View in EDS HTML Full Text PDF Full Text

Are the Effects of SRSD for First Grade Writers Moderated by Initial Skills and Instructional Tier?

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Are the Effects of SRSD for First Grade Writers Moderated by Initial Skills and Instructional Tier?
Language: English
Authors: Perry D. Klein (ORCID 0000-0001-6740-4737), Madelyn Casola (ORCID 0000-0001-7182-4187), Jill Dombroski (ORCID 0000-0002-6001-7512), Stacey Lukewich, Serena Thompson (ORCID 0000-0002-3489-8096)
Source: Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 2025 38(10):3043-3068.
Availability: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 26
Publication Date: 2025
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Elementary Education
Early Childhood Education
Grade 1
Primary Education
Descriptors: Writing Instruction, Elementary School Students, Grade 1, Writing Skills, Self Management, Writing Strategies, Multi Tiered Systems of Support, Writing (Composition)
DOI: 10.1007/s11145-024-10627-3
ISSN: 0922-4777
1573-0905
Abstract: Recent research has shown that Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) improves the composition of First Grade writers. The present study investigated whether these effects are moderated by initial writing skills and instructional tier. During Phase 1 of this quasi-experimental study, 52 struggling writers participated in either Tier 1 only, or Tier 1 + Tier 2 transcription instruction. Students in both tiers made significant gains in handwriting fluency (Hedges g = 0.79, p < 0.001) and spelling (Hedges g = 0.71, p < 0.001), but gains did not differ significantly by tier. During Phase 2, 110 students, including 26 struggling writers, participated in Tier 1 SRSD instruction in personal narrative writing, while 26 struggling writers participated in Tier 1 + Tier 2 SRSD instruction. Struggling writers in both tiers made significant gains (Hedges g = 0.90, p = < 0.001), but these did not differ significantly by tier. An individual growth model of 110 students in Tier 1 instruction indicated that text quality increased significantly during SRSD ([beta] = 1.01, p < 0.001). Level of text quality was predicted by WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency ([beta] = 0.06, p = 0.01), WIAT3 Spelling ([beta] = 0.05, p = 0.03), pretest text quality ([beta] = 0.43, p < 0.001), and classes (F = 6.94, p = 0.01). Initial skills did not significantly predict the growth of text quality, and students across a range of handwriting, spelling and written composition skills made significant gains. These results suggest that SRSD, delivered through either Tier 1 or Tier 2 instruction, contributes to written composition for Grade 1 students with varied levels of initial writing skills.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1499706
Database: ERIC
Full text is not displayed to guests.
FullText Links:
  – Type: pdflink
    Url: https://content.ebscohost.com/cds/retrieve?content=AQICAHj0k_4E0hTGH8RJwT4gCJyBsGNe_WN95AvKlDbXJGqwxwElqUrwLSvg_4EskE64i-_MAAAA4zCB4AYJKoZIhvcNAQcGoIHSMIHPAgEAMIHJBgkqhkiG9w0BBwEwHgYJYIZIAWUDBAEuMBEEDAnUatDq3gEhNu0htwIBEICBmzpQvfehQuHogBLQRIvkcD0Wgpaw_uoAVf6zqeUijbE-GZ3mTA1z2WERkj9i3TQbaMYxb4d5kiTB-W6meytHTO-0FqaEjP08mg2Qbe968ev095NKVaWBikL925xaXDEgDYOQ2g5RkKeJdbPLx2vQ8vEqyuL_UFebYmf8goZSVAk1PzRTHsZYUqtnTjbhAYTRQLdLVLCo5XK2R2Iq
Text:
  Availability: 1
  Value: &lt;anid&gt;AN0190299329;2ap01dec.25;2025Dec19.04:18;v2.2.500&lt;/anid&gt; &lt;title id=&quot;AN0190299329-1&quot;&gt;Are the effects of SRSD for first grade writers moderated by initial skills and instructional tier?&#160;&lt;/title&gt; &lt;p&gt;Recent research has shown that Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) improves the composition of First Grade writers. The present study investigated whether these effects are moderated by initial writing skills and instructional tier. During Phase 1 of this quasi-experimental study, 52 struggling writers participated in either Tier 1 only, or Tier 1 + Tier 2 transcription instruction. Students in both tiers made significant gains in handwriting fluency (Hedges g = 0.79, p &amp;lt;.001) and spelling (Hedges g = 0.71, p &amp;lt;.001), but gains did not differ significantly by tier. During Phase 2, 110 students, including 26 struggling writers, participated in Tier 1 SRSD instruction in personal narrative writing, while 26 struggling writers participated in Tier 1 + Tier 2 SRSD instruction. Struggling writers in both tiers made significant gains (Hedges g = 0.90, p = &amp;lt; 0.001), but these did not differ significantly by tier. An individual growth model of 110 students in Tier 1 instruction indicated that text quality increased significantly during SRSD (β = 1.01, p &amp;lt;.001). Level of text quality was predicted by WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency (β = 0.06, p =.01), WIAT3 Spelling (β = 0.05, p =.03), pretest text quality (β = 0.43, p &amp;lt;.001), and classes (F = 6.94, p =.01). Initial skills did not significantly predict the growth of text quality, and students across a range of handwriting, spelling and written composition skills made significant gains. These results suggest that SRSD, delivered through either Tier 1 or Tier 2 instruction, contributes to written composition for Grade 1 students with varied levels of initial writing skills.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Keywords: Writing; Intervention; Response to intervention; First grade; Strategy instruction&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Copyright comment Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Early elementary students vary widely in written composition ability. Multiple skills contribute to written composition, including handwriting and spelling, and students vary widely in these as well (Coker et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib10&quot; id=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Most writers who struggle in Grade 1 continue to do so in later grades (Juel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]). A recent study of Grade 2 students reported Matthew Effects, in which students who wrote shorter texts early in the first term made less progress during the year than those who wrote longer texts, resulting in a widening gap in productivity (Wood et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib48&quot; id=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;48&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Consequently, it is essential to design early writing instruction that is effective for students with a range of skill levels.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Harris and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]) have recently described differing views concerning the relationship between basic skills such as handwriting and spelling, and written composition instruction for beginning writers. We will begin by outlining two views on this issue, and suggest that it arises urgently for struggling writers. We will briefly review research on the effect of initial transcription skills and transcription instruction on written composition, as well as research on Grade 1 strategy instruction, showing that is has emerged as a well-replicated method for Tier 1 teaching of written composition. Some research suggests that initial writing skills moderate students&#39; development of written composition and response to writing instruction, including SRSD instruction; however, results are mixed. At the same time, Tier 2 strategy instruction appears to be effective for struggling beginning writers; however, it is unclear whether it is more effective than Tier 1 instruction. This will lead to our hypotheses: That initial writing skills and instructional tier moderate the effect of SRSD. Throughout the paper, we will use the term &quot;written composition&quot; to refer to students&#39; ability to create texts; this has most often been operationalized as text quality, and sometimes as text length.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-2&quot;&gt;Views on initial writing education&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Harris and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref7&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]) described a &quot;skills-based&quot; or &quot;traditional&quot; view, which holds that initial writing instruction should focus primarily on handwriting, spelling, oral language, and sentence writing. This view is implicit in the practice of most Grade 1 teachers, who reported teaching transcription skills daily, but teaching composition only once per week (Cutler &amp;amp; Graham, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib11&quot; id=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;11&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The skills-based view is also consistent with the developmental constraint hypothesis, which states that in the primary grades, neurodevelopmental abilities and transcription are the main constraints on writing, whereas in the mid-elementary linguistic abilities are the main constraints, and in late elementary grades cognitive abilities are the main constraints (Abbott &amp;amp; Berninger, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref9&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Berninger et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib5&quot; id=&quot;ref10&quot;&gt;5&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Juel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref11&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Theoretically, the basic skills view is consistent with evidence that transcription processes compete with compositional processes for limited working memory resources (Kellogg, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib23&quot; id=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;23&lt;/reflink&gt;]; McCutchen, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib35&quot; id=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;35&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The second view holds that written composition can be taught effectively to beginning writers, along with basic skills. Harris and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref14&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]) called this the &lt;emph&gt;balanced&lt;/emph&gt; view. Theoretically, this view is consistent with the significant contribution of higher level skills, including discourse knowledge, discourse oral language, and ideas, to initial written composition (Juel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref15&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref17&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Wen &amp;amp; Coker, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib47&quot; id=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;47&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The balanced view is also expressed by recent experimental research on teaching writing strategies to students in the first year of formal education (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref19&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philippakos et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Zumbrunn &amp;amp; Bruning, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib49&quot; id=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;49&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;We do not wish to suggest that these two views are polar opposites; however, the difference in emphasis between the two is worth exploring empirically. For most struggling writers, transcription skills are lower than for average writers, so if basic skills strongly moderate writing development or response to instruction, then it would be educationally useful to initially focus primarily on these skills; if basic skills do not strongly moderate instruction or writing development, then a balanced approach would be more educationally useful.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-3&quot;&gt;Effect of transcription skills and transcription instruction on early written composition&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Path analysis and related methods have shown that handwriting fluency and spelling each account for unique variance in written composition (Juel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref22&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref23&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). More generally, a meta-analysis has confirmed the reliable effects of handwriting, spelling, and oral language on the quality and length of students&#39; texts (Kent &amp;amp; Wanzek, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Partially consistent with the developmental constraint hypothesis, these reviewers found a trend toward stronger effects of handwriting on text quality in kindergarten to Grade 3, versus Grades 4 to 12; however, it was not statistically significant (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.10). Puranik and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that for kindergarten students, transcription skills constrained the quality of written composition, but also found that oral language moderated the effect of transcription, such that that for students with lower transcription skills, oral language more strongly contributed to text quality.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Instructional research also partially supports the significant role of transcription skills in written composition. A meta-analysis found that handwriting instruction significantly increased the quality and length of written text, as well as the legibility and fluency of handwriting (Santangelo &amp;amp; Graham, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib41&quot; id=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;41&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, a meta-analysis of spelling instruction found that it did not significantly increase text quality or production, although it significantly improved spelling, and these gains transferred to spelling in text, and were maintained over time (Graham &amp;amp; Santangelo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]). A recent meta-analysis of early elementary writing instruction found that transcription instruction produced a heterogeneous mixture of effects, and overall, did not significantly improve written composition (Kim et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref28&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-4&quot;&gt;Effects of higher level skills and strategy instruction on written composition&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The Interactive Dynamic Literacy Model has elaborated the role of higher level skills in written composition (Kim, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib25&quot; id=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;25&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In this model, the lowest level, sublexical, is comprised of letter formation and keyboarding; the lexical level is comprised of spelling; the sentence level is comprised of written sentence production; and the discourse level is comprised of written composition. Lower level skills contribute to the skills above them in the model, e.g., handwriting and spelling contribute to sentence construction, which in turn contributes to written composition. Horizontally within the model, oral language contributes to both reading and writing at each level (word, sentence, discourse); and reading and writing contribute to one another. Additionally other abilities contribute to written composition, some indirectly, including the following: Higher order cognition and regulation; world, content and discourse knowledge; social and emotional attitudes; and domain general cognition and executive functions. Recent regression studies of beginning writers have confirmed that written composition is significantly affected by several higher level skills, including discourse knowledge (Wen &amp;amp; Coker, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib47&quot; id=&quot;ref30&quot;&gt;47&lt;/reflink&gt;]); self-regulation (Chandler et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib8&quot; id=&quot;ref31&quot;&gt;8&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Puranik et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib39&quot; id=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;39&lt;/reflink&gt;]); attention (Kim, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref33&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;]); and discourse oral language (Kim, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref34&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref35&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;This developmental research has been paralleled by instructional research on teaching writing strategies. Self-Regulated Strategy Development, the most extensively researched form of strategy instruction, teaches self-regulatory processes, including goal setting, planning, self-instruction, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement (Harris &amp;amp; Graham, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib18&quot; id=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;18&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Additionally, most SRSD units teach discourse knowledge about a specific genre of text, such as narrative or persuasive text (Harris et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref37&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref38&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philippakos et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref39&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;]). SRSD, particular for younger students, also appears to teach discourse oral language; for example, in narrative writing units, students learn to identify and generate &quot;story parts&quot; such as character and setting, and much rehearsal of the strategy and of individual stories takes place orally (e.g., Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref40&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philippakos et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref41&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Students may also learn genre specific linking words. SRSD instruction takes place in six phases: Develop background knowledge; discuss it (the strategy); model it; memorize it; support it; and independent writing. SRSD has been extensively researched in the mid- to late elementary grades for several decades, showing that it results in reliable, large increases in text quality and other measures (e.g., Graham et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib17&quot; id=&quot;ref42&quot;&gt;17&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Sun et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib42&quot; id=&quot;ref43&quot;&gt;42&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;During the past decade, several studies have investigated strategy instruction with beginning writers in the first year of formal education. These have shown significant, medium or large effects of Tier 1 instruction, for in-person classroom teaching (Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref44&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philippakos et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref45&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philippakos, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib44&quot; id=&quot;ref46&quot;&gt;44&lt;/reflink&gt;]), and online teaching (Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref47&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;]); as well as significant effects of Tier 1 small group instruction (Harris et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref48&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Zumbrunn &amp;amp; Bruning, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib49&quot; id=&quot;ref49&quot;&gt;49&lt;/reflink&gt;]). In related research, Arrimada and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref50&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref51&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref52&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]) have used Cognitive Self-Regulation Instruction (CSRI) to teach narrative writing to first year Spanish students. Like SRSD, CSRI teaches students self-regulated processes for composing text in a given genre, and has produced significant gains in text quality. Consequently, we can conclude that with strategy instruction, the &lt;emph&gt;balanced&lt;/emph&gt; view of initial writing education has been supported and replicated for Tier 1 instruction of average students, i.e., intact classes of students.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-5&quot;&gt;Do initial writing skills moderate development and instruction in written composition?&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;However, this leads to the issue of whether the effect of writing strategy instruction with beginning writers is moderated by their initial skill levels. Harris and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref53&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that SRSD instruction resulted in significant gains for Grade 1 students, but that these were smaller than gains for Grade 2 students. The authors suggested that Grade 1 students possibly made smaller gains because they had lower transcription skills.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;To date, research on whether initial writing skills moderate the effect of composition instruction has been limited. Kim and colleagues&#39; ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref54&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]) meta-analysis of early elementary composition instruction found that students with weaker initial skills made greater gains than those with stronger skills. SRSD did not interact significantly with initial writing skills to affect text quality, and interacted only marginally to affect productivity (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =.06). However, the review included no studies on composition instruction in Grade 1; and the meta-analysis did not differentiate among the possible effects of initial handwriting, spelling, and composition skills in moderating the effect of composition instruction. Consequently, the issue of whether SRSD in Grade 1 is moderated by initial transcription skills remains unresolved.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;More generally, if transcription skills affect the rate of writing development, this would weigh in favor of the &lt;emph&gt;basic skills&lt;/emph&gt; view, and suggest that transcription skills may moderate the effect of strategy instruction. To date, many studies have investigated the effect of initial skills on the level of written composition, but few have investigated the effect of initial skills on the growth of written composition. Coker ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref55&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]) followed students from Grade 1 to 3, using individual growth analysis to examine the effect of initial skills, student background variables, classroom literacy environment, and teacher, upon the Grade 1 intercept and growth slope from Grade 1 to 3 of text quality and text length. Findings were complex, but the most relevant here was that initial level of oral language and letter-word identification affected the level of Grade 1 writing quality, but did not affect growth across grades; other skills also had no significant effect on the slope of writing quality or text length.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Torrance and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib43&quot; id=&quot;ref56&quot;&gt;43&lt;/reflink&gt;]) used a mixed regression analysis to test the effect of seven pretest skills on first grade students&#39; rate of progress in written expression during two phases of writing education, totaling 13 weeks. During this time, students were instructed in handwriting, spelling and a planning strategy. During Phase 1, significant predictors of the slope were reading (-0.025) and spelling (0.036). During Phase 2, significant predictors of the slope were letter knowledge (0.006), transcription fluency (-0.006) and spelling (-0.013). The authors concluded that &quot;Transcription ability at school entry influences response to writing instruction.&quot; However, we note that of six tests of the effects of transcription skills on slope, three were null; two were in a negative direction; and one, spelling was a significant, positive predictor, but only for one phase.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Consequently, it remains unclear whether initial writing skills moderate progress during writing development, writing instruction, and SRSD.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-6&quot;&gt;Response to intervention in early writing instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Previous studies of the effect of strategy instruction with struggling writers have been organized as Tier 2 instruction within a response to intervention framework (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref57&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref58&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref59&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;]; McKenna et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref60&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]), so they are discussed separately in this section. In the RTI framework, students initially participate in Tier 1, comprised of evidence-based whole class instruction provided by the classroom teacher (Mason et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref61&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Students who are substantially below grade level expectations, or who do not progress with Tier 1 instruction, then participate in Tier 2, which is usually provided in a small group by the classroom teacher or a specialist teacher. Students who do not progress in Tier 2 may access Tier 3, which is usually comprised of individual instruction with a specialist. Students receive ongoing formative assessment, often using curriculum based measures, and change tiers flexibly, based on explicit decision rules. RTI is based on the theory that learning is enhanced by elements such as evidence-based teaching practices; additional learning time; alignment of instruction to the type of skills needed by a given student; attunement to the level of instruction needed by the student; individualized pacing and feedback; and a problem solving approach to intervention (Burns et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib7&quot; id=&quot;ref62&quot;&gt;7&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Mason et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib34&quot; id=&quot;ref63&quot;&gt;34&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In recent research with struggling beginning writers, Tier 2 delivery of SRSD and CSRI has resulted in significant increases in text quality and length (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref64&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref65&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref66&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;]; McKenna et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref67&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For example, McKenna and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref68&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that in a multiple baseline across interventions design, students increased significantly in paragraph organization during the phase in which they participated in SRSD instruction for this skill.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;However, we are not aware of any studies that have directly compared struggling writers in Tier 2 instruction with similar struggling writers in Tier 1 instruction only. Instead, analysis has been based on methods such as comparison to a pre-instruction baseline (Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib31&quot; id=&quot;ref69&quot;&gt;31&lt;/reflink&gt;]), or comparison to a phase in which students were instructed in a different skill (McKenna et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref70&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Moreover, studies have produced complex findings: Arrimada and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref71&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]) used a single-subject design that compared a Tier 2 intervention phase to both a Tier 1 control phase and to control students with higher skills. As expected, several students showed greater gains in text quality during the Tier 2 phase than during Tier 1; however, other students showed positive slopes in both the Tier 1 and Tier 2 phases (p. 876). Similarly, Arrimada and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref72&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that struggling writers showed significantly greater slopes during a Tier 2 phase than more skilled peers in a simultaneous Tier 1 phase and narrowed the gap in text quality between the groups; however, this appears to be the result of the Tier 1 peers slowing in their progress, rather than struggling writes increasing their rate of progress during Tier 2 (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref73&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;], Fig. 1). More broadly, Tier 2 early literacy interventions, largely in reading, have seldom compared struggling students in Tier 2 versus struggling students in Tier 1 (see Freudenthal et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib13&quot; id=&quot;ref74&quot;&gt;13&lt;/reflink&gt;] for a review). Moreover, some previous meta-analyses have shown that while students in Tier 1 and Tier 2 both made significant gains, these gains did not differ significantly between tiers (Ehri et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref75&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Gersten et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref76&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Consequently, it appears that the effect of instructional tier on learning of written composition remains to be determined.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-7&quot;&gt;The present study&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The present study investigated the question, do initial writing skills (handwriting fluency, spelling, text quality) and instructional tier moderate the effect of SRSD on written composition? Instruction took place in two phases. The purpose of Phase 1 was to strengthen the transcription skills of struggling writers before they began SRSD instruction, and to test if Tier 2 transcription instruction was more effective than Tier 1 for this purpose. During this phase, half of the struggling writers participated in Tier 1 classroom instruction plus Tier 2 small group instruction in handwriting and spelling; the other half of struggling writers, plus average peers in all classrooms, participated in Tier 1 classroom instruction in structured literacy, including handwriting, phonics and spelling. The purpose of Phase 2 was to investigate whether initial skills and instructional tier moderated the effect of SRSD instruction. Half of struggling writers participated in Tier 1 and Tier 2 SRSD; the other half of the struggling writers, and their average peers in all classrooms, participated in Tier 1 only SRSD instruction. All skills were measured at pretest, mid-test (after transcription instruction), and post-test (after SRSD instruction). Given the mixed and ambiguous results in previous research, we did not have strong expectations concerning the answers to the research questions; however, to formulate the issues clearly, we tentatively proposed the following hypotheses:&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ulist&gt; &lt;item&gt; During Phase 1, for struggling writers, Tier 1 + Tier 2 transcription instruction, compared to Tier 1 only, would increase:&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; WIAT3 Spelling.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; During Phase 2, for struggling writers, Tier 1 + Tier 2 SRSD instruction, compared to Tier 1 only, would increase text quality.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; During Phase 2, for students in Tier 1 SRSD, initial handwriting fluency, spelling, and pretest text quality would predict:&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; The level (intercept) of text quality.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;item&gt; The growth (slope) of text quality.&lt;/item&gt; &lt;/ulist&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-8&quot;&gt;Method&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-9&quot;&gt;Participants&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;All Grade 1 students were eligible for inclusion in the study, with no exclusions.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Participants ranged in age from 6 years, 1 month to 7 years, 2 months; they included 69 boys and 67 girls. Comparison of pretest descriptive statistics to Wechsler Individual Achievement Test—Third Edition (WIAT3) norms indicated that this sample was representative of the population of Grade 1 students, with sample means for Alphabet Fluency and Spelling within one month of the population mean (Table 1). Participants comprised a broad sample, from schools serving both rural and urban areas, and lower- and middle-income neighborhoods.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 1 Means and standard for pretest assessments (instructional tier, struggling writers and other writers), Grade 1.4&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Variable&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier 1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier 1 and 2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Struggling Writers&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 26)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Peers&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 84)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Struggling Writers&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 26)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mn&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[GE]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(SD)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mn&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[GE]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(SD)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mn&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[GE]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(SD)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[K.7]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(4.32)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9.32&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[1.3]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(4.24)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[K.0]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(3.01)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;WIAT3 Spelling&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[K.7]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.34)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9.89&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[1.3]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(4.02)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.69&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[K.7]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(2.17)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;DIBELS8-Oral Reading Fluency Words Correct&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;11.65&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[Well below benchmark]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(15.39)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;41.30&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[Above benchmark]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(42.82)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;11.62&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;[Well below benchmark]&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(19.85)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Personal Narrative Word Count&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.31&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(4.53)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;19.57&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(11.20)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.92&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(5.04)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Personal Narrative Text Quality&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.07)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.92&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.34)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.83&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.21)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Gender&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;f = 11, m = 15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;f = 45, m = 39&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;f = 11, m = 15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Note: &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 126. WIAT3 = Wechsler Individual Achievement Test 3rd Edition; DIBELS8 = Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills 8th Edition. GE = grade equivalent&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Fifty-two students of these students were considered to be struggling writers, comprising 36.6% of consented students, based on the following criteria: (a) WIAT3 Spelling &lt;emph&gt;≤&lt;/emph&gt; 6, with this cut-off representing a grade equivalent of K.7, that is, 9 months below their chronological grade of 1.4; or (b) a written personal narrative of &lt;emph&gt;≤&lt;/emph&gt; 10 words; or (c) both 1 and 2. The resulting sample also had an average Alphabet Fluency that was substantially below grade equivalent (Table 1).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-10&quot;&gt;Sampling procedure&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The total potential sample comprised 220 students in 11 classrooms. Students and parents self-selected into the study by consenting and assenting respectively. Initially 158 students consented to participate, comprising a consent rate of 71.8%. Three students relocated to different school areas and were dropped from the study. One teacher predicted that SRSD would be too difficult for their class, and withdrew them after Phase 1 instruction, leaving a sample of 136 students, comprising a completion rate of 86.1% overall, or a completion rate of 97.8% of those who started SRSD instruction.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The study was reviewed and approved by a university non-medical research ethics board as per federal policy (Project ID: 119835).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-11&quot;&gt;Measures and covariates&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;For standardized measures comprised of WIAT3 subtests, raters had been previously trained during course work, and participated in review and practice sessions. For curriculum based measures, training involved a presentation, practice, and feedback until high reliability was achieved among raters (&lt;emph&gt;r&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;gt;.85).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-12&quot;&gt;Text Quality&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Students completed personal narrative writing as a large group in their classroom, in response to brief writing prompts based on typical experiences of Grade 1 students, e.g., &quot;A Time I Went to a Party.&quot; A member of the research team read the prompt aloud to students, and briefly prepared them orally with scripted questions, e.g., &quot;Have you ever been to a party?&quot; Students wrote for up to 20 min. When they finished, if there were words that were not legible, the teacher or a team member asked the student to read them, and wrote the intended word. If an entire text was not legible, and the student had not been able to retell it with reference to the words on the page, then the lowest score (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref77&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;) was later assigned. The rating system for text quality was created in a previous study (Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref78&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]). For the present study, each writing sample was scored by two independent raters. Raters responded to the question, &quot;A personal narrative is a story about a past experience. How good is this story as an example of personal narrative writing, on a scale from 1 to 9, in which 5 represents average, 9 represents very high, and 1 represents very low? Please use the anchor texts to help you.&quot; Inter-rater reliability was &lt;emph&gt;r&lt;/emph&gt; (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib135&quot; id=&quot;ref79&quot;&gt;135&lt;/reflink&gt;) = 0.91., &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;.001, with 79.2% exact agreement. The final score for each text was resolved by averaging the scores of the two raters.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-13&quot;&gt;Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-3, Alphabet Fluency Subtest(WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency).&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Students completed individual assessments in a quiet space near the classroom, e.g., an alcove in the school library. In this individual measure of handwriting fluency, students printed the letters of the alphabet for 30 s. The student received one point for each unique letter written legibly.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-14&quot;&gt;Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-3, Spelling Subtest (WIAT3 Spelling)&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Students were assessed individually. They were asked to print their own name, letters that represented specific phonemes, and words with increasingly complex phonology and morphology. Items corresponded to skills usually taught in Grade 1, including the sounds of letters, and words spelled with simple and complex grapheme-phoneme correspondences. The student received one point per word spelled correctly.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-15&quot;&gt;Conditions and design&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Five randomly selected classes, including 26 struggling writers and average peers, participated in Tier 1 instruction only throughout the study. In five other classes, 26 struggling writers participated in Tier 1 plus Tier 2 instruction, while average peers participated in Tier 1 only.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;During Phase 1, half of the struggling writers participated in Tier 1 plus Tier 2 instruction in handwriting and spelling, while the other half of the struggling writers and all average peers participated in regular Tier 1 classroom instruction in structured literacy, including handwriting, phonics and spelling. During Phase 2, half of the struggling writers participated in Tier 1 plus Tier 2 SRSD instruction in personal narrative writing, while the other half of the struggling writers and all average peers participated in Tier 1 classroom instruction only in personal narrative writing through SRSD. All skills were measured at pretest, mid-test (after transcription instruction), and post-test (after SRSD instruction).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-16&quot;&gt;Phase 1 transcription instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-17&quot;&gt;Tier 1 instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Tier 1 comprised an evidence-based structured literacy approach. In this board of education, during the previous two years, early elementary teachers had participated in multiple sessions of professional development, received resources, and received classroom coaching from program leaders to implement explicit, systematic initial literacy education. To support phonics instruction, they used &lt;emph&gt;The Phonics Program&lt;/emph&gt; (&quot;Jolly Phonics&quot;; Lloyd &amp;amp; Wernham, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib32&quot; id=&quot;ref80&quot;&gt;32&lt;/reflink&gt;]). This included learning to spell words phonetically, and spelling high frequency exception words. To support phonemic awareness instruction, they used &lt;emph&gt;Phonemic Awareness: Primary Version&lt;/emph&gt; (Heggerty, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib20&quot; id=&quot;ref81&quot;&gt;20&lt;/reflink&gt;]). To support manuscript handwriting instruction, they used &lt;emph&gt;Handwriting Without Tears&lt;/emph&gt; (Olsen, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib38&quot; id=&quot;ref82&quot;&gt;38&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Program leaders had provided teachers with a week-by-week guide to scheduling skills (e.g., specific letter-sound relationships, specific letters) throughout the year, and a literacy framework to guide the organization of literacy skills through the week. Phonemic awareness, phonics and spelling were recommended for 30 min per day, 5 days per week; handwriting instruction was recommended for 15 min per day, 5 days per week.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-18&quot;&gt;Tier 2 instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The purpose of Tier 2 instruction was to increase students&#39; handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy. Groups of two to three students participated in instruction three times per week for 25 min, for four weeks, for a total of 12 sessions. Instruction took place in a quiet location near the classroom, such as a learning support room. Instruction was provided by two members of the research team: One was an elementary teacher with a master&#39;s degree and several years of experience; the other was a doctoral student in school psychology with experience in writing research and instruction. Tier 2 was supported by a &lt;emph&gt;Transcription Booster&lt;/emph&gt; workbook for students, and a brief guide for instructors. Instructors observed the principal investigator model lessons; they practiced instructing each other, and received feedback; and they instructed a group of students and received feedback.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Each transcription session included handwriting fluency instruction, that included timed writing activities, modelling, practice, word writing, and corrective feedback (Berninger et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib6&quot; id=&quot;ref83&quot;&gt;6&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Lopez-Escribano et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib33&quot; id=&quot;ref84&quot;&gt;33&lt;/reflink&gt;]). First, students participated in a timed writing activity. This was presented to students as &quot;learning to print quickly but neatly, so that when you are writing a story you can write down all of your ideas.&quot; In a typical activity, students printed the alphabet as quickly as they could for one minute using a musical timer, and recorded the number of letters they created; then they did so a second time to &quot;beat their record.&quot; In later lessons, students practiced timed writing of high frequency spelling words. If students had difficulty forming any letters accurately, the instructor modelled these, and students completed practice letters and received corrective feedback.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The second part of each session focused on explicit teaching of spelling. It comprised evidence-based practices, including explicit teaching of letter-sound relationships, spelling words by phonetically segmenting them, studying high frequency exception words, practice, and corrective feedback (Galuschka et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib14&quot; id=&quot;ref85&quot;&gt;14&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Graham &amp;amp; Santangelo, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib16&quot; id=&quot;ref86&quot;&gt;16&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Wanzek et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib46&quot; id=&quot;ref87&quot;&gt;46&lt;/reflink&gt;]). First the instructor reviewed a grapheme-phoneme correspondence, e.g. the /ă/ sound of the letter a. The instructor then modelled the &lt;emph&gt;segment to spell&lt;/emph&gt; strategy, orally stretching out the phonemes of a word and writing a letter for each phoneme using Elkonin boxes. Words in the first session comprised three sounds with simple grapheme-phoneme correspondences, proceeding in later lessons to words with complex grapheme-phoneme correspondences and four phonemes. The next segment of each lesson focused on the orthography of frequently misspelled words, beginning with the most frequent word, and progressing in order of descending frequency, at the rate of three words per week. Activities included guided analysis of words to notice the regular and irregular grapheme-phoneme correspondences; and study activities and games that focused on the analyzing and practicing the sequence of letters in each.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-19&quot;&gt;Phase 2 instruction: self-regulated strategy development&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-20&quot;&gt;Tier 1 SRSD instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The purpose of SRSD instruction was to teach students a strategy for writing personal narrative texts and processes for self-regulating their writing. Teachers delivered Tier 1 lessons to the whole class, including struggling writers. Teachers were supported by initial professional development sessions, a &lt;emph&gt;Teachers&#39; Guide&lt;/emph&gt;, and a set of PowerPoint slides. Students were supported by an &lt;emph&gt;Our Stories Workbook&lt;/emph&gt;. Teachers typically completed the eight lessons in three sessions of 40 min per week for 4 weeks, for a total of 12 sessions.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;SRSD lessons were adapted in several ways to make them accessible to students who were not yet reading independently, and to make self-regulation concrete for young children. SRSD included six overlapping phases. In the Develop Background Knowledge phase, the teacher read picture books aloud to support discussions about the idea that everyone is a storyteller, and to teach students the parts of a story. In the Discuss It phase, the strategy was presented in the form of a rhyme with hand gestures, and supported with a bookmark with icons representing each step of the strategy. In the Model It phase, teachers thought aloud using the strategy, while creating texts that were within the reading level of most students. In the Memorize It phase, students practiced the rhyme and hand gestures representing the strategy, and rehearsed it using games.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;During the Support It phase, students composed a total of four texts. Before each writing activity, the teacher led a lesson in which they modelled and supported self-regulation. For goal setting, the teacher initially worked with students in small groups, evaluating a piece of writing together using a graphic organizer as a checklist, then each student wrote a brief goal statement together with the teacher. To support students in self-monitoring writing, they initially used stickers with icons representing the steps of the strategy. As they completed each step, they attached these to their paper next to the corresponding text. To teach coping strategies, the teacher initially led the class in brainstorming difficulties that they experienced while writing, and recorded self-statements for coping with these difficulties, which they reviewed before writing. A similar process was used for teaching self-reinforcement. In the final lesson, the teacher reviewed the coping, self-reinforcement and strategy steps with students, and then they wrote a text independently.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-21&quot;&gt;Tier 2 SRSD instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The purpose of Tier 2 instruction was to provide struggling writers with additional individualized teaching and support of the same writing strategy and self-regulation processes to which they had been introduced in Tier 1. The instructors were the same as those in Phase 1. Groups met three times per week for 25 min. Struggling writers initially participated in each Tier 1 lesson with their teacher and the whole class, then in the following Tier 2 session, the instructor reviewed the lesson, and rehearsed self-regulatory processes with students. Students completed any unfinished writing activities, with the instructor supporting them to apply self-regulatory processes, including strategy steps, self-reinforcement, coping and self-monitoring. After writing, the instructor guided them in reflecting on the self-regulatory processes that they had used.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-22&quot;&gt;Fidelity checking&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Teachers were not expected to follow lessons literally; they were encouraged to create original stories, to create self-talk statements with students, and to adjust the pacing of the lessons. For fidelity checking, each lesson was divided into approximately 20 segments of approximately one minute each. A lesson segment was considered completed if it addressed the intended target skill (e.g., self-reinforcement, etc.) and level of support (e.g., discuss, model, support, etc.). Raters made qualitative comments on four aspects of the lessons: Focusing on teaching the strategy and self-regulation; pacing the lesson so that students followed; engaging students to participate; and overall quality of the lesson. Fidelity was high; the percentage of lesson segments completed ranged from 88.9 to 100.0%. The raters&#39; comments on self-regulatory emphasis, pacing, engagement, and overall quality for all teachers were positive.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-23&quot;&gt;Analysis strategy&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;To test the hypothesis that Tier 2 was more effective than Tier 1, a series of three mixed model ANOVAs were conducted. The participants for these analyses were the 52 struggling writers. For all three analyses, the between-subjects variable was instructional tier with two levels (Tier 1 only; Tier 1 plus Tier 2). The dependent variable for the first ANOVA was WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency, and the within-subjects variable was time with two levels (pretest, mid-test). The dependent variable for the second ANOVA was WIAT3 Spelling; the between-subjects variable was tier; and the within-subjects variable was time, with two levels (pretest, midtest). For the third ANOVA, the dependent variable was text quality; the within-subjects variable was time with two levels (mid-test, post-test).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;To examine the effect of students&#39; initial writing skills on SRSD learning within Tier 1 instruction, an individual growth analysis was conducted using SPSS Mixed Linear Models. The participants were all the students in Tier 1 (&lt;emph&gt;n&lt;/emph&gt; = 110), including all of the average writers, as well as the struggling writers who were not assigned to Tier 2. The unit of analysis was students nested within classes. The outcome variable was text quality, coded as a raw score. Because change during the SRSD phase was of interest, an index variable dubbed &quot;time&quot; was coded 0 for mid-test, and 1 for post-test, so that the intercept of the model represented text quality at mid-test. Because there were two time points, only a linear model could be tested. Class was coded as a categorical variable with 10 levels and entered as a factor. The predictor variables of interest were mid-test WIAT 3 Spelling, mid-test WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency, and pretest text quality. Predictor variables were centered at the mean.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;To determine if there was sufficient variance in growth trajectories to warrant individual modeling, the trajectories of 20 randomly selected students were graphed and examined visually. Mid-test intercepts for text quality varied widely; most growth trajectories were positive, and they varied in slope. Next a series of models were fitted. First, an unconditional means model was fitted. Second, an unconditional growth model was fitted, with time as a fixed predictor, to determine if text quality changed significantly during SRSD instruction. Because k-2 time points are required to estimate a random slopes parameter, and the number of participants was moderate, only fixed slopes were estimated (Hoyle &amp;amp; Gottfredson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref88&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Third, the predictor variables of interest (mid-test Spelling, mid-test Alphabet Fluency, pretest text quality) were each entered individually to provide a powerful test of the effects of each on the intercept and slope of text quality. Because students were nested within classes, the fixed effect of classes on intercept and slope was also estimated, although this was not of theoretical interest. Fourthly, the significant predictors from these initial models were tested together in a full model.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-24&quot;&gt;Results&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-25&quot;&gt;Effect of instructional tier&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-26&quot;&gt;Effect of tier on spelling&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Contrary to our hypothesis, the interaction of tier by time was not statistically significant, Pillai&#39;s Trace = 0.00, &lt;emph&gt;F&lt;/emph&gt; (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref89&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref90&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;) = 0.19, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =. 66, partial &lt;emph&gt;η&lt;/emph&gt;2 = 0.00, indicating that struggling writers in Tier 1 and Tier 2 did not differ significantly in spelling gains. The main effect of tier was also not statistically significant. The main effect of time was statistically significant and large (Table 2). Pretest to mid-test gains in spelling were medium to large in size in both Tier 1, &lt;emph&gt;Hedges g&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.71 and Tier 2, &lt;emph&gt;Hedges g&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.66.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 2 Means, standard deviations and two way ANOVA statistics for alphabet fluency, spelling, and text quality for struggling writers&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Variable&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier 2&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 26)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier 1&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;n&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt; = 26)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;ANOVA&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;M&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(SD)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;M&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(SD)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Effect&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;df&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;MS&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;MS (Error)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;F&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;p&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Partial Eta squared&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Pretest&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(3.01)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.35&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(3.02)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;22.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.97&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mid-test&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;8.88&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(4.22)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;8.96&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(5.18)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;332.65&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9.25&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;35.98&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60; 0.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time x Tier&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.004&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.95&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;WIAT3 Spelling&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Pretest&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.69&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(2.17)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.34)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.65&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;6.73&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.69&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mid-test&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.62&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(2.76)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.88&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(2.41)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;81.38&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;25.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60; 0.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.34&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier x Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.62&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.19&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.66&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Text Quality&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Mid-test&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.31&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.27&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.23)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Tier&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.81&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.51&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Post-test&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.59)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;(1.04)&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;57.75&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;51.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60; 0.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time x Tier&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1, 50&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.75&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.55&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Note: &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 52. ANOVA = Analysis of Variance †Comparison group matched on pretest Alphabet Fluency&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-27&quot;&gt;Effect of tier on handwriting fluency&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Because struggling writers in Tier 1 and Tier 2 differed substantially in Alphabet Fluency at pretest, we tested the Tier 2 intervention against a set of writers in Tier 1 matched to those in Tier 2 on pretest Alphabet Fluency. Contrary to our hypothesis, the interaction of tier by time was not statistically significant, Pillai&#39;s Trace = 0.00, &lt;emph&gt;F&lt;/emph&gt; (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref91&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;,&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib50&quot; id=&quot;ref92&quot;&gt;50&lt;/reflink&gt;) = 0.00, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =. 95, partial &lt;emph&gt;η&lt;/emph&gt;2 = 0.00. The main effect of tier averaged across pretest and mid-test was not statistically significant; the main effect of time was statistically significant and large (Table 2). Pretest to mid-test gains were medium to large for Tier 1, Hedges &lt;emph&gt;g&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.68, and Tier 2, Hedges &lt;emph&gt;g&lt;/emph&gt; = 1.06.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-28&quot;&gt;Effect of tier on text quality during SRSD&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Contrary to our hypothesis, the interaction of tier by time was not statistically significant, Pillai&#39;s Trace = 0.016, &lt;emph&gt;F&lt;/emph&gt; (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref93&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;, 50) = 0.83, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =. 37, partial &lt;emph&gt;η&lt;/emph&gt;2 = 0.02, indicating that struggling writers in Tier 1 and Tier 2 did not make significantly different gains in text quality. The main effect of tier was not statistically significant; the main effect of time was statistically significant and large, &lt;emph&gt;F&lt;/emph&gt; (&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib1&quot; id=&quot;ref94&quot;&gt;1&lt;/reflink&gt;, 50) = 54.67, &lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; &amp;lt;. 001, partial &lt;emph&gt;η&lt;/emph&gt;2 = 0.52 (Table 2). Mid-test to post-test gains were large for both Tier 1, Hedges g = 0.77, and Tier 2, Hedges &lt;emph&gt;g&lt;/emph&gt; = 1.32.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-29&quot;&gt;Tier 1 SRSD: individual growth analysis of text quality&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-30&quot;&gt;Initial models&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Model 1, unconditional means, showed that the average text quality collapsed across time, 5.22 points, differed significantly from zero. Random effects indicated that significant residual variance remained to be explained, both within subjects and between subjects (Table 3). Model 2, unconditional growth, indicated that the fixed effect of time was significant. The average increase in text quality during SRSD was 1.01 points, comprising a large effect size, Hedges &lt;emph&gt;g&lt;/emph&gt; = 0.75. Relative to the unconditional means model, the AIC decreased by 48 points, indicating a large increase in goodness of fit. Time was retained as a fixed effect in all subsequent models.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 3 Linear growth model of text quality by initial writing skills and class&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Effect&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Fixed Effects&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Random Effects&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Goodness of Fit&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#946;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;df&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;p&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Effects&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Wald z&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;p&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;% variance Between Subjects&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;AIC&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#916;AIC&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 1: Unconditional Means&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 109&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;51.63&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.42&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.37&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;23.30&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;756.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 2: Unconditional Growth&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.71&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 183.78&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;39.44&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.38&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 109&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.95&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.14&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;43.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;708.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;48.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 3a: Fixed Effects of Alphabet Fluency&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.70&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 187.54&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;40.61&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.88&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Alph Flu&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 187.54&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.46&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Alph Flu x Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.83&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;38.96&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;707.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.11&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 3b: Fixed Effects of Spelling&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.68&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.12&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 186.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;39.89&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.99&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.73&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Spelling&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 186.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.97&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.051&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.34&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Spelling x Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.247&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.87&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;40.15&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;708.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.05&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 3c: Fixed Effects of Pretest Text Quality&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.58&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.11&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 202.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;42.36&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.80&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Pre Qual&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.43&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 202.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;5.86&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Pre Qual x Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 108.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722;.31&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.757&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.64&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.008&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;28.36&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;672.69&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;35.42&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 3d: Fixed Effects of Class&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.28&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.40&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 170.99&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;10.74&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.43&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 100&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.31&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Class&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9; 170.98&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;F = 1.83&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time x Class&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9; 100&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;F = 1.76&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.81&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;41.22&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;671.78&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;36.33&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;bold&amp;gt;Model 4: Fixed Effect of Class and Transcription Skills&amp;lt;/bold&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;4.17&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.32&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 105.88&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;12.86&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Time&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.13&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 109&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.95&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Class&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;9; 98&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;F = 6.94&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Alph Flu&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 98&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.63&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Repeated&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;7.38&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#60;.001&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Spelling&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1; 98&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.18&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Intercept&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;3.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;.002&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;32.24&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;684.57&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td char=&quot;.&quot; align=&quot;char&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;23.54&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Note: &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 110. All p values are two-tailed. The intercept represents the average text quality at mid-test. Time represents the slope from mid-test to post-test. Alph Flu = WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency; Spelling = WIAT3 Spelling; Pre Qual = Pretest text quality; In all models, the intercept was free to vary; all other terms were fixed. Δ AIC represents reduction in AIC for models 3a, 3b, 3c, 3dand 4 relative to Model 2 Unconditional Growth Model; and reduction in AIC for Model 2 Unconditional Growth Model relative to Model 1 Unconditional Mean Model&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-31&quot;&gt;Effect of initial writing skills&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Model 3a tested the hypotheses that WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency would affect the level of text quality and moderate growth during SRSD instruction (Table 3). The fixed effect of Alphabet Fluency on the intercept was significant, such that each difference of 1 point in Alphabet Fluency predicted a difference of 0.06 points in text quality. Alphabet Fluency did not significantly predict the slope. Although the fixed effect of Alphabet Fluency was significant, the impact on the model as a whole was small, reducing variance between subjects by approximately 4% and changing the AIC by approximately 1 point. Figure 1 visualizes the relationships among Alphabet Fluency, mid-test text quality, and post-test text quality. The positive slope of the lines of best fit indicates that higher Alphabet Fluency was associated with higher text quality. The apparent parallel between the lines of best fit for mid-test and post-test text quality corresponds to the lack of a statistically significant moderating effect of Alphabet Fluency on gains in text quality. The non-overlap of the confidence intervals indicates that across the range of Alphabet Fluency scores, students scored significantly higher at post-test than at mid-test.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Graph: Fig. 1 Tier 1, regression slopes of text quality on alphabet fluency. Note: Mean regression slopes for mid-test text quality and post-test text quality are shown, plotted by WIAT Alphabet Fluency. Surrounding lines represent 95% confidence interval&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Model 3b tested the hypothesis that initial WIAT3 Spelling would affect the level and growth of text quality during SRSD. The fixed effect of Spelling on mid-test text quality was significant, such that each increase of 1 point in spelling was associated with a change of 0.06 points in mid-test text quality (Table 3). The fixed effect of spelling on slope was not significant. Compared to the unconditional growth model, the addition of Spelling reduced the variance between subjects by 3% and the AIC by less than 1 point. The relationship between spelling and text quality is visualized in Fig. 2. The positive slope of the lines of best fit represents the significant effect of Spelling on text quality. The non-overlap of the confidence intervals of the mid-test and post-test lines of best fit indicates that for students across the range of spelling skills, text quality increased significantly during SRSD.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Graph: Fig. 2 Tier 1, regression slopes of text quality on spelling. Note: Mean regression slopes for mid-test text quality and post-test text quality are shown, plotted by WIAT Spelling. Surrounding lines represent 95% confidence interval&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Model 3c tested the hypothesis that pretest text quality would affect the level and growth of text quality during SRSD. The fixed effect on the intercept was statistically significant, such that each difference of 1 point in pretest quality was associated with a difference of 0.41 points in mid-test quality (Table 3). Pretest text quality did not significantly predict the slope. Relative to the unconditional growth model, the addition of pretest text quality reduced variance between subjects by approximately 15% and reduced the AIC by 35 points. However, this represents the unimportant finding that pretest text quality predicted mid-test text quality; pretest text quality was later found to displace the effect of spelling on mid-test text quality, so it was not retained in subsequent models. The relationships between pretest text quality and mid-test and post-test text quality are visualized in Fig. 3. The positive slope of the lines of best fit represents the significant relationship between pretest text quality and subsequent text quality. The non-overlap of the confidence intervals indicates that students with a range of levels of pretest text quality made significant gains during SRSD instruction.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Graph: Fig. 3 Tier 1, regression slopes of text quality on pretest text quality. Note: Mean regression slopes for mid-test text quality and post-test text quality are shown, plotted by pretest text quality. Surrounding lines represent 95% confidence interval&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-32&quot;&gt;Effect of classes&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The effect of classes was not a hypothesis of this study; however, it was modelled because students were nested within classes. Model 3d shows that the fixed effect of class on mid-test text quality was marginal (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =.07); the fixed effect of class on slope was also marginal (&lt;emph&gt;p&lt;/emph&gt; =.09; Table 3). Relative to the unconditional growth model, the change in goodness of fit (AIC) was very large at 41 points. For subsequent models, the effect of classes on intercept was retained, and the effect of classes on slope was not, because the former was stronger, and when the effect of class on slope was dropped from the model, the effect on the intercept became statistically significant (Table 3; Model 4).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-33&quot;&gt;Full model&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Model 4 included the significant effects from the earlier models (Table 3). This model was selected as the final one because although some earlier models resulted in a lower AIC (e.g., Model 3d), all predictors in Model 4 were statistically significant. The fixed effect of time represents the increase in text quality during SRSD instruction. The fixed effect of Alphabet Fluency represents its significant effect on mid-test text quality. The fixed effect of spelling similarly represents its significant effect on mid text quality. Classes varied in their effect on the intercept; three classes each had an initial quality that was significantly higher than the reference class (Table 4). Relative to the unconditional growth model, Model 4 resulted in a large increase in goodness of fit, reducing the AIC by 23.54 points (Table 3).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Table 4 Model 4: estimate of effect of classes on intercept (text quality)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;ephtml&gt; &amp;lt;table rules=&quot;groups&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Class&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;Estimate&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;SE&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;df&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;t&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;italic&amp;gt;p&amp;lt;/italic&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/th&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/thead&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.84&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.46&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.81&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.77&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.46&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.69&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;03&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.01&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.40&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&amp;amp;#8722; 0.04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.97&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;04&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.08&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.19&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.85&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;05&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.95&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.29&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;06&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;1.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.45&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;07&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.16&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.44&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.35&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.73&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;08&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.33&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.45&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.74&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.46&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;09&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.99&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.41&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;98.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;2.40&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.02&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;10&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;amp;#8224;&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&amp;gt;&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;0.00&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/td&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; /&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tr&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/tbody&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/table&amp;gt; &lt;/ephtml&gt; &lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;emph&gt;N&lt;/emph&gt; = 110 †Estimate is set to zero because it is redundant, i.e. the reference category&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-34&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Recently, Harris and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref95&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]) discussed the difference between the view that initial writing instruction should focus on &lt;emph&gt;basic skills&lt;/emph&gt;, including handwriting and spelling, versus the &lt;emph&gt;balanced&lt;/emph&gt; view that initial writing instruction should include both basic skills and composition. The past decade of research on SRSD and CSRI has supported the balanced view for average writers, but the issue has remained unclear for struggling writers. This study addressed the question, for beginning writers, do initial skills and instructional tier moderate the effect of SRSD on text quality? The hypothesis that for struggling writers, Tier 2 instruction would be more effective than Tier 1 was not supported. Rather, during the transcription instruction phase, struggling writers in both Tier 1 and Tier 2 made statistically significant, medium gains in spelling and large gains in handwriting fluency; and during SRSD instruction, struggling writers in both Tier 1 and Tier 2 made large gains in text quality. As hypothesized, during Tier 1 SRSD instruction, initial levels of handwriting fluency, spelling and written composition had significant effects on mid-test text quality; however, contrary to our hypotheses, these initial skills did not significantly predict the growth of text quality during SRSD instruction. Rather, students with a wide range of handwriting, spelling, and composition skills made significant gains from mid-test to post-test.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-35&quot;&gt;Effects of initial transcription skills on learning in tier 1&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Previous research has shown that Tier 1 writing strategy instruction, in the form of SRSD or CSRI, is effective for average beginning writers (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref96&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib3&quot; id=&quot;ref97&quot;&gt;3&lt;/reflink&gt;], [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref98&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref99&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philipakkos [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib44&quot; id=&quot;ref100&quot;&gt;44&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Traga Philipakkos et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib45&quot; id=&quot;ref101&quot;&gt;45&lt;/reflink&gt;]). The present study extends this research by showing that Tier 1 is effective for writers with a range of initial skills in handwriting and spelling. Olinghouse ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref102&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]) similarly found that initial transcription skills predicted the level of students&#39; text quality but did not interact significantly with instruction. Similarly, the results of Torrance and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib43&quot; id=&quot;ref103&quot;&gt;43&lt;/reflink&gt;]) showed that several basic skills, including handwriting accuracy, transcription fluency and spelling, predicted the intercept of text quality; however, their effects on the slope were null, weak, or inconsistent in direction. The current findings are also somewhat analogous to previous developmental research: Coker ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref104&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that transcription skills predicted the intercept of written composition, but did not predict the slope of learning across grades. Consequently, a pattern appears to be emerging in which initial skills significantly predict students&#39; level of written composition; however, their effect on growth in written composition may be null or small.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;We suggest two possible explanations for our finding that transcription skills did not significantly moderate the effects of SRSD instruction. One possible explanation is that statistical tests for interactions are inherently less powerful than tests for main effects, particularly with a modest sample size. Consequently, we do not place a heavy emphasis on our findings that transcription skills did not significantly predict slope. However, we note that previous studies with larger numbers of students and data points have produced similar results (Coker, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib9&quot; id=&quot;ref105&quot;&gt;9&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Torrance et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib43&quot; id=&quot;ref106&quot;&gt;43&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Olinghouse, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib37&quot; id=&quot;ref107&quot;&gt;37&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Also, in our study confidence intervals indicated that students across a range of handwriting and spelling skills made significant gains during SRSD. Regardless of whether future research shows that there is a reliable interaction between initial transcription skills and instruction, the finding that students with a range of transcription skills made significant gains during SRSD is of scientific and educational interest.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;A second possible explanation for the lack of significant moderation of SRSD by transcription skills may be that basic writing skills are partially independent of the higher level skills mobilized by writing strategy instruction (e.g., discourse knowledge, self-regulation, discourse oral language). Previous research shows that correlations among these various skills are small to medium in size (Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref108&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib26&quot; id=&quot;ref109&quot;&gt;26&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Most research shows that basic skills and higher order skills contribute independently and additively to written composition, rather than mediating or moderating one another (e.g., Juel et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib22&quot; id=&quot;ref110&quot;&gt;22&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim &amp;amp; Schatschneider, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib27&quot; id=&quot;ref111&quot;&gt;27&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Some research has found moderation among predictors (Puranik et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib40&quot; id=&quot;ref112&quot;&gt;40&lt;/reflink&gt;]). However, this moderation may be limited enough that students with modest transcription skills can nevertheless use skills such as discourse knowledge, self-regulation, and discourse oral language to successfully compose texts.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-36&quot;&gt;Effect of initial composition skills&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Pretest text quality strongly predicted subsequent text quality, but did not significantly moderate the effect of SRSD. This is similar to the results of the Kim et al. ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref113&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]) meta-analysis, which showed that for Grade 2 and 3 students, initial writing difficulties did not significantly moderate the effect of SRSD instruction on text quality, and only marginally moderated the effect of SRSD on text length. Taken together, these results suggest that SRSD is effective for students with a range of initial skills in written composition.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-37&quot;&gt;Effects of tier 1 and tier 2 instruction&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;The present study may be the first that has directly compared evidence-based Tier 1 instruction for struggling writers, with Tier 2 instruction for struggling writers. Our hypothesis that Tier 2 would be more effective than Tier 1 was not supported. At the same time, struggling writers in both Tier 1 and Tier 2 made substantial gains during instruction. These gains during Tier 2 are analogous to those found in previous research (e.g., Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref114&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]; [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref115&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib30&quot; id=&quot;ref116&quot;&gt;30&lt;/reflink&gt;]; McKenna et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib36&quot; id=&quot;ref117&quot;&gt;36&lt;/reflink&gt;]).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The lack of a statistically significant difference between Tier 1 and Tier 2 does not imply that Tier 2 instruction has no effect. Rather, a possible explanation is that Tier 1 instruction may have significant benefits for struggling writers. This interpretation fits with several previous findings, e.g., Arrimada and colleagues ([&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib2&quot; id=&quot;ref118&quot;&gt;2&lt;/reflink&gt;]) found that several struggling writers made gains during both a Tier 1 baseline phase and a subsequent Tier 2 intervention phase. In another study, slopes were similar for an initial Tier 1 phase and a subsequent Tier 2 phase (Arrimada et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib4&quot; id=&quot;ref119&quot;&gt;4&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Moreover, two previous meta-analyses of reading instruction (Ehri et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib12&quot; id=&quot;ref120&quot;&gt;12&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Gersten et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib15&quot; id=&quot;ref121&quot;&gt;15&lt;/reflink&gt;]) similarly have found significant effects for both small group and whole class teaching, but not significant differences between them. This suggests that componential research is needed to investigate how much of the effect of instructional tiers can be attributed to various elements, such as initial skills, curriculum, teaching method, group size and duration.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-38&quot;&gt;Limitations&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;A methodological limitation of the present study is that there was no non-SRSD control group to which instruction was compared. Consequently, we cannot infer that the gains in text quality during Phase 2 were caused by SRSD, or rule out the contributions of factors not analyzed here, such as maturation. However, some considerations partially mitigate this concern. First, the significant effect of SRSD in this study was similar to effects in previous studies of early elementary SRSD that have included control groups (Harris et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib19&quot; id=&quot;ref122&quot;&gt;19&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Klein et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib29&quot; id=&quot;ref123&quot;&gt;29&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Kim et al., [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib28&quot; id=&quot;ref124&quot;&gt;28&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Secondly, in the present study, Phase 1 provided a baseline of similar length (4 weeks) to that of SRSD instruction. Gains in text quality during Phase 1 were small, while gains during Phase 2 were large, suggesting that SRSD was a factor in learning.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;There were also statistical limitations on the individual growth analysis. The sample comprised 10 classes with an average of 11 participants each, which is sufficient for a multilevel analysis; however, it requires a focus on fixed effects, and a focus on Level 1 rather than Level 2 predictors (Hoyle &amp;amp; Gottfredson, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib21&quot; id=&quot;ref125&quot;&gt;21&lt;/reflink&gt;]). Also, the two time points prevented estimation of the random variance in time slopes, which requires k-2 time points.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-39&quot;&gt;Implications for practice and future research&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;With these cautions in mind, we suggest some educational implications. The current results support a balanced approach to initial writing education, which includes written composition as well as basic skills. Our results further suggest that it is worthwhile for students with a wide range of handwriting, spelling, and written composition skills to participate in Tier 1 SRSD instruction. Although it is ideal for struggling writers to have access to Tier 2 and 3 instruction, in some educational settings these are unavailable or tightly rationed. For example, in the region in which this study was conducted, Tier 2 instruction is normally limited to students with severe reading difficulties, so other low achieving readers and writers have access only to Tier 1.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;An area for future research concerns students with extremely low writing skills. The present sample was representative of the population of Grade 1 students, which means that it included some students with skills far below grade level, but their number was limited. Consequently, this study was not statistically powered to test whether instructional tier interacted with initial handwriting, spelling and written composition skills. Future research with a larger sample of struggling writers could inform decision rules for assigning students to tiers within a response to intervention framework.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;With respect to generalizability, the present study took place in a context in which all students had previously received, and were receiving, structured literacy instruction, including explicit, systematic instruction in handwriting and phonics. It would be useful to conduct an experiment similar to this one with students who had not previously participated in such instruction. Finally, oral language and discourse knowledge are substantial predictors of written composition (Kent &amp;amp; Wanzek, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib24&quot; id=&quot;ref126&quot;&gt;24&lt;/reflink&gt;]; Wen &amp;amp; Coker, [&lt;reflink idref=&quot;bib47&quot; id=&quot;ref127&quot;&gt;47&lt;/reflink&gt;]). It would be desirable to investigate whether these skills moderate the effect of writing strategy instruction.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-40&quot;&gt;Conclusion&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Without intervention, the gap between low and high achieving writers is likely to grow during Grade 1. Several recent studies have demonstrated that SRSD is effective for teaching written expression to Grade 1 students. The present study suggests that young writers with a wide range of initial skills in handwriting, spelling, and written composition will benefit from SRSD in either a Tier 1 or Tier 2 setting.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-41&quot;&gt;Funding&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;This research was sponsored by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Insight Grant 435-2018-1299. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Dr. Perry Klein, Faculty of Education, Western University, 1137 Western Road, London, Ontario, Canada, N6G1G7, pklein@uwo.ca. The authors have no competing interests to declare.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;hd id=&quot;AN0190299329-42&quot;&gt;Publisher&#39;s note&lt;/hd&gt; &lt;p&gt;Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;ref id=&quot;AN0190299329-43&quot;&gt; &lt;title&gt; References &lt;/title&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib1&quot; idref=&quot;ref9&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;1&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Abbott RD, Berninger VW. Structural equation modeling of relationships among developmental skills and writing skills in primary-and intermediate-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1993; 85; 3: 478-508. 10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.478&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib2&quot; idref=&quot;ref19&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;2&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Arrimada M, Torrance M, Fidalgo R. Supporting first-grade writers who fail to learn: Multiple single-case evaluation of a response to intervention approach. Reading and Writing. 2018; 31; 4: 865-891. 10.1007/s11145-018-9817-x&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib3&quot; idref=&quot;ref51&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;3&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Arrimada M, Torrance M, Fidalgo R. Effects of teaching planning strategies to first-grade writers. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 2019; 89; 4: 670-688. 10.1111/bjep.12251&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib4&quot; idref=&quot;ref52&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;4&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Arrimada M, Torrance M, Fidalgo R. Response to intervention in first-grade writing instruction: A large-scale feasibility study. Reading and Writing. 2022; 35: 943-969. 10.1007/s11145-021-10211-z&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib5&quot; idref=&quot;ref10&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;5&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Berninger VW, Mizokawa DT, Bragg R. Scientific practitioner: Theory-based diagnosis and remediation of writing disabilities. Journal of School Psychology. 1991; 29; 1: 57-79. 10.1016/0022-4405(91)90016-K&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib6&quot; idref=&quot;ref83&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;6&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Berninger VW, Vaughan KB, Abbott RD, Abbott SP, Rogan LW, Brooks A, Reed E, Graham S. Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers: Transfer from handwriting to composition. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1997; 89; 4: 652. 10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.652&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib7&quot; idref=&quot;ref62&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;7&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Burns, M. K, Jimerson, S. R, VanDerHeyden, A. M, &amp;amp; Deno, S. L. (2016). Toward a unified response-to-intervention model: Multi-tiered systems of support. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, &amp;amp; A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of multi-tiered systems of support (pp. 719–732). Springer US.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib8&quot; idref=&quot;ref31&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;8&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Chandler MC, Gerde HK, Bowles RP, McRoy KZ, Pontifex MB, Bingham GE. Self-regulation moderates the relationship between fine motor skills and writing in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 2021; 57: 239-250. 10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.06.010&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibl id=&quot;bib9&quot; idref=&quot;ref55&quot; type=&quot;bt&quot;&gt;9&lt;/bibl&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Coker D. Impact of first-grade factors on the growth and outcomes of urban schoolchildren&#39;s primary-grade writing. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2006; 98; 3: 471-488. 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.471&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Coker Jr DL, Ritchey KD, Uribe-Zarain X, Jennings AS. An analysis of first-grade writing profiles and their relationship to compositional quality. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2018; 51; 4: 336-350. 10.1177/0022219417708171&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Cutler L, Graham S. Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology. 2008; 100; 4: 907-919. 10.1037/a0012656&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Ehri LC, Nunes SR, Stahl SA, Willows DM. Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel&#39;s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research. 2001; 71; 3: 393-447. 10.3102/00346543071003393&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Freudenthal, D. R, Zaru, M. W, &amp;amp; Al Otaiba, S. (2023). Early literacy, response to intervention, and multi-tiered systems of support. In S. Q. Cabell, S. B. Neuman, &amp;amp; N. P. Terry (Eds.), Handbook on the science of early literacy (pp. 43–59). Guilford.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Galuschka K, G&#246;rgen R, Kalmar J, Haberstroh S, Schmalz X, Schulte-K&#246;rne G. Effectiveness of spelling interventions for learners with dyslexia: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational Psychologist. 2020; 55; 1: 1-20. 10.1080/00461520.2019.1659794&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Gersten R, Haymond K, Newman-Gonchar R, Dimino J, Jayanthi M. Meta-analysis of the impact of reading interventions for students in the primary grades. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness. 2020; 13; 2: 401-427. 10.1080/19345747.2019.1689591&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Graham S, Santangelo T. Does spelling instruction make students better spellers, readers, and writers? A meta-analytic review. Reading and Writing. 2014; 27: 1703-1743. 10.1007/s11145-014-9517-0&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Graham, S, Harris, K. R, &amp;amp; Chambers, A. B. (2016). Evidence-based practice in writing education: A review of reviews. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham &amp;amp; J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research, 2nd Edition (pp. 211–226). The Guilford Press.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Harris KR, Graham S. Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Premises, evolution, and the future. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 2009; 2; 6: 113-135&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Harris KR, Kim YS, Yim S, Camping A, Graham S. Yes, they can: Developing transcription skills and oral language in tandem with SRSD instruction on close reading of science text to write informative essays at grades 1 and 2. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 2023; 73: 102150. 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102150&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Heggerty, M. (2020). Phonemic Awareness: Primary Version, 2020 edition. 2020 Literacy Resources, Ltd.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Hoyle RH, Gottfredson NC. Sample size considerations in prevention research applications of multilevel modeling and structural equation modeling. Prevention Science. 2015; 16: 987-996. 10.1007/s11121-014-0489-8&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Juel C, Griffith PL, Gough PB. Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1986; 78; 4: 243-255. 10.1037/0022-0663.78.4.243&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kellogg RT. Training writing skills: A cognitive developmental perspective. Journal of Writing Research. 2008; 1; 1: 1-26. 10.17239/jowr-2008.01.01.1&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kent SC, Wanzek J. The relationship between component skills and writing quality and production across developmental levels: A meta-analysis of the last 25 years. Review of Educational Research. 2016; 86; 2: 570-601. 10.3102/0034654315619491&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kim YSG. Co-occurrence of reading and writing difficulties: The application of the interactive dynamic literacy model. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2022; 55; 6: 447-464. 10.1177/00222194211060868&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kim YSG. Do written language bursts mediate the relations of language, cognitive, and transcription skills to writing quality?. Written Communication. 2022; 39; 2: 200-227. 10.1177/07410883211068753&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kim YSG, Schatschneider C. Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW). Journal of Educational Psychology. 2017; 109; 1: 35-50. 10.1037/edu0000129&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Kim YSG, Yang D, Reyes M, Connor C. Writing instruction improves students&#39; writing skills differentially depending on focal instruction and children: A meta-analysis for primary grade students. Educational Research Review. 2021; 34: 100408. 10.1016/j.edurev.2021.100408&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Klein PD, Bildfell A, Dombroski JD, Giese C, Sha KWY, Thompson SC. Self-regulation in early writing strategy instruction. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly. 2022; 38; 2: 101-125. 10.1080/10573569.2021.1919577&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Klein PD, Casola M, Dombroski JD, Giese C, Sha KWY, Thompson SC. Response to intervention in virtual classrooms with beginning writers. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly. 2023; 39; 5: 413-435. 10.1016/j.lindif.2016.11.004&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Klein, P. D, Casola, M, Dombroski, J, Shaw, K. W. Y, &amp;amp; Thompson, S. (2024). Online intervention to prevent summer learning loss for struggling first grade writers. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2024.2389795&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Lloyd, S, &amp;amp; Wernham, S. (2014). The Phonics Handbook: A handbook for teaching reading, writing and spelling, in print letters, 3rd edition. Jolly Learning Ltd. Essex: UK.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Lopez-Escribano C, Martin-Babarro J, Perez-Lopez R. Promoting handwriting fluency for preschool and elementary-age students: Meta-analysis and meta-synthesis of research from 2000 to 2020. Frontiers in Psychology. 2022; 13: 841573. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841573&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Mason, L. H, Mamlin, N, &amp;amp; Stewart, K. (2019). Evidence-based writing intervention: Three tiers of instruction for elementary students. In P. C. Pullen, &amp;amp; M. J. Kennedy (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention and multi-tiered systems of support (pp. 218–232). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203102954&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; McCutchen D. From novice to expert: Implications of language skills and writing-relevant knowledge for memory during the development of writing skill. Journal of Writing Research. 2011; 3; 1: 51-68. 10.17239/jowr-2011.03.01.3&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; McKenna M, Goldstein H, Soto-Boykin X, Cheng K, Troia GA, Ferron J. Supplemental intervention improves writing of first-grade students: Single case experimental design evaluation. The Journal of Educational Research. 2021; 114; 3: 278-293. 10.1080/00220671.2021.1923450&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Olinghouse NG. Student-and instruction-level predictors of narrative writing in third-grade students. Reading and Writing. 2008; 21: 3-26. 10.1007/s11145-007-9062-1&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Olsen, J. Z. (2018). My printing book teacher&#39;s guide: Guide to workbook lessons and multisensory teaching activities, 7th edition. Learning Without Tears, Cabin John, MD.&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Puranik CS, Boss E, Wanless S. Relations between self-regulation and early writing: Domain specific or task dependent?. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 2019; 46: 228-239. 10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.006&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Puranik C, Duncan M, Guo Y. Unpacking the relations of transcription and oral language to written composition in kindergarten children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 2024; 67: 227-238. 10.1016/j.ecresq.2024.01.003&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Santangelo T, Graham S. A comprehensive meta-analysis of handwriting instruction. Educational Psychology Review. 2016; 28: 225-265. 10.1007/s10648-015-9335-1&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Sun T, Wang C, Wang Y. The effectiveness of self-regulated strategy development on improving English writing: Evidence from the last decade. Reading and Writing. 2022; 35; 10: 2497-2522. 10.1007/s11145-022-10297-z&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Torrance M, Arrimada M, Gardner S. Child-level factors affecting rate of learning to write in first grade. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 2021; 91; 2: 714-734. 10.1111/bjep.12390&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Traga Philippakos ZA. Effects of strategy instruction with an emphasis on oral language and dramatization on the quality of first graders&#39; procedural writing. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly. 2019; 35; 5: 409-426. 10.1080/10573569.2018.1547233&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Traga Philippakos ZA, MacArthur CA, Munsell S. Collaborative reasoning with strategy instruction for opinion writing in primary grades: Two cycles of design research. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly. 2018; 34; 6: 485-504. 10.1080/10573569.2018.1480438&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Wanzek J, Gatlin B, Otaiba A, Kim YSG. The impact of transcription writing interventions for first-grade students. Reading &amp;amp; Writing Quarterly. 2017; 33; 5: 484-499. 10.1080/10573569.2016.1250142&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Wen H, Coker DL Jr. The role of discourse knowledge in writing among first graders. Journal of Writing Research. 2020; 12; 2: 453-484. 10.17239/jowr-2020.12.02.05&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Wood C, Schatschneider C, Wanzek J. Matthew effects in writing productivity during second grade. Reading and Writing. 2020; 33; 6: 1377-1398. 10.1007/s11145-019-10001-8&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;blist&gt; &lt;bibtext&gt; Zumbrunn S, Bruning R. Improving the writing and knowledge of emergent writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. Reading and Writing Quarterly. 2013; 26; 1: 91-110. 10.1007/s11145-012-9384-5&lt;/bibtext&gt; &lt;/blist&gt; &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;aug&gt; &lt;p&gt;By Perry D. Klein; Madelyn Casola; Jill Dombroski; Stacey Lukewich and Serena Thompson&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Reported by Author; Author; Author; Author; Author&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/aug&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl1&quot; bibid=&quot;bib10&quot; firstref=&quot;ref1&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl2&quot; bibid=&quot;bib27&quot; firstref=&quot;ref2&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl3&quot; bibid=&quot;bib22&quot; firstref=&quot;ref3&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl4&quot; bibid=&quot;bib28&quot; firstref=&quot;ref4&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl5&quot; bibid=&quot;bib48&quot; firstref=&quot;ref5&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl6&quot; bibid=&quot;bib19&quot; firstref=&quot;ref6&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl7&quot; bibid=&quot;bib11&quot; firstref=&quot;ref8&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl8&quot; bibid=&quot;bib23&quot; firstref=&quot;ref12&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl9&quot; bibid=&quot;bib35&quot; firstref=&quot;ref13&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl10&quot; bibid=&quot;bib26&quot; firstref=&quot;ref16&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl11&quot; bibid=&quot;bib47&quot; firstref=&quot;ref18&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl12&quot; bibid=&quot;bib45&quot; firstref=&quot;ref20&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl13&quot; bibid=&quot;bib49&quot; firstref=&quot;ref21&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl14&quot; bibid=&quot;bib24&quot; firstref=&quot;ref24&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl15&quot; bibid=&quot;bib40&quot; firstref=&quot;ref25&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl16&quot; bibid=&quot;bib41&quot; firstref=&quot;ref26&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl17&quot; bibid=&quot;bib16&quot; firstref=&quot;ref27&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl18&quot; bibid=&quot;bib25&quot; firstref=&quot;ref29&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl19&quot; bibid=&quot;bib39&quot; firstref=&quot;ref32&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl20&quot; bibid=&quot;bib18&quot; firstref=&quot;ref36&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl21&quot; bibid=&quot;bib29&quot; firstref=&quot;ref38&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl22&quot; bibid=&quot;bib17&quot; firstref=&quot;ref42&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl23&quot; bibid=&quot;bib42&quot; firstref=&quot;ref43&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl24&quot; bibid=&quot;bib44&quot; firstref=&quot;ref46&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl25&quot; bibid=&quot;bib30&quot; firstref=&quot;ref47&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl26&quot; bibid=&quot;bib43&quot; firstref=&quot;ref56&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl27&quot; bibid=&quot;bib36&quot; firstref=&quot;ref60&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl28&quot; bibid=&quot;bib34&quot; firstref=&quot;ref61&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl29&quot; bibid=&quot;bib31&quot; firstref=&quot;ref69&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl30&quot; bibid=&quot;bib13&quot; firstref=&quot;ref74&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl31&quot; bibid=&quot;bib12&quot; firstref=&quot;ref75&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl32&quot; bibid=&quot;bib15&quot; firstref=&quot;ref76&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl33&quot; bibid=&quot;bib135&quot; firstref=&quot;ref79&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl34&quot; bibid=&quot;bib32&quot; firstref=&quot;ref80&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl35&quot; bibid=&quot;bib20&quot; firstref=&quot;ref81&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl36&quot; bibid=&quot;bib38&quot; firstref=&quot;ref82&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl37&quot; bibid=&quot;bib33&quot; firstref=&quot;ref84&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl38&quot; bibid=&quot;bib14&quot; firstref=&quot;ref85&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl39&quot; bibid=&quot;bib46&quot; firstref=&quot;ref87&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl40&quot; bibid=&quot;bib21&quot; firstref=&quot;ref88&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl41&quot; bibid=&quot;bib50&quot; firstref=&quot;ref90&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt; &lt;nolink nlid=&quot;nl42&quot; bibid=&quot;bib37&quot; firstref=&quot;ref102&quot;&gt;&lt;/nolink&gt;
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1499706
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Are the Effects of SRSD for First Grade Writers Moderated by Initial Skills and Instructional Tier?
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Perry+D%2E+Klein%22&quot;&gt;Perry D. Klein&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6740-4737&quot;&gt;0000-0001-6740-4737&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Madelyn+Casola%22&quot;&gt;Madelyn Casola&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7182-4187&quot;&gt;0000-0001-7182-4187&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Jill+Dombroski%22&quot;&gt;Jill Dombroski&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6001-7512&quot;&gt;0000-0002-6001-7512&lt;/externalLink&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Stacey+Lukewich%22&quot;&gt;Stacey Lukewich&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;AR&quot; term=&quot;%22Serena+Thompson%22&quot;&gt;Serena Thompson&lt;/searchLink&gt; (ORCID &lt;externalLink term=&quot;http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3489-8096&quot;&gt;0000-0002-3489-8096&lt;/externalLink&gt;)
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;SO&quot; term=&quot;%22Reading+and+Writing%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Journal%22&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/searchLink&gt;. 2025 38(10):3043-3068.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Springer. Available from: Springer Nature. One New York Plaza, Suite 4600, New York, NY 10004. Tel: 800-777-4643; Tel: 212-460-1500; Fax: 212-460-1700; e-mail: customerservice@springernature.com; Web site: https://link.springer.com/
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 26
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2025
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles&lt;br /&gt;Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Elementary+Education%22&quot;&gt;Elementary Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Early+Childhood+Education%22&quot;&gt;Early Childhood Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Grade+1%22&quot;&gt;Grade 1&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;EL&quot; term=&quot;%22Primary+Education%22&quot;&gt;Primary Education&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: &lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Writing+Instruction%22&quot;&gt;Writing Instruction&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Elementary+School+Students%22&quot;&gt;Elementary School Students&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Grade+1%22&quot;&gt;Grade 1&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Writing+Skills%22&quot;&gt;Writing Skills&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Self+Management%22&quot;&gt;Self Management&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Writing+Strategies%22&quot;&gt;Writing Strategies&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Multi+Tiered+Systems+of+Support%22&quot;&gt;Multi Tiered Systems of Support&lt;/searchLink&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;searchLink fieldCode=&quot;DE&quot; term=&quot;%22Writing+%28Composition%29%22&quot;&gt;Writing (Composition)&lt;/searchLink&gt;
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1007/s11145-024-10627-3
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 0922-4777&lt;br /&gt;1573-0905
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Recent research has shown that Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) improves the composition of First Grade writers. The present study investigated whether these effects are moderated by initial writing skills and instructional tier. During Phase 1 of this quasi-experimental study, 52 struggling writers participated in either Tier 1 only, or Tier 1 + Tier 2 transcription instruction. Students in both tiers made significant gains in handwriting fluency (Hedges g = 0.79, p &lt; 0.001) and spelling (Hedges g = 0.71, p &lt; 0.001), but gains did not differ significantly by tier. During Phase 2, 110 students, including 26 struggling writers, participated in Tier 1 SRSD instruction in personal narrative writing, while 26 struggling writers participated in Tier 1 + Tier 2 SRSD instruction. Struggling writers in both tiers made significant gains (Hedges g = 0.90, p = &lt; 0.001), but these did not differ significantly by tier. An individual growth model of 110 students in Tier 1 instruction indicated that text quality increased significantly during SRSD ([beta] = 1.01, p &lt; 0.001). Level of text quality was predicted by WIAT3 Alphabet Fluency ([beta] = 0.06, p = 0.01), WIAT3 Spelling ([beta] = 0.05, p = 0.03), pretest text quality ([beta] = 0.43, p &lt; 0.001), and classes (F = 6.94, p = 0.01). Initial skills did not significantly predict the growth of text quality, and students across a range of handwriting, spelling and written composition skills made significant gains. These results suggest that SRSD, delivered through either Tier 1 or Tier 2 instruction, contributes to written composition for Grade 1 students with varied levels of initial writing skills.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1499706
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1499706
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1007/s11145-024-10627-3
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 26
        StartPage: 3043
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Writing Instruction
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Elementary School Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Grade 1
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Skills
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Management
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing Strategies
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Multi Tiered Systems of Support
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Writing (Composition)
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Are the Effects of SRSD for First Grade Writers Moderated by Initial Skills and Instructional Tier?
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Perry D. Klein
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Madelyn Casola
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Jill Dombroski
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Stacey Lukewich
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Serena Thompson
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 01
              Type: published
              Y: 2025
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 0922-4777
            – Type: issn-electronic
              Value: 1573-0905
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 38
            – Type: issue
              Value: 10
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal
              Type: main
ResultId 1