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Students' Perception of Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS): Construction and Assessment of Psychometric Properties

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Title: Students' Perception of Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS): Construction and Assessment of Psychometric Properties
Language: English
Authors: Soroor Rostami (ORCID 0009-0008-1757-6125), Kristin Endresen-Maharaj (ORCID 0000-0001-6217-0759), Afsaneh Ghanizadeh (ORCID 0000-0003-1649-1556)
Source: European Journal of Education. 2026 61(1).
Availability: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 14
Publication Date: 2026
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Test Construction, Democratic Values, Teacher Behavior, Student Evaluation of Teacher Performance, Psychometrics, Questionnaires, Foreign Countries, Classroom Techniques, College Environment
DOI: 10.1111/ejed.70388
ISSN: 0141-8211
1465-3435
Abstract: A plethora of assessment tools has been developed to measure democratic behaviour in the context of the classroom. A critical review of existing literature revealed prevailing limitations in most tools in the realm of democratic education. Considering the identified deficiencies, this study endeavours to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS) from the perspective of students. Guided by Perry´s (2009) democratic education model, this research constructed an initial questionnaire comprising 35 items categorised into five subscales of equality, diversity, participation, autonomy, and cohesion. Initially, face, content and context validity were examined through expert panel assessments. Subsequently, a pilot testing involving 33 students from Norway and Iran was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed questionnaire and refine administration procedures before its broader deployment. The main phase of the study enlisted 488 students from 20 countries (e.g., Norway, Iran, USA, Poland), representing diverse cultures, with data collected internationally via paper-and-pencil (n = 70) and online formats (n = 418). Cross-cultural comparisons between Norway and Iran further enriched the analysis. The main phase assessed construct validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity and differences between contrasted groups. Various Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) models were tested using Amos, with results favoring the second-order factor CFA model due to its superior fit statistics and lower AIC value, indicating higher psychometric and statistical robustness. In sum, the adoption of the second-order factor model establishes the TDBS as a valid and valuable instrument for assessing and enhancing democratic practices within the classroom environment.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1497711
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
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  Data: Students' Perception of Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS): Construction and Assessment of Psychometric Properties
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  Data: English
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Soroor+Rostami%22">Soroor Rostami</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1757-6125">0009-0008-1757-6125</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Kristin+Endresen-Maharaj%22">Kristin Endresen-Maharaj</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6217-0759">0000-0001-6217-0759</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Afsaneh+Ghanizadeh%22">Afsaneh Ghanizadeh</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1649-1556">0000-0003-1649-1556</externalLink>)
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22European+Journal+of+Education%22"><i>European Journal of Education</i></searchLink>. 2026 61(1).
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  Data: Wiley. Available from: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Tel: 800-835-6770; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: https://www.wiley.com/en-us
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  Data: Y
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  Data: 14
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
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  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Test+Construction%22">Test Construction</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Democratic+Values%22">Democratic Values</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Teacher+Behavior%22">Teacher Behavior</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Evaluation+of+Teacher+Performance%22">Student Evaluation of Teacher Performance</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Psychometrics%22">Psychometrics</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Questionnaires%22">Questionnaires</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Classroom+Techniques%22">Classroom Techniques</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22College+Environment%22">College Environment</searchLink>
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  Data: 10.1111/ejed.70388
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  Data: 0141-8211<br />1465-3435
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: A plethora of assessment tools has been developed to measure democratic behaviour in the context of the classroom. A critical review of existing literature revealed prevailing limitations in most tools in the realm of democratic education. Considering the identified deficiencies, this study endeavours to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS) from the perspective of students. Guided by Perry´s (2009) democratic education model, this research constructed an initial questionnaire comprising 35 items categorised into five subscales of equality, diversity, participation, autonomy, and cohesion. Initially, face, content and context validity were examined through expert panel assessments. Subsequently, a pilot testing involving 33 students from Norway and Iran was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed questionnaire and refine administration procedures before its broader deployment. The main phase of the study enlisted 488 students from 20 countries (e.g., Norway, Iran, USA, Poland), representing diverse cultures, with data collected internationally via paper-and-pencil (n = 70) and online formats (n = 418). Cross-cultural comparisons between Norway and Iran further enriched the analysis. The main phase assessed construct validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity and differences between contrasted groups. Various Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) models were tested using Amos, with results favoring the second-order factor CFA model due to its superior fit statistics and lower AIC value, indicating higher psychometric and statistical robustness. In sum, the adoption of the second-order factor model establishes the TDBS as a valid and valuable instrument for assessing and enhancing democratic practices within the classroom environment.
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  Data: 2026
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  Data: EJ1497711
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        Value: 10.1111/ejed.70388
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      – Text: English
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        PageCount: 14
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      – SubjectFull: Test Construction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Democratic Values
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      – SubjectFull: Teacher Behavior
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Evaluation of Teacher Performance
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      – SubjectFull: Psychometrics
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      – SubjectFull: Questionnaires
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      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
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      – SubjectFull: Classroom Techniques
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      – SubjectFull: College Environment
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      – TitleFull: Students' Perception of Teachers' Democratic Behaviours Scale (TDBS): Construction and Assessment of Psychometric Properties
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            NameFull: Soroor Rostami
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            NameFull: Kristin Endresen-Maharaj
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            NameFull: Afsaneh Ghanizadeh
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