View in EDS

Understanding Employability Gaps in Gen Z: A Multi-Theoretic Analysis Using TOE, Expectancy and Self-Determination Frameworks

Saved in:
Bibliographic Details
Title: Understanding Employability Gaps in Gen Z: A Multi-Theoretic Analysis Using TOE, Expectancy and Self-Determination Frameworks
Language: English
Authors: Santanu Mandal (ORCID 0000-0002-4293-2362), Sarath Babu, Payel Das (ORCID 0000-0002-1631-6646), Ritesh Kumar Dubey (ORCID 0000-0003-1004-1132), R. Nandgopan
Source: Higher Education, Skills and Work-based Learning. 2026 16(2):272-292.
Availability: Emerald Publishing Limited. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1WA, UK. Tel: +44-1274-777700; Fax: +44-1274-785201; e-mail: emerald@emeraldinsight.com; Web site: http://www.emerald.com/insight
Peer Reviewed: Y
Page Count: 21
Publication Date: 2026
Intended Audience: Teachers; Policymakers
Document Type: Journal Articles
Reports - Research
Education Level: Higher Education
Postsecondary Education
Descriptors: Foreign Countries, Undergraduate Students, Age Groups, Student Placement, Technology Uses in Education, Electronic Learning, Readiness, Expectation, Self Determination, Interpersonal Competence, Resilience (Psychology), Career Development, Employment Potential, Barriers, Education Work Relationship
Geographic Terms: India
DOI: 10.1108/HESWBL-07-2025-0294
ISSN: 2042-3896
Abstract: Purpose: This study explores the systemic, behavioral and motivational barriers affecting Gen Z students' placement preparedness in Indian higher education. It aims to offer a multi-theoretic and stakeholder-informed model for understanding and addressing employability challenges. Design/methodology/approach: This study integrates the technology-organization-environment (TOE) framework, expectancy theory, and self-determination theory (SDT) to examine 14 placement preparedness barriers. Data were collected from 227 final-year students and 152 faculty and placement professionals from Tier 1 and Tier 2 institutions. The interpretive structural modeling (ISM) and MICMAC techniques were used to map interrelationships and identify high-leverage variables. Findings: The analysis reveals that skill development gaps, digital overdependence and a lack of experiential learning are foundational barriers. These manifest as soft skill deficiencies, performance anxiety and expectation mismatches in the workplace. Faculty and placement professionals emphasized attention deficits, overconfidence in digital tools and lack of accountability. The ISM-MICMAC model highlights key driver variables, such as experiential learning and attention management, offering targeted intervention pathways. Research limitations/implications: This study is contextually bound to Indian higher education and may not be generalizable globally. ISM-MICMAC's reliance on expert judgment introduces subjectivity, whereas its cross-sectional design captures only a snapshot in time. Future research should incorporate longitudinal data, employer feedback and cross-cultural comparisons to strengthen predictive validity and extend the model's applicability beyond India. Practical implications: Institutions must embed career readiness into curricula through internships, live projects and simulations. Behavioral enablers, such as accountability, resilience and digital discipline, should be cultivated through mentoring and reflective practices. Faculty development must expand instructors' roles into career mentors, while policy should prioritize curriculum-industry alignment and equitable access to placement ecosystems, especially in Tier 2 and Tier 3 institutions. Social implications: The findings reveal employability gaps as systemic, shaped by digital overdependence, unrealistic expectations and socio-economic inequities. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated societal efforts; families, educators and employers must reinforce interpersonal skills, resilience, and realistic career outlooks. Expanding equitable access to career resources and experiential opportunities is vital for underserved institutions to thrive. A whole-of-society response can prepare Gen Z to be work-ready, emotionally resilient and socially accountable. Originality/value: This study contributes a novel systems-level, dual-perspective framework that integrates the psychological, institutional and technological dimensions of employability. It re-theorizes placement readiness as a co-produced, psychologically embedded process, offering actionable insights for educators, policymakers and placement programs aiming to future-proof the employability of Gen Z graduates.
Abstractor: As Provided
Entry Date: 2026
Accession Number: EJ1501729
Database: ERIC
FullText Text:
  Availability: 0
Header DbId: eric
DbLabel: ERIC
An: EJ1501729
AccessLevel: 3
PubType: Academic Journal
PubTypeId: academicJournal
PreciseRelevancyScore: 0
IllustrationInfo
Items – Name: Title
  Label: Title
  Group: Ti
  Data: Understanding Employability Gaps in Gen Z: A Multi-Theoretic Analysis Using TOE, Expectancy and Self-Determination Frameworks
– Name: Language
  Label: Language
  Group: Lang
  Data: English
– Name: Author
  Label: Authors
  Group: Au
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Santanu+Mandal%22">Santanu Mandal</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4293-2362">0000-0002-4293-2362</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Sarath+Babu%22">Sarath Babu</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Payel+Das%22">Payel Das</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1631-6646">0000-0002-1631-6646</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22Ritesh+Kumar+Dubey%22">Ritesh Kumar Dubey</searchLink> (ORCID <externalLink term="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1004-1132">0000-0003-1004-1132</externalLink>)<br /><searchLink fieldCode="AR" term="%22R%2E+Nandgopan%22">R. Nandgopan</searchLink>
– Name: TitleSource
  Label: Source
  Group: Src
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="SO" term="%22Higher+Education%2C+Skills+and+Work-based+Learning%22"><i>Higher Education, Skills and Work-based Learning</i></searchLink>. 2026 16(2):272-292.
– Name: Avail
  Label: Availability
  Group: Avail
  Data: Emerald Publishing Limited. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1WA, UK. Tel: +44-1274-777700; Fax: +44-1274-785201; e-mail: emerald@emeraldinsight.com; Web site: http://www.emerald.com/insight
– Name: PeerReviewed
  Label: Peer Reviewed
  Group: SrcInfo
  Data: Y
– Name: Pages
  Label: Page Count
  Group: Src
  Data: 21
– Name: DatePubCY
  Label: Publication Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: Audience
  Label: Intended Audience
  Group: Audnce
  Data: Teachers; Policymakers
– Name: TypeDocument
  Label: Document Type
  Group: TypDoc
  Data: Journal Articles<br />Reports - Research
– Name: Audience
  Label: Education Level
  Group: Audnce
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Higher+Education%22">Higher Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="EL" term="%22Postsecondary+Education%22">Postsecondary Education</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Descriptors
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Foreign+Countries%22">Foreign Countries</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Undergraduate+Students%22">Undergraduate Students</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Age+Groups%22">Age Groups</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Student+Placement%22">Student Placement</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Technology+Uses+in+Education%22">Technology Uses in Education</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Electronic+Learning%22">Electronic Learning</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Readiness%22">Readiness</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Expectation%22">Expectation</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Self+Determination%22">Self Determination</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Interpersonal+Competence%22">Interpersonal Competence</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Resilience+%28Psychology%29%22">Resilience (Psychology)</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Career+Development%22">Career Development</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Employment+Potential%22">Employment Potential</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Barriers%22">Barriers</searchLink><br /><searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22Education+Work+Relationship%22">Education Work Relationship</searchLink>
– Name: Subject
  Label: Geographic Terms
  Group: Su
  Data: <searchLink fieldCode="DE" term="%22India%22">India</searchLink>
– Name: DOI
  Label: DOI
  Group: ID
  Data: 10.1108/HESWBL-07-2025-0294
– Name: ISSN
  Label: ISSN
  Group: ISSN
  Data: 2042-3896
– Name: Abstract
  Label: Abstract
  Group: Ab
  Data: Purpose: This study explores the systemic, behavioral and motivational barriers affecting Gen Z students' placement preparedness in Indian higher education. It aims to offer a multi-theoretic and stakeholder-informed model for understanding and addressing employability challenges. Design/methodology/approach: This study integrates the technology-organization-environment (TOE) framework, expectancy theory, and self-determination theory (SDT) to examine 14 placement preparedness barriers. Data were collected from 227 final-year students and 152 faculty and placement professionals from Tier 1 and Tier 2 institutions. The interpretive structural modeling (ISM) and MICMAC techniques were used to map interrelationships and identify high-leverage variables. Findings: The analysis reveals that skill development gaps, digital overdependence and a lack of experiential learning are foundational barriers. These manifest as soft skill deficiencies, performance anxiety and expectation mismatches in the workplace. Faculty and placement professionals emphasized attention deficits, overconfidence in digital tools and lack of accountability. The ISM-MICMAC model highlights key driver variables, such as experiential learning and attention management, offering targeted intervention pathways. Research limitations/implications: This study is contextually bound to Indian higher education and may not be generalizable globally. ISM-MICMAC's reliance on expert judgment introduces subjectivity, whereas its cross-sectional design captures only a snapshot in time. Future research should incorporate longitudinal data, employer feedback and cross-cultural comparisons to strengthen predictive validity and extend the model's applicability beyond India. Practical implications: Institutions must embed career readiness into curricula through internships, live projects and simulations. Behavioral enablers, such as accountability, resilience and digital discipline, should be cultivated through mentoring and reflective practices. Faculty development must expand instructors' roles into career mentors, while policy should prioritize curriculum-industry alignment and equitable access to placement ecosystems, especially in Tier 2 and Tier 3 institutions. Social implications: The findings reveal employability gaps as systemic, shaped by digital overdependence, unrealistic expectations and socio-economic inequities. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated societal efforts; families, educators and employers must reinforce interpersonal skills, resilience, and realistic career outlooks. Expanding equitable access to career resources and experiential opportunities is vital for underserved institutions to thrive. A whole-of-society response can prepare Gen Z to be work-ready, emotionally resilient and socially accountable. Originality/value: This study contributes a novel systems-level, dual-perspective framework that integrates the psychological, institutional and technological dimensions of employability. It re-theorizes placement readiness as a co-produced, psychologically embedded process, offering actionable insights for educators, policymakers and placement programs aiming to future-proof the employability of Gen Z graduates.
– Name: AbstractInfo
  Label: Abstractor
  Group: Ab
  Data: As Provided
– Name: DateEntry
  Label: Entry Date
  Group: Date
  Data: 2026
– Name: AN
  Label: Accession Number
  Group: ID
  Data: EJ1501729
PLink https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&site=eds-live&db=eric&AN=EJ1501729
RecordInfo BibRecord:
  BibEntity:
    Identifiers:
      – Type: doi
        Value: 10.1108/HESWBL-07-2025-0294
    Languages:
      – Text: English
    PhysicalDescription:
      Pagination:
        PageCount: 21
        StartPage: 272
    Subjects:
      – SubjectFull: Foreign Countries
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Undergraduate Students
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Age Groups
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Student Placement
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Technology Uses in Education
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Electronic Learning
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Readiness
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Expectation
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Self Determination
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Interpersonal Competence
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Resilience (Psychology)
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Career Development
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Employment Potential
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Barriers
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: Education Work Relationship
        Type: general
      – SubjectFull: India
        Type: general
    Titles:
      – TitleFull: Understanding Employability Gaps in Gen Z: A Multi-Theoretic Analysis Using TOE, Expectancy and Self-Determination Frameworks
        Type: main
  BibRelationships:
    HasContributorRelationships:
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Santanu Mandal
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Sarath Babu
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Payel Das
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: Ritesh Kumar Dubey
      – PersonEntity:
          Name:
            NameFull: R. Nandgopan
    IsPartOfRelationships:
      – BibEntity:
          Dates:
            – D: 01
              M: 03
              Type: published
              Y: 2026
          Identifiers:
            – Type: issn-print
              Value: 2042-3896
          Numbering:
            – Type: volume
              Value: 16
            – Type: issue
              Value: 2
          Titles:
            – TitleFull: Higher Education, Skills and Work-based Learning
              Type: main
ResultId 1