, David made incredible progress. His mother reflected:</p> <p>The past three weeks[...], I've dropped him off every morning; he hasn't really pancaked in the floor...That tells me that OT is working, because in the mornings I'll be like, we have to go see your teacher, first school, then home, and he'll get in the car and say his teacher's name.</p> <p>David's progress in coping with the sensory challenges he experiences provides several evidence-based insights. First, early intervention can be highly effective. Second, follow-through of therapeutic strategies across the child's contexts is essential. Finally, sensory integration strategies can be effectively implemented not only by occupational therapists but also by parents and educators.</p> <p>Collaboration with the child's family is key to bridging home and school environments and expectations. Several studies have emphasized the critical role of families and teachers in implementing and aligning therapy strategies across home and school environments (Azad et al., [<reflink idref="bib4" id="ref59">4</reflink>]; Collins & Crabb, [<reflink idref="bib6" id="ref60">6</reflink>]; Mapes & Mitcheltree, [<reflink idref="bib17" id="ref61">17</reflink>]). Consistency in interventions is paramount for a child's progress, as it provides the structure and reinforcement necessary for the development of new skills. When children practice both at home and at school, we reinforce the techniques and strategies as the children integrate these skills into their everyday routines.</p> <p>Repetition plays a vital role in learning any new skill. This consistency supports the transfer of learning from purposeful interventions to real-life situations, making it more likely that the child will retain and apply these skills effectively. Families can greatly benefit from knowing about effective interventions and trying those strategies at home. Similarly, suppose that a parent requests the school support them with a specific strategy to manage challenging behavior. For example, parents asked that the teachers give Tony chewing gum upon his request during indoor individual activities, as chewing helped him focus. When teachers implemented the parents' request, they noticed Tony's need to touch and distract his peers during activities greatly decreased. In general, the teachers should attempt to implement families' suggestions unless this approach clashes with their professional ethical code of conduct (National Association for the Education of Young Children, [<reflink idref="bib21" id="ref62">21</reflink>]) and/or with the school's non-negotiable values (Derman-Sparks et al., [<reflink idref="bib9" id="ref63">9</reflink>]).</p> <p>In conclusion, early childhood teachers must use caution when implementing these strategies and consider each child's allergies and developmental level. As early childhood educators, we are never in the position to diagnose any disorder. Instead, we observe, make notes on any areas of concern for children, discuss with families, and in some cases make referrals for families to seek the opinions of professionals such as occupational therapists. When a child is already receiving services and/or has a diagnosis, teachers need to collaborate with the assigned therapist. Integrating the OT's or other specialists' recommendations into the child's routine at school provides consistency and is crucial to the effectiveness of the therapies.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-17">Declarations</hd> <p></p> <hd id="AN0189590396-18">Conflict of Interest</hd> <p>We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.</p> <hd id="AN0189590396-19">Publisher's Note</hd> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> <ref id="AN0189590396-20"> <title> References </title> <blist> <bibl id="bib1" idref="ref1" type="bt">1</bibl> <bibtext> Aman JE, Elangovan N, Yeh IL, Konczak J. The effectiveness of proprioceptive training for improving motor function: A systematic review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2015; 8: 1075-1075. 10.3389/fnhum.2014.01075</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibl id="bib2" idref="ref2" type="bt">2</bibl> <bibtext> American Psychiatric Association (2013). 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TherapyWorks.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Zero To Three (2016). DC:0–5 ™: Diagnostic classification of mental health and developmental disorders of infancy and early childhood.</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <ref id="AN0189590396-21"> <title> Footnotes </title> <blist> <bibtext> Stories and examples in the manuscript naming children (pseudonyms) are based on work of Marketa Raevsky and Julia Atiles with young children as early childhood educators and Cassandra Nabalta's experience as an occupational therapist.</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> The information shared about "David" is the result of a meeting between Julia Atiles and his mother (A. Haga & J. Atiles, personal communication, June 27, 2024).</bibtext> </blist> <blist> <bibtext> Occupational therapy (OT) is a type of health care that supports people of all ages who have challenges with movement, senses, or thinking. OT helps people become more independent in everyday activities, like getting dressed, cooking, working, or playing. Occupational therapists work with individuals to improve their ability to do these tasks. They also help remove any obstacles that affect how a person feels, interacts with others, or takes care of their body. Occupational therapists might teach new skills, suggest tools or devices, or help make changes to the home or work environment to make things easier. They also help with things like managing emotions, building social skills, and improving coordination (American Occupational Therapy Association, [3]).</bibtext> </blist> </ref> <aug> <p>By Marketa Raevsky; Cassandra A. Nabalta and Julia T. Atiles</p> <p>Reported by Author; Author; Author</p> </aug> <nolink nlid="nl1" bibid="bib12" firstref="ref3"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl2" bibid="bib14" firstref="ref5"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl3" bibid="bib19" firstref="ref7"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl4" bibid="bib10" firstref="ref8"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl5" bibid="bib11" firstref="ref10"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl6" bibid="bib26" firstref="ref11"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl7" bibid="bib24" firstref="ref15"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl8" bibid="bib16" firstref="ref17"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl9" bibid="bib18" firstref="ref28"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl10" bibid="bib20" firstref="ref30"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl11" bibid="bib23" firstref="ref37"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl12" bibid="bib13" firstref="ref40"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl13" bibid="bib15" firstref="ref41"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl14" bibid="bib25" firstref="ref42"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl15" bibid="bib17" firstref="ref61"></nolink> <nolink nlid="nl16" bibid="bib21" firstref="ref62"></nolink>
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  Data: 10.1007/s10643-025-01904-z
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  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 1082-3301<br />1573-1707
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Sensory processing disorders are recognized as a condition where the brain's sensory systems struggle to integrate sensory information. An individual with sensory processing disorders exhibits atypical (exaggerated or muted) response to sensory stimuli such as loud noises, unfamiliar textures, or being touched. It is estimated that between 5-16% of children have sensory processing disorders. Therefore, many teachers interact daily with children who struggle to self-regulate due to their sensory processing difficulties. This article synthesizes the literature on symptomatology, prevalence, and prognosis of sensory processing disorders. Next, we highlight how these symptoms may manifest in the early childhood classroom and provide practical, evidence-based classroom strategies for educators to help children cope with sensory processing challenges.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1496690
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1496690
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s10643-025-01904-z
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 9
        StartPage: 2885
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Sensory Experience
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Perceptual Impairments
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Early Childhood Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Evidence Based Practice
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Sensory Integration
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Symptoms (Individual Disorders)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Coping
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Classroom Techniques
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Managing Sensory Processing Disorders in an Early Childhood Classroom: Evidence-Based Strategies for Teachers
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Marketa Raevsky
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Cassandra A. Nabalta
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Julia T. Atiles
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 12
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 1082-3301
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-1707
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 53
            – Type: issue
              Value: 8
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Early Childhood Education Journal
              Type: main
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